Developmental Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Developmental Review
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dr

Developmental aspects in cultural neuroscience

⁎
Joan Y. Chiao
International Cultural Neuroscience Consortium, United States

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Research in cultural neuroscience and development examines the processes and mechanisms
Cultural neuroscience underlying the interaction of cultural systems with environmental and biological systems with a
Development life course approach. Culture interacts with environmental and biological factors to shape the
Global mental health mind, brain and behavior across stages of development. Theoretical and empirical approaches in
cultural neuroscience investigate how culture influences psychological and neurobiological
mechanisms during developmental periods. Methodological approaches in cultural neuroscience
and development illustrate the opportunities and challenges with observation and measurement
of psychological and biological processes across cultures throughout development. This review
examines empirical findings in cultural neuroscience on emotional, cognitive and social devel-
opment. Implications of theoretical and methodological advances in cultural neuroscience and
development for global mental health will be discussed.

Introduction

The UN Sustainable Developmental Goals program has identified a number of priority domains that protect and promote physical,
social and emotional well-being. Fulfillment of the objectives of the UN SDG program central to human development, including the
achievement of universal primary education as well as reduction in child and maternal mortality, relies on the global partnership for
development (Minas, 2014). Addressing these priorities in the global development agenda includes a comprehensive understanding
of research in global mental health. Across nations, research in global mental health protects well-being as well as encourages
economic and societal growth and outcomes.
The Grand Challenges in Global Mental Health initiative has identified priority domains for the scientific discovery of cures,
preventions and interventions in mental, neurological, and substance abuse (MNS) disorders (Collins, 2011). One of the chief priority
domains in global mental health is to identify the root causes, risk and protective factors of MNS disorders with a life course
approach. Research efforts that enhance scientific understanding of the human brain are an important goal in the discovery of cures
for MNS disorders. Advances in the development of strategies for prevention and implementation of early interventions enhance
protection and well-being.
Cultural neuroscience is a research field that examines interaction of cultural and biological factors across the life course.
Theoretical, methodological and empirical advances in cultural neuroscience investigate the influences of environment and culture
on developmental trajectories of the mind, brain and behavior. Cultural systems interact psychological processes and neurobiological
mechanisms throughout development. Research in cultural neuroscience serves as an evidence-based resource in global mental health
for the identification of root causes, risk and protective factors underlying behavior across the life course (Chiao, Li, Turner, Lee-
Tauler, & Pringle, 2017). The empirical study of development in cultural neuroscience with a multilevel approach provides oppor-
tunities to discover the developmental aspects of mental constructs and neural mechanisms of behavior across cultures.

⁎
Address: International Cultural Neuroscience Consortium, 1954 First St. 355, Highland Park, IL 60035, United States.
E-mail address: jchiao@cngmh.org.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.06.005
Received 19 April 2018; Received in revised form 23 June 2018
0273-2297/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Chiao, J.Y., Developmental Review (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.06.005
J.Y. Chiao Developmental Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

This review examines the theoretical, methodological and empirical foundations of developmental aspects in cultural neu-
roscience. Theoretical and methodological approaches in cultural neuroscience and development provide rationale and tools for the
investigation of cultural influences on development and organization of the mind, brain and behavior. Empirical approaches in
cultural neuroscience demonstrate the implementation of standard paradigms to advance scientific knowledge of human develop-
ment across cultures. Implications of cultural neuroscience and development for global mental health are discussed.

Theoretical approaches in cultural neuroscience and development

Theoretical approaches in cultural neuroscience and development examine the interaction of culture and biological factors in the
production of adaptive behavior with a life course approach. Culture is construed as systems of thought that originate from ancient
philosophical traditions of metaphysics and epistemology (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001).
Cultural systems of thought guide societal practices and knowledge of the physical and social world. Culture as a system is generated
through dynamic and interactive processes of cultural and biological inheritance that occur on evolutionary and developmental
timescales (Chiao & Ambady, 2007). Evolutionary processes of culture and biology interact as complementary processes that build
and maintain psychological constructs and neurobiological mechanisms leading to adaptive behavior in response to the environment.
Developmental processes of culture and biology across the lifespan interact to produce adaptive behavior within the physical and
social environment (Baltes, 1997; Li, 2003).

Dual inheritance theory

Dual inheritance theory postulates that adaptive behavior arises from complementary processes of cultural and biological evo-
lution. Environmental pressures lead to cultural systems that maintain and reinforce sets of ontogenetic pathways that produce
adaptive behavior. Coevolutionary processes of biological and cultural evolution subsequently tune psychological and neurobiolo-
gical mechanisms of adaptive behavior (Boyd & Richerson, 1985). Ontogenetic pathways across subsequent generations are modified
in response to the coevolutionary processes that respond to environmental input.
Gene-culture coevolution refers to the psychological and neurobiological adaptations that emerge through processes of genetic
and cultural transmission. One prominent example of gene-culture coevolution is lactose tolerance. Within Northern Central Europe,
the prevalence of cattle with the genetic capacity for milk production geographically covaries with the prevalence of human milk
tolerance (Beja-Pereira et al., 2003). The herding of cattle for dairy farming altered the frequency of milk protein genes in cattle and
lactase genes in humans within the geographic region. These findings demonstrate that human farming practices influence processes
of genetic and cultural adaptation across species. Gene-culture coevolutionary models predict genetic and cultural transmission
processes that may alter neurodevelopmental pathways of adaptive behavior.
Culture-gene coevolutionary theory refers to the processes of cultural and genetic selection that occur through cultural evolution
(Henrich & McElreath, 2007). Across subsequent generations, cultural and genetic selection reinforce ontogenetic patterns of mental
constructs and neural circuitry that regulate and maintain adaptive behavior. One prominent example of culture-gene coevolution is
individualism-collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. Across nations, the prevalence of pathogens results in the genetic and
cultural selection of collectivism (Chiao & Blizinsky, 2010). Cultural collectivism serves as a protective factor for physical and mental
health within the geographical region. Across subsequent generations, cultural capacities may alter genetic mechanisms maintaining
and regulating mental and neural processes of behavior. Culture-gene coevolutionary models predict cultural and genetic inheritance
that may alter the neurodevelopmental pathways of mental and neural architecture.
Cumulative cultural evolution demonstrates the influence of cultural systems on the construction of novel environments. Cultural
systems have the capability to evolve more rapidly than genes, generating novel selection pressures for genes. Culture may lead to
behavioral adaptations that are independent of genetic selection, through the accumulation of cultural changes from social learning
and the acquisition of cultural capacities in the mind and brain (Berry, 1997; Boyd & Richerson, 1985; Mesoudi, 2009). Cultural
invention reflects the capacity to create novel mental and physical tools, such as words and objects, that respond to pressures in the
social and physical environment.

Cultural neuroscience and development

Culture and systems of thought reflect cultural variation in knowledge of the social and physical world. Cultural variation in
psychological and neural constructs refer to the evolutionary and ontogenetic processes of adaptation (Chiao, Cheon,
Pornpattananangkul, Mrazek, & Blizinsky, 2013). Cultural variation in knowledge emerges from ancient philosophical thought across
geography. Geographic variation reflects environmental conditions that create or maintain selection pressures for cultural systems.
Cultural systems, such as analytic and holistic thinking or independent and interdependent self-construal, are created and maintained
through mutual influences of culture and biology. These cultural systems interact with psychological and neurobiological processes
throughout the life course. Developmental periods refer to the growth stages during the life course when maturational changes alter
the structure and function of the mind and the nervous system within cultural context. Throughout human development, interaction
between the organism and environment across cultural contexts leads to fulfillment of the maturational trajectory of mental con-
structs and neural mechanisms foundational to emotional, cognitive and social development.

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Culture and systems of thought

Cultural systems of analytic and holistic cognition historically emerge from ancient philosophical thought (Nisbett et al., 2001).
Ancient Western philosophical traditions refer to personal agency and freedom as a means for understanding the social and physical
world, while ancient Eastern philosophical traditions emphasize collective agency, including collective expectations of the group to
guide behavior. Analytic cognition is a cultural system of thought that emphasizes perceiving and thinking about objects in the
environment as separate from their background or context. Analytic thought relies on objects and categories, rules and formal logic to
guide reasoning in the world. Holistic cognition is a cultural system of thought that focuses on perceiving and thinking about objects
in the environment as connected to their background or context. Holistic thought relies on principles of change, contradiction and
relationship to guide reasoning of the world.

Culture and the self

Cultural systems affect epistemology early in human development. Cultural orientation refers to knowledge representations of the
self that are relational to others. Cultural orientations of independent and interdependence or individualism and collectivism
characterize definitions of the self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). Independent or in-
dividualistic cultures construe the self as defined as autonomous and unique from others. Interdependent or collectivistic cultures
characterize the self as relational and defined by social roles. Eastern philosophical tradition construes the self in relation to others,
defined by societal obligations and social roles, while Western philosophical tradition defines the self as independent and autono-
mous from others.

Multiculturalism
Cultural systems as sets of knowledge of the physical and social world are dynamic and malleable. Cultural principles of change
provide a theoretical basis for the dynamic, constructivist approach to culture and the self (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez,
2000; Oyserman & Lee, 2008). Multicultural minds include the mental states of knowledge about the world from more than one
culture. Priming culture refers to cultural frames that change within the self-concept in response to cultural symbols. Temporarily
heightening awareness of a given culture may lead to a change in self-concept consistent with the cultural frame. The malleability of
the self in the multicultural mind demonstrates the dynamic and constructivist approach of culture.
Multicultural identification refers to knowledge of the self from membership with more than one cultural group, such as those
defined by racial or ethnic heritage. Racial or ethnic identification reflects a sense of belonging and commitment to one’s racial or
ethnic group that arises during formation of identity during adolescence (Phinney, 1990). Racial or ethnic identification refers to
knowledge of self and others that builds from social and physical events with the cultural group (Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, &
Chavous, 1998). Feelings of belonging and commitment to one’s racial or ethnic group enhance the notion of the social identity of the
self in the group into adulthood. Throughout distinct stages of human development, culture affects the constructs and processes of
emotional, cognitive and social development. Cultural variation in systems of thought arise through interactions of genes and en-
vironment. Cultural influences on the formation of the self emerge during early childhood and persist into adulthood.
Culture influences the neurodevelopmental trajectory of mental processes and behavior. Cultural and biological processes alter
the maturation of the mind and brain throughout development. Distinct biological processes, such as epigenesis and neuroplasticity,
demonstrate the capacity of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of the brain to adapt to environmental input and acquire cultural
capacities throughout development. Behavioral changes that occur during development simultaneously reflect the maturation of
cultural competence in the individual and the strengthening of the foundations of culture in society.

Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity refers to processes of neural development that change with stages of growth or maturation. The Hebbian learning
principle provides a mechanism for how changes in synaptic neural activity reflect changes due to learning at the cellular level (Hebb,
1949). Changes in synaptic neural activity reflect changes in efficiency of neuronal firing due to a causal role in neuronal firing of a
secondary cell. Increases in neuronal efficiency demonstrate learning at the cellular level of the human brain. Neural change at the
cellular level of the human brain provides a mechanism that characterizes behavioral changes due to cultural experience. Behavioral
changes due to learning demonstrate a social process that facilitates the maintenance and strengthening of culture.

Epigenesis
Epigenesis refers to developmental processes of continuous interaction of genes with environmental input that alter the expression
of genes in the mind, brain and behavior. Genetic expression may be altered with input from the environment leading to neural and
behavioral change during development periods. Genetic sensitivity to environmental input are reflected in patterns of behavior that
are congruent with cultural context. Cultural variation in behavioral expression emerges early in human development suggesting that
epigenetic modification of behavior expression occurs through mechanisms present from the earliest stages of development.
Epigenetic mechanisms lead to changes in neurobiological mechanisms of behavior. Epigenetic expression alters the level of
activity in brain circuitry demonstrating the regulation of neurotransmission through specific genes (Canli & Lesch, 2007; Connelly &
Morris, 2016; Hariri & Weinberger, 2003). Interactions of genes with environment factors regulate functional and resting state neural
activity within brain regions associated with social and emotional processing (Canli et al., 2006; Nikolova & Hariri, 2015; Puglia,
Lillard, Morris, & Connelly, 2015). The epigenetic basis of mental processes reflects the capacity of genes within neural systems to
respond to input from the environment and culture throughout development.
Theoretical approaches in cultural neuroscience and development provide the rationale for the empirical investigations of

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biomarkers underlying cultural influences on neural mechanisms of behavior in global mental health. Dual inheritance theory de-
monstrates coevolutionary models that predict causal relations of cultural and genetic inheritance and their influence on the mind,
brain and behavior. Fundamental cultural systems, such as independence and interdependence as well as analytic and holistic
cognition, provide the foundation for systematic investigation with empirical paradigms that identify root causes, risk and protective
factors in global mental health. Neurobiological processes, such as neuroplasticity and epigenesis, identify primary molecular and
cellular mechanisms for how culture affects developmental processes in the mind and brain. These theoretical approaches in culture
and neurobiology serve as a foundation for empirical study in cultural neuroscience and development.

Methodological approaches in cultural neuroscience and development

Methodological foundations in the study of development across cultural contexts examine processes and mechanisms of the mind,
brain and behavior at distinct spatial and temporal scales. Behavioral methods allow for the indirect measurement and observation of
mental processes and behavior throughout stages of development across cultures. Neuroscience methods provide a means for the
noninvasive measurement and observation of neural mechanisms and behavior during specific stages of development across cultures.
Genetic methods facilitate the identification of specific genetic polymorphisms and genome-wide associations associated with be-
havior across cultures (Chen, Moyzis, Lei, Chen, & Dong, 2016; Sasaki, LeClair, West, & Kim, 2016).
Research paradigms in cultural neuroscience and development test theoretical models of the developmental trajectory of mental
processes and neural mechanisms of behavior across cultures. Neural development during specific age periods reflect growth and
maturation of the nervous system (Johnson, 2010). Cross-sectional experimental designs measure neural development across cultures
with international or within-country comparisons across ethnic and racial groups. Longitudinal experimental designs that measure
neural development across age periods within and across cultural contexts provide a means for the observation and measurement of
developmental changes due to culture.
Experimental methods for study designs with international comparisons or within-country comparisons across ethnic and racial
groups of neural development and behavior include methodological instruments that control for cultural bias and equivalence in
measurement (Van de Vijver, 2001). Instruments that ensure equivalence in construct definition, such as complete sampling of the
construct across cultures, control for construct bias. Study design that ensures equivalence in experimental procedure, including
behavioral assessments of familiarity or knowledge, controls for method bias. Neural assessments of equivalence in experimental
procedure from baseline signal to procedures for apparatus recording across cultural groups control for method bias (Chiao, Harada,
et al., 2010). Experimental materials that include methodological procedures to show that items are equivalent across cultural
groups, such as back-translation of experimental materials, control for item bias. Experimental procedures that ensure measurement
equivalence are necessary for researchers to test theoretical models of culture, neural development and behavior.

Infancy

The study of cultural neuroscience and development during infancy represents the investigation of cultural and biological pro-
cesses during the initial stages of mental and neural development. Infancy reflects a developmental period associated with early
growth and maturation of mental constructs and neural mechanisms of sensory and motor systems within the cultural context (Fox,
Levitt, & Nelson, 2010). Experimental paradigms that measure behaviors of approach and avoidance, such as looking-time, head-
turning or crawling, provide a means for indirect inferences of infant knowledge of culture. Differences in magnitude and direction of
behavior during specific experimental tasks show evidence of culture and infant knowledge about the world.
Event-related potentials (ERP) allow for the indirect measurement of neurophysiological activity associated with mental and
behavioral processes during a given experimental paradigm across cultures. ERP primarily indirectly measures neurophysiological
response located near the cortical surface of the human brain, with the magnitude and location of neurophysiological activity
representing neural response within a particular brain region. Changes in neurophysiological response associated with a given
temporal process and brain region may reflect changes in mental response associated with a given experimental condition or task.
During infancy, experimental study of infant knowledge with ERP across cultures may provide a method for the measurement of
mental and neural changes during an early stage of human development. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is also an
indirect method for observation of neural activity in the infant brain and for the study of the relation between infant brain activity,
mental constructs and behavior across cultures. Brain imaging studies of the infant brain examine brain functioning during ex-
perimental tasks as well as at rest (Graham et al., 2015). Investigations of infant brain functioning allow for observational inferences
regarding the development of structural and functional brain organization from as early as the first year of life.
Infant knowledge arises from early processes and mechanisms in culture and neural development. Genetic association studies that
identify specific genes and cultural processes associated with behavior identify cultural and biological mechanisms that serve as the
early precursors for developmental processes (Chen et al., 2016; Sasaki et al., 2016). The identification of specific cultural and genetic
associations suggests the influence of cultural and biological mechanisms as precursors of systems of knowledge from the earliest
stage of human development. Infancy research in cultural neuroscience and development allows for the testing of theoretical models
regarding the causal relation between initial stages of knowledge and precursory mechanisms of the developing mind and brain
across cultures.

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Childhood

The study of cultural neuroscience and development during childhood represents the investigation of cultural and biological
processes during a growth stage of mental and neural development. Childhood is a developmental period characterized by growth
and maturation of emotional, cognitive and social processes and related multilevel mechanisms in cultural context (Chen, 2016;
Twardif, 2016). Behavioral task paradigms include a range of measurement indices, from looking time to button press, for under-
standing mental and neural states underlying behavior during childhood. Behavioral task paradigms measuring changes from infancy
to childhood may include measurement indices that parallel observational methods during the early developmental stage. For the
study of mental processes that emerge during childhood, behavioral task paradigms may include a novel measurement index, such as
verbal memory recall, for assessing culture and emotional, cognitive and social constructs during childhood. The developmental
trajectory of the human brain during childhood furthers growth and maturation of cortical and subcortical systems. During this
developmental stage, experimental studies with behavioral and neural assays, such as ERP or fMRI, may test for hypotheses regarding
the relation of neural function and behavioral performance across cultures with tasks that are similar to those of adults.
The specificity of cortical localization of neural mechanisms during childhood is observable due to growth and maturation during
the developmental stage. Experimental study of emotional, cognitive and social development across cultures may characterize
changes in mental and neural processes during childhood (Chiao, 2016). Changes in the magnitude of response in mental constructs
and neural mechanisms from infancy to childhood as well as from early to late childhood may reflect the maturation of a particular
construct that occurs in parallel during the specific developmental stage. The identification of specific culture and genetic associa-
tions suggests a model of cultural and biological inheritance that regulates mental constructs and neural mechanisms during
childhood. Childhood research in cultural neuroscience and development allows for the testing of theoretical models regarding the
stages of knowledge and mechanisms of the developing mind and brain that emerge to cause the formation of self-concept across
cultures.

Adolescence

The study of cultural neuroscience and development during adolescence represents the investigation of the cultural and biological
processes during the maturational stage of mental and neural development. The study of culture in adolescence reflects the ob-
servation and measurement of culture from adolescent behavior. Adolescence refers to a developmental period of protected time for
cultural and biological changes from childhood to adulthood (Lee et al., 2014). The developmental stage of adolescence is char-
acterized by the acquisition of mental capacities and neural mechanisms for regulation of emotional, cognitive and social processes
(Casey, 2015). The formation of self-concept during adolescence centers on social identity, including enhanced feelings of belonging
to one’s social group with greater commitment to community. Cultural influences on the self during adolescence build from inter-
actions with the family to include those with other members of the social group. Behavioral paradigms for the study of developmental
changes during adolescence include verbal and nonverbal tasks. Behavioral studies of adolescence may include a range of comparison
on task performance from early to late adolescence as well as from early adolescence to adulthood.
The developmental trajectory of the human brain during adolescence focuses on the maturation of the prefrontal cortex. Growth
and maturation of the prefrontal cortex during adolescence provides the neural mechanism for regulation of the self and social
processes (Somerville, 2013). Structural and functional connectivity of neural circuitry to the prefrontal cortex facilitate the reg-
ulation of cognitive and emotional processes. The functional connectivity of regions of the limbic system, such as the amygdala, to the
prefrontal cortex serve as a neural system for regulation of emotion. Functional connectivity of subregions of frontal cortex support
the regulation of cognition, such as inhibition and executive function.
Observation of neural change during adolescence includes measurement with noninvasive neuroscience methods, including ERP
and fMRI. Neurophysiological studies of mental constructs during adolescence with ERP allow for the testing of models that de-
termine the strength of relation between mental processes and magnitude of neural response within a given time period across
cultures. During adolescence, observation of neural change with fMRI may be particular of interest for the testing of models that
predict the directionality of structural change and functional activity within specific brain regions of the neural network (Pfeifer
et al., 2013). The experimental study of neural processes during adolescence with fMRI may also include testing of models that
predict magnitude and directionality of structural and functional connectivity in the human brain, including changes in connectivity
of neural network associated with the acquisition of mental capacities during adolescence across cultures. Experimental studies of
mental constructs and neural mechanisms of adolescence across cultures illustrate the influence of culture on mental constructs and
neural mechanisms of behavior (Blakemore & Mills, 2014).
Changes that are observed in neural mechanisms and behavior during adolescence reflect the interaction of cultural and biological
processes. Empirical approaches that investigate cultural and genetic associations may test dual inheritance models that characterize
psychological and neurodevelopmental pathways of behavior. Adolescence research in cultural neuroscience and development allows
for the testing of theoretical models regarding mental and neural constructs that mature in parallel with the self-regulatory system
and the prefrontal cortex across cultures (Telzer, Yuen, Gonzales, & Fuligni, 2016). The cultural acquisition of mental capacities
through social learning tune with the neurobiological bases of social processes. The maturation of the prefrontal cortex is associated
with the acquisition of mental processes for self-regulation. The enhancement of biological mechanisms for regulation provide the
means for the acquisition of social processes that enhance cultural capacities.

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Adulthood

Research in cultural neuroscience in adulthood examines cultural variation in the mental and neural architecture. Methodological
approaches in cultural neuroscience consist of behavioral and neural paradigms that measure responses of young adults across
cultures. Experimental design consists of international comparison or within-country comparisons of racial and ethnic groups of
behavioral and neural measures to test theoretical models of cultural neuroscience (Chiao et al., 2013; Han & Northoff, 2008; Kim &
Sasaki, 2014; Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). Cross-cultural comparison in behavioral and neural paradigms include control for method
bias and equivalence in meaning of experimental materials. Experimental stimuli include standardized sets of stimuli normed for the
comparative study of mental processes of adults across cultures (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1988). Cross-site comparisons of neural data
with a within-subject design allow for quantitative assessment of methodological equivalence in neural measurement (Chiao, Hariri,
et al., 2010). Experimental design that tests theoretical models of cultural variation in behavioral and neural data seek to demonstrate
levels of universalism.
Experimental design with behavioral and neural paradigms in cultural neuroscience also test theoretical models of cultural and
neural dynamics. Culture influences on neural mechanisms reflect not only distal, coevolutionary processes, but also proximate,
situational processes that emerge from the malleability and dynamic properties of cultural and neural systems. Cultural priming
refers to experimental procedures that temporarily heighten awareness of a cultural thinking style (Hong et al., 2000). Variation in
cultural priming procedure reflects variation in influence of cultural priming on behavior based on the level of accessibility to given
mental construct (Oyserman & Lee, 2008). Experimental designs designed to investigate cultural and neural dynamics may include
methodological procedures of cultural priming with behavioral and neural paradigms to measure the dynamic influence of culture on
mental constructs and neural mechanisms in the multicultural mind (Harada, Li, & Chiao, 2010; Lin, Lin, & Han, 2008).

Aging

The study of cultural neuroscience in aging refers to neural and behavioral variation from young to older adulthood across
cultures. The empirical investigation of cultural variation in young and older adults reflects changes in psychological and neuro-
biological processes that result during aging (Park & Gutchess, 2006). Cultural variation in emotional, cognitive or social processes
that occur in the transition from young to older adulthood may result from the structural and functional plasticity of the brain (Chee,
Zheng, Goh, & Park, 2010). During aging, structural and functional connectivity of brain regions associated with cognition are
steadily altered as reflected in greater reliance on culture to buffer cognitive performance.
Methodological tools for the study of aging and culture include behavioral and neural measures that ensure methodological
equivalence and control of method bias for cross-cultural comparison of younger and older adults. Empirical investigations of aging
and cognition require control of cultural bias in experimental procedure. Standardized experimental material that ensure metho-
dological equivalence of meaning and control for method bias across cultures allows researchers to test theoretical models of aging
and culture. Category norms across culture and age that control for meaning and familiarity provide a cross-linguistic standardized
database of verbal stimuli (e.g., item categories) for researchers to study of cognitive processes across ages and cultures (Yoon,
Feinberg, Hu, et al., 2004). Cross-cultural database of pictures for younger and older adults that ensure equivalence in meaning and
familiarity provide researchers with a standardized set of visual stimuli (e.g., line drawings) (Yoon, Feinberg, Luo, et al., 2004).
Experimental materials of adult facial stimuli that ensures representativeness of age groups and cultures across the lifespan facilitates
empirical studies of aging, culture and social processes (Minear & Park, 2004).
Methodological equivalence of neural measures for the study of aging and culture requires standards for international comparison
or within-country comparison across racial and ethnic groups. Cultural differences in neural measures due age are thought to reflect
changes in the structural or functional architecture of the brain and its relation to behavior. Multisite comparisons of neural data as
an independent measure of signal quality in a within-subject design provide a quantitative method of ensuring methodological
equivalence in neuroimaging studies of culture and aging (Sutton et al., 2008).
Methodological approaches in cultural neuroscience and development demonstrate the fundamental characteristics of sound
measurement for cross-cultural comparison of neural and behavioral data. The innovation of methodological tools for cross-cultural
comparison of neural and behavioral data for developmental research will enable researchers to identify specific cultural processes in
the brain that emerge within a particular developmental period as well as preventions and interventions in global mental health that
demonstrate cultural change in neural mechanisms and behavior.

Empirical approaches in cultural neuroscience and development

Empirical approaches in cultural neuroscience and development provide an evidence-based resource for the identification of root
causes, risks and protective factors in global mental health. The identification of biomarkers of emotional, cognitive and social
development characterize specific processes and mechanisms underlying cultural influences on neurodevelopmental trajectories of
behavior. The development of cures, preventions and interventions in global mental health rely on the advancement of empirical-
based approaches in cultural neuroscience and development.

Cultural neuroscience of emotion in development

Cultural styles of self-construal affect the processes of emotion. Individualism or independent self-construal style refers to defining

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the self as autonomous and unique from others; collectivism or interdependent self-construal refers to the self as relational, defined by
social roles and relationships with others. Cultural emphasis on social sensitivity, understanding and responding to the emotions of
others are enhanced in collectivistic or interdependent cultures, as these capacities strengthen the social roles and relationships
within the cultural group (Kitayama & Markus, 1994; Mesquita & Frijda, 1992). Relative to interdependent or individualistic cultures,
interdependent or collectivistic cultures emphasize social harmony and fulfillment of obligations to others. Culture affects distinct
stages of emotional processes and their interaction with cognition, from perception and recognition of emotional expressions to the
regulation of emotional experiences (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002; Ford & Mauss, 2015).
The distinct stages of emotion processes that emerge throughout development occur in parallel with the maturation of neuro-
developmental pathways of emotion. Structural and functional components of the limbic system reflect growth and maturation in
emotional development from infancy to adulthood. Neurobiological change within regions of the limbic system that is associated with
cultural change may reflect growth and maturation during a particular stage of emotional development. The developmental tra-
jectory of the neurobiological basis of emotion occurs within cultural context. Neural circuitry of emotion shows differential
structural and functional components that characterize stages of human development (Monk, 2008). The amygdala is present from
infancy and shows enhanced differentiation of structural and functional components from childhood to adulthood. The prefrontal
cortex demonstrates maturation during adolescence in concordance with the processes of self-regulation. Structural and functional
connectivity of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex serves as a neural network of emotion. Strength in the connectivity of the
amygdala and prefrontal cortex increases during adolescence with the enhancement of processes of self-regulation.
Cultural context affects the neurodevelopmental trajectory of emotion processing. Cultural transmission and persistence of social
information through facial and vocal expressions of emotion provide early knowledge of the emotional and social world during
infancy. Infant knowledge is comprised of the detection of positive and negative valence of emotion (Davidson & Fox, 1982). Positive
and negative valence of emotion represent a fundamental dimension of core affect in social communication across distinct cultures
(Barrett, Mesquita, Ochsner, & Gross, 2007; Gendron, Roberson, van der Vyver, & Barrett, 2014). Cultural acquisition of facial
expressions of emotion occurs through mental processes and neural mechanisms of imitation (Meltzoff & Moore, 1977). Through
social learning in a cultural context, knowledge of emotion is transmitted from caregivers and persists from infancy into childhood.
The cultural acquisition of social and emotional knowledge serves to provide the capacity for the elaboration of emotional experi-
ences with others and appraisal of emotional states with the self and others.
Cultural context shapes the experience of emotion during childhood. Parent-child conversations of shared experiences allow
children to create conversational styles and ways of thinking about personal experiences of emotional significance (Wang, 2018).
During childhood, Western autobiographical memory shows characteristics of self-focused memories, referring to roles of the self and
subjective experiences, while East Asian autobiographical memory demonstrates characteristics of memories with others. Experience
of emotion within cultural context that responds to situational demands similarly shows the malleability of processes of emotional
memory. Cultural modes of thinking enhance the accessibility of social and emotional processes in a manner congruent with the
cultural context.
Culture affects the processes of emotion in adolescence. With the maturation of psychological capacities for regulation, the mental
constructs and neural mechanisms for regulation of social and emotional processes facilitate the emergence of self-regulation.
Adolescence represents a developmental period associated with changes in social and emotional knowledge. Knowledge of self and
others transforms during adolescence, such that the autobiographical memories of childhood created in social interaction with others
demonstrate patterns of knowledge representations consistent with the cultural formation of social identity (Phinney, 1990).
Culture influences the neurodevelopmental trajectory of emotion processes. Cultural acquisition of gender attitudes during
childhood are associated with heightened amygdala response to faces of different genders. Cultural differences in attitudes associated
with gender that are present during childhood show attenuation by adolescence (Telzer et al., 2015). Bilateral amygdala response to
faces of the same- and other-gender is similarly lessened from childhood to adolescence. The cultural acquisition of social biases that
characterize the gender attitudes are fulfilled in the transition from childhood to adolescence. Cultural differences in amygdala
response associated with racial attitudes are not present in childhood, but show increases in adolescence likely due to social learning
(Telzer, Humphreys, Shapiro, & Tottenham, 2013). Cultural acquisition of explicit racial attitudes that emerges in adolescence shows
attenuation with greater peer diversity. Greater intergroup contact during childhood and adolescence may lessen the salience of race
during social interaction.
Culture affects neurodevelopmental pathway of reward processing during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Culture
acts as a societal resource for fulfillment of obligation in the family. The family serves as the primary cultural resource for formation
of self and identity. Family obligation refers to the importance of spending time with family, including interdependence and reliance
on members of the family (Fuligni, 2001). Cultural differences in social obligations within the family are reflected in emotional
components of decision-making. Cultural norms that strengthen family obligation during adolescence enhance processes of decision-
making. Cultural context affects the differentiation of neural response within mesolimbic neural circuitry, such as the ventral striatum
(VS), during adolescence. Latino youth feel a greater sense of reward when providing assistance to their family (Telzer, Masten,
Berkman, Lieberman, & Fuligni, 2010). Greater sense of reward during costly donation to close others is associated with greater
ventral striatum response in Latino youth.
Culture influences neural mechanisms of distinct stages of emotion processing in adulthood. People show greater recognition
accuracy for facial expressions of emotion expressed by members of their own cultural group (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002). The
cultural ingroup advantage in emotion recognition suggests enhanced processing of emotion for ingroup members. Cultural group
membership modulates bilateral amygdala response to fear facial expressions (Chiao et al., 2008). Bilateral amygdala response is
greater for fear facial expressions of members of one’s own cultural group relative to those of another cultural group. These findings

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suggest cultural specificity in an evolutionarily, ancient prepotent response within limbic circuitry. Culture also shapes what people
consider ideal emotions (Tsai, 2007). People from individualistic cultures prefer to feel high arousal emotions such as excited, while
those from collectivistic cultures prefer to feel low arousal emotions such as calm. Consistent with cultural differences in ideal affect,
greater bilateral ventral striatum response is observed for excited relative to calm facial expressions in European-Americans, while
Asians show greater neural response for calm relative to excited facial expressions (Park, Tsai, Chim, Blevins, & Knutson, 2016).
Culture affects not only the emotions people consider ideal, but also the neurobiological mechanisms underlying ideal affect. Cultures
differ in how people regulate emotional experiences (Ford & Mauss, 2015). European-Americans regulate their emotions with cog-
nitive reappraisal by rethinking their feelings, while East Asians regulate emotional experiences with expressive suppression by
suppressing the expression of emotion. Culture shapes electrophysiological responses underlying emotion regulation. East Asians, but
not European-Americans, show reduced parietal late positive potential (LPP) during expressive suppression relative to attending to
emotions (Murata, Moser, & Kitayama, 2013). By older adulthood, culture affects emotional preferences for social partners (Fung,
Carstensen, & Lutz, 1999), suggesting the influence of culture on neurobiological mechanisms of emotion during aging. Cultural
differences across distinct processes of emotion from recognition to regulation are observed in multilevel mechanisms.
Culture and genes demonstrate mutual influences on processes of emotion. Cultural differences are observed in social and genetic
sensitivity to emotions expressed by others. The serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is important for the regulation of ser-
otonergic neurotransmission associated with emotion and social cognition (Canli & Lesch, 2007). In a gene by culture study of
emotion recognition, Japanese and Americans viewed morphs of facial expressions of emotion and recognized when emotion was no
longer expressed (Ishii, Kim, Sasaki, Shinada, & Kusumi, 2014). Japanese carrying the short (s) allele of the 5-HTTLPR show greater
social sensitivity to facial expressions of emotion relative to Americans, reflected in greater efficiency with detecting changes in
emotional expressivity. Interdependent cultures emphasize social sensitivity to the emotions of others, while independent cultures
value autonomy and uniqueness from others. Interdependent cultures show genetic sensitivity to the emotional expressions of others
which reinforce cultural norms of social sensitivity to emotion. Thus, culture and genes interplay in the maintenance and regulation
of fundamental processes of emotion.

Cultural neuroscience of cognition in development

Holistic and analytic systems of thought reflect cultural differences in metaphysics and epistemology in East Asian and Westerner
philosophical traditions (Nisbett et al., 2001). Holistic thought refers to cognitive processes defined by field-dependence, a focus on
the object within the context, relations and causal reasoning based on situational attribution. Analytic thought refers to cognitive
processes defined by field-independence, a focus on the object and categories, rules and causal reasoning based on dispositional
attribution. Cultural variation in systems of thought refer to cognitive processes that generate and maintain ancient social organi-
zation and practices.
Neural circuitry of cognition is comprised of a network of brain regions within the occipital cortex, medial temporal lobes,
parietal lobe and prefrontal cortex. Early stages of maturation in neural circuitry of cognition occurs within the occipital cortex
during the functional specialization of primary cortical subareas (de Haan, Johnson, & Halit, 2003; Golarai, Lieberman, & Grill-
Spector, 2015), and subsequently within the medial temporal (Deheane-Lambertz, Dehaene, & Herz-Pannier, 2002) and parietal lobes
(Izard, Dehaene-Lambertz, & Deheane, 2008) for higher-order cognition. Later stages of maturation in neural circuitry of cognition
during adolescence occurs within the prefrontal cortex in parallel with the development of cognitive control. Throughout devel-
opment, change in magnitude and diffusion of activation within neural networks of cognition is associated with cognition (Casey,
Giedd, & Thomas, 2000) and aging across cultures (Park & Gutchess, 2006).
Cultural transmission that arises from social interaction serves as a basis of infant knowledge of the world. During the early
developmental stage, infants demonstrate the ability to distinguish categories of information, including knowledge of the social,
biological and physical world (Spelke, Breinlinger, Macomber, & Jacobson, 1992). Infants represent and recognize distinct categories
of perceptual information from the physical world, including faces, objects and events. The ability to categorize complex visual
information demonstrates perceptual and cognitive representations of knowledge about the world. During infancy, the perceptual
and cognitive processes for representation and recognition of categories of knowledge further distinguishes based on social ex-
perience within cultural context. Environmental input from social interaction provides the bases for perceptual and cognitive re-
presentations that are consistent with the cultural context (Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005). Cultural influences on perceptual and cog-
nitive processes during infancy reflect the impact of environmental interaction on transmission of knowledge. Cultural variation in
the existence, use and accessibility of cognitive processes relate to levels of psychological universalism across cultures (Norenzayan &
Heine, 2005).
Culture affects processes of cognitive control during early childhood. East Asian children demonstrate greater performance of
executive function relative to Western children (Oh & Lewis, 2008; Sabbagh, Xu, Carlson, Moses, & Lee, 2006). Cultural differences in
executive function are distinct from related mental processes such as verbal ability and theory of mind. East Asian children are
expected to show more mature levels of executive functioning at an earlier age relative to Western children. Cultural influences on
executive functioning reflect differences in societal expectation for response inhibition.
Culture influences neurodevelopmental pathway of executive function during childhood. Culture affects the magnitude and ef-
ficiency of neural response underlying inhibitory control in children (Lahat, Todd, Mahy, Lau, & Zelazo, 2010). The N2 is an elec-
trophysiological waveform observed within the medial frontal lobe that occurs between 250 and 500 ms after stimulus onset. The N2
amplitude is typically observed to increase during cognitive inhibition from childhood to adulthood (Eimer, 1993; Johnstone, Pleffer,
Barry, Clarke, & Smith, 2005). East Asian children show greater N2 response across subregions of prefrontal cortex within early stages

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of cognitive control processing relative to Western children. This greater N2 amplitude is associated with better performance on the
executive function task. Thus, cultural differences in cognitive inhibition reflect functional differences in neural systems of cognitive
control that are present in childhood as well as adulthood (Pornpattananangkul et al., 2016).
Cultural differences in analytic and holistic systems of thought affect functional processing within neural systems of cognition.
European-Americans show enhanced performance during functional tasks that emphasize independent dimensions, while East Asians
demonstrate better performance during functional tasks that emphasize relative dimensions (Kitayama, Duffy, Kawamura, & Larsen,
2003). European-Americans and East Asians in the United States show greater efficiency in neural response in frontal and parietal
brain regions during visuospatial processing congruent with the cultural context (Hedden, Ketay, Aron, Markus, & Gabrieli, 2008).
Consistent with holistic-analytic cognition, East Asians show greater neural adaptation during incongruent object processing within
the bilateral lateral occipital cortex (LOC) relative to Westerners (Jenkins, Yang, Goh, Hong, & Park, 2010). The LOC is a brain region
located within the lateral portions of primary visual cortex that shows functional specialization for object processing. Cultural
variation in perceptual processing is reflected in neural processing within frontal-parietal and primary visual brain regions associated
with higher cognition.
Culture tunes neurodevelopmental trajectories of cognition throughout the life course. Structural and functional changes in neural
organization occur with aging. Decreases in cerebral volume as well as reduction in functional neural activity during cognitive tasks
comprise structural and functional changes due to cognitive aging. Cultural variation in functional neural activity during cognitive
tasks reflect differential neurodevelopmental trajectories during aging due to culture. East Asian elderly show less neural activation in
the LOC during object processing relative to Western elderly (Goh et al., 2007). Cultural differences in neural processing of object
recognition in the LOC during aging may be due to reinforced patterns of holistic and analytic systems of thought across the life
course. Culture exerts greater influence during late adulthood due to the neurocognitive changes in processing capacity that are
complemented by the cultural learning and acquisition of knowledge throughout the life course.
Culture interacts with genetic mechanisms that regulate the neurodevelopmental trajectory of cognitive processes. Culture and
genes regulate holistic and analytic systems of thought. European Americans and East Asians show cultural differences in preferences
for thinking styles. In adulthood, European-Americans carrying the G allele of the serotonin 1A receptor polymorphism show greater
preference for analytic thought at the locus of attention, while East Asians carrying the G allele of the serotonin 1A receptor poly-
morphism demonstrate greater preference holistic thought at the locus of attention (Kim et al., 2010). These findings show that
cultures vary in genetic sensitivity for analytic and holistic systems of thought. Cultural differences in neurodevelopmental trajectory
of cognitive processes may arise from the interaction of culture and genes during cognition.

Cultural neuroscience of social processes in development

Cultural styles of self-construal are fundamental to social processes in development. Independent or individualistic self-construal
characterizes the self as unique, autonomous and self-reliant, while interdependent or collectivistic self-construal emphasizes social
harmony and duties to other group members (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Oyserman et al., 2002). Cultural styles of self-construal form
the basis for social processes that facilitate mental state understanding of self and others. Culture shapes fundamental components of
self-concept, a developmental process that integrates mental and neurobiological mechanisms of the self.
The neurobiological bases of social processes demonstrate structural and functional maturation from infancy to adulthood that
parallels social development (Blakemore, 2008; Somerville, 2013). The structural and functional connectivity of cortical midline
structures, such as the medial prefrontal cortex and adjacent regions, show maturation during childhood (Supekar et al., 2010) and
into adolescence with the emergence of knowledge of self and others (Pfeifer & Peake, 2012). Cultural acquisition through social
learning is supported by the mirror neuron system which shows functional maturation by childhood (Pfeifer, Iacoboni, Mazziotta, &
Dapretto, 2008) and cultural differentiation in adulthood (Losin, Cross, Iacoboni, & Dapretto, 2014). The structural and functional
maturation of cortical midline structures associated with social processes from childhood to adulthood highlight the contribution of
the neural network during social development in cultural context.
Culture influences social communication in early infancy. The production of facial communication as well as perception and
understanding of the mental states of the self and others reflect constructs of infant social cognition. Social processes in the reception
and production of facial communication include eye gaze as well as the imitation of facial gestures. Culture affects the perception and
understanding of the mental states of the self and others from early in development. Cultural differences are observed in capacities of
social cognition present from infancy. Infants recognize members of different cultural groups from facial communication within the
first year of life (Balas, Westerlund, Hung, & Nelson, 2011). Social processes, including mutual eye gaze, facial imitation and joint
attention, that emerge from parent-child interaction during early infancy strengthen social communication amongst members of the
cultural group.
During early childhood, culture affects the perception and understanding of the self and others. Cultural context shapes the
recollection of early childhood autobiographical memories, including representations of knowledge of self and others (Wang, 2006).
Cultures differ in the development of knowledge of autonomous and relational self-goals during childhood. East Asian children
represent knowledge of the self that is relational and consistent with the goal to belong and fit in. Western children represent
knowledge of the self that is autonomous and consistent with the goal to be unique and personal. Cultural differences in the per-
ception and understanding of the self and other reflects the distinction in societal norms and expectations across cultures. The cultural
acquisition of knowledge of self and others that emerges during childhood parallels the maturation of medial regions of the prefrontal
cortex (MPFC) that occurs from childhood into adolescence (Pfeifer & Peake, 2012). In adulthood, cultural differences in self or-
ientations are reflected in neural representations of social knowledge within similar regions of the MPFC (Chiao et al., 2009; Zhu,

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Zhang, Fan, & Han, 2007).

Culture strengthens the malleability of the formative processes of self and identity during adolescence. From childhood to ado-
lescence, culture affects cognitive processes of autobiographical memory. The cultural context that begins defined by social inter-
action within the family becomes generalized to use of language as a cultural frame. During early adolescence, English-Chinese
bilingual children in Hong Kong responding in Chinese show greater relational self-goals when asked to recall autobiographical
events, while bilingual children responding in English demonstrate greater autonomous self-descriptions (Wang, 2010). Bilingual
children asked in English also show greater endorsement of Western values, while bilingual children asked in Chinese demonstrate
greater endorsement of East Asian values. During this developmental period, language acts as a cultural frame or belief system that
activates a specific set of goals and autobiographical memories consistent with the cultural context. The dynamic culture influence on
self-concept during adolescence may emerge in parallel with functional maturation of brain regions associated with self-knowledge.
Similar to the cultural regulation of the self in adolescence, the influence of culture on neural mechanisms of social knowledge is
dynamic and malleable by adulthood (Chiao, Hariri, et al., 2010; Harada et al., 2010).
Cultural acquisition of attitudes about social groups reflect social learning from infancy to adolescence. From infancy into
childhood, cultural acquisition of social knowledge emerges from the early development of social percepts to social categories with
evaluative attributes. During childhood, children build on early social knowledge by learning attitudes about members of their own
social group and other social groups across cultures (Bigler & Liben, 2007; Dunham, Baron, & Banaji, 2006). Social learning of
attitudes of ingroup and outgroup members strengthens constructs of the self and social identity. The development of self-regulation
during adolescence strengthens social processes of the self and others. The ability to regulate the self provides the capacity for
regulation of knowledge of social groups. Regulation of social knowledge refers to the inhibition or control of evaluative or attitudinal
information through conscious thought. Cultural acquisition of explicit racial attitudes that emerge in adolescence, shows attenuation
with peer diversity (Telzer et al., 2013). Cultural practices and habits may strengthen cognitive processes underlying the regulation of
racial attitudes.
The development of self and social identity characterizes a central component of the transition from childhood to adolescence
(Pfeifer & Peake, 2012; Wang, 2006). The development of the self-concept from autobiographical memories enhances social processes
of knowledge about self and others that are formed within cultural context. The formation of social identity, including feelings of
belonging and commitment towards the social group, emerges with greater involvement of the self in community (Tajfel & Turner,
1979). With greater societal involvement and social roles, social identity provides a set of societal expectations regarding duties and
obligations of the self with members of the social group. Ethnic or racial identification refers to the formation of feelings of belonging
and commitment based on involvement with one’s ethnic or racial heritage (Phinney, 1990). Ethnic or racial identification
strengthens social processes related to understanding of the self and others in the cultural group. Cultural acquisition of positive
attitudes about one’s ethnic or racial group builds notions of the self and identity.
Culture affects the neural mechanisms for understanding the mental states of others. Empathy refers to the capacity to share and
understand the feelings of others (Preston & De Waal, 2002). Racial identification, a social process that emerges in adolescence, alters
the neurobiological mechanisms of empathy for members of one’s own cultural group in adulthood. When perceiving the pain of
group members, African-Americans show greater empathic response within cortical midline structures, while Caucasian-Americans
demonstrate greater empathic response within the bilateral parahippocampal gyri (Mathur, Harada, & Chiao, 2012). Racial identi-
fication is associated with increased neural response within cortical midline structures, including MPFC, anterior cingulate cortex
(ACC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and decreased neural response within bilateral parahippocampal structures during
empathy for cultural group members. Thus, people with a heightened sense of belonging and commitment to their racial or ethnic
heritage recruit brain regions to a greater extent associated with social cognition during empathy for cultural group members.
Culture and genes regulate psychological and neural mechanisms of mental state understanding. For interdependent cultures,
other-focusedness is associated with greater neural response within empathic neural circuitry, such as the anterior cingulate cortex
(ACC) and insula (Cheon et al., 2013). Cultural emphasis on the feeling of others strengthen neural mechanisms for sharing the
feeling states of others. Cultural variation in empathy is also associated with genetic sensitivity in social behavior. Interdependent
Chinese who carry two copies of the G allele of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) demonstrate greater empathy relative to A allele
carriers (Luo et al., 2015). Interdependent Chinese show genetic sensitivity in neural mechanisms of empathy. The interaction of
culture and genes regulate multilevel mechanisms of social processes.

Conclusion

Research in cultural neuroscience and development seeks to examine environmental and cultural influences on neurodevelop-
mental trajectories of psychological constructs and neural mechanisms of behavior. Understanding the interaction of cultural and
biological factors across developmental periods promotes knowledge for closing the gap in population health disparities across
nations. Theoretical, methodological and empirical approaches in cultural neuroscience provide the standard empirical paradigms for
generating and building scientific knowledge and a tradition of formal science education. Systematic scientific discovery in cultural
neuroscience provides evidence-based resources and strategies for the discovery of cures, preventions and treatments in global mental
health.

Implications

Research and policy in cultural neuroscience and global mental health are fundamental to meeting the priorities of the UN

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Sustainable Development Goals program. The goals of research in cultural neuroscience and development address priority domains,
such as the achievement of universal primary education and improvement of child and maternal health, that protect and promote the
well-being of individuals, societies and nations. Building capacity in research and education for global mental health such as research
networks and teaching programs in cultural neuroscience and development is a key policy component. Investment of political,
financial and human resources for research and education in cultural neuroscience and global mental health provides complementary
approaches to the development and implementation of evidence-based mental health policy. Fulfillment of the global development
agenda achieves the fundamental purpose of protection and empowerment for all.

Acknowledgements

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. BCS-0720312 and BCS-0722326.
Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institutes of Health under award number R13DA33065. The
content is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of
Health.

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