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An introduction to coiled springs (mainsprings) as a power source

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DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2010.11.014

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 Author's personal copy

International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Fatigue

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

An introduction to coiled springs (mainsprings) as a power source

Les P. Pook ⇑
21 Woodside Road, Sevenoaks TN13 3HF, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Coiled springs (mainsprings) are coiled steel ribbons that have been used as a power source for centuries.
Received 26 June 2010 A major disadvantage of mainsprings is that they do not deliver a uniform torque during unwinding. The-
Received in revised form 13 November 2010 oretical analysis of mainsprings is notoriously difficult, and they are usually designed using well estab-
Accepted 15 November 2010
lished rules of thumb. In service mainsprings are subjected to low cycle fatigue loading. They can fail
Available online 24 November 2010
either by breaking due to fatigue, or by shakedown into a shape where they no longer deliver adequate
power. Some features of the behaviour of mainsprings used as power sources are described and illus-
Keywords:
trated by examples. In particular, the importance of correct lubrication is emphasised. The primary load-
Coiled springs
Mainsprings
ing on a mainspring is a bending moment, but sequential biaxial loading can occur, as can biaxial stresses
Powers source due to distortion at end fittings. A fracture mechanics approach to some aspects of mainspring behaviour
Low cycle fatigue is promising.
Fracture mechanics Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction various engineering applications [7], and are sometimes called

‘Mainspring’ is primarily a horological term [1]. Here, it is ap-
plied to any coiled spring used as a power source. The first known,
reasonably well documented, metal fatigue failures were in clock
mainsprings [2,3]. The use of uncoiling mainsprings, rather than
descending weights, as a driving force was an important factor in
the development of clocks for general use, and appears to have
started in the early 15th century. Fig. 1 shows an early 20th cen-
tury mass produced American shelf clock. By the late 18th century
the technology for the manufacture of durable watch and clock
mainsprings was well established; a detailed description of the
state of the art of making watch mainsprings was first published
in 1780 by Blakey [4]. Even so, because of the prevalence of fail-
ures, which would usually be due to fatigue, high quality watches
and clocks were designed (and still are) so that a broken main-
spring could easily be replaced. Replacement mainsprings are
readily available from horological suppliers. Despite the relatively
recent introduction of highly accurate battery powered quartz
clocks and watches, mainsprings are still being used as a power
source in some clocks and watches [5,6]. At a more mundane level
mainsprings are, and have been for many years, used as a power
source (motor) in toys and models [6]. Such toys and are usually
referred to as clockwork toys. Fig. 2 shows a clockwork toy car. A
motor powered by a mainspring is referred to as a clockwork mo-
tor. For example, Fig. 3 shows a Meccano Magic clockwork motor
intended for powering Meccano models. Mainsprings also have
⇑ Tel.: +44 1732 462402.
E-mail address: les.pook@tesco.net
clock springs or motor springs. The objective of the paper is to col-
lect and assess information on mainsprings used as a power source.
Detailed theoretical analysis of the stresses and displacements
in a mainspring during winding and unwinding is notoriously
difficult for three main reasons [3,8,9]. Firstly, the precise shape
of the unloaded spring is, in general, not known in detail, and
shakedown means that the shape may change during service [2].
Secondly, the effect of friction between coils is difficult to incorpo-
rate into the solution; the amount of friction depends on the prop-
erties of the lubricant used, and changes during service as the
lubricant deteriorates. Thirdly, displacements are very large and
for a given amount of winding the shape of the coils (Figs. 3 and
4) has to be determined as part of the solution. Behaviour of a
mainspring is biaxial because both a bending moment and an axial
tension can be present on a given cross section, and the ratio be-
tween them can change during winding and unwinding. Main-
springs are subject to low cycle fatigue. In practice, mainsprings
are usually designed by well established rules of thumb [1,8],
which were well known in horological circles in 1861 [10]. Suppli-
ers’ catalogues often list the properties of mainsprings to assist
selection for a particular application [7].
2. Mainsprings
Usually, mainsprings are rectangular ribbons of spiral form,
made from C–Mn spring steel heat treated to around 400 VPN
[11]. Manufacturers’ catalogues sometimes list mainsprings made
from other materials. In horological terminology, the width of
the ribbon is called the height, and the thickness the strength.

0142-1123/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2010.11.014
 Author's personal copy

1018 L.P. Pook / International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024

Sometimes, the ribbon is not precisely rectangular [7]. During

manufacture the ribbon is wound round an arbor, and material
near the surfaces is stressed beyond the elastic limit. When re-
leased the springback results in a spiral which is approximately
logarithmic. There are compressive residual stresses on the outer
surface of the spiral, and tensile residual stresses on the inner sur-
face. The ends of the mainspring are usually annealed to permit
machining for attachments.
Mainsprings are of two main types. An enclosed mainspring is
enclosed in a going barrel, as shown schematically in Fig. 4. Going
means that the barrel turns as the mainspring unwinds. Enclosed
mainsprings are used in better quality clocks and watches. The
mainspring has a hole or a hook at the outer end which engages
a hook on the barrel, and a hole in the inner end which engages
a hook on the arbor. Except when fully wound or fully unwound,
the mainspring is effectively built in at both ends. The central arbor
has a squared end and the spring is wound onto the arbor by turn-
ing the squared end with a key. Click work prevents the arbor turn-
ing in the reverse direction. Typical click work in a mainspring
powered clock is shown in Fig. 5. This consists of a spring loaded

Fig. 1. Early 20th century American shelf clock by New Haven Clock Co.

Fig. 4. Partly wound enclosed mainspring.

Fig. 2. Clockwork toy car.

Fig. 3. A Meccano Magic motor with fully unwound mainspring. Hole for hook at
side of casing. Mainspring width 7 mm. Fig. 5. Click work in a mainspring powered clock.
 Author's personal copy
L.P. Pook / International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024
pawl and a ratchet wheel mounted on the squared end of the arbor.
In Fig. 4 the mainspring is shown partly wound. There is a closely
wound bundle of coils on the arbor, and another closely wound
bundle inside the barrel, with free coils in between. In practice,
adjacent coils in closely wound bundles are not completely in con-
tact. If oil is applied to a bundle it is drawn into interstices by cap-
illary action. As the mainspring unwinds coils transfer from the
arbor to the inside of the barrel. One free coil is shown in the figure,
in practice the number of free coils increases as the mainspring un-
winds. Sometimes stop work is fitted to clocks and watches so that
the mainspring is never fully wound or fully unwound. Even if stop
work is not fitted, watches usually include a device which releases
the mainspring slightly if it is fully wound.
An unwound open mainspring, shown schematically in Fig. 6, is
not enclosed. The mainspring has a hole at the inner end which en-
gages a hook on the central arbor. This central arbor is used for
both winding the mainspring, as for an enclosed mainspring, and
for driving the mechanism. The outer end is pin jointed. This
may be by a hook which engages in a convenient hole, or by a loop
around a convenient pillar. In the latter case it is called a looped
mainspring. Fully wound (Fig. 7) there is a closely wound bundle
of coils around the arbor and a nearly straight free length extend-
ing to the pin joint. An unlubricated open mainspring tends to un-
wind from the outside of the bundle of coils, whereas a properly
lubricated open mainspring unwinds uniformly, with immediate
separation of adjacent coils.
In practice, because of inference with other parts of a clock, or
clockwork motor, the shape of an unwound, or partly wound, open
mainspring, is usually noticeably asymmetrical. For example, Fig. 3
shows a fully unwound Meccano Magic motor. In addition, there is
kink near the outer end of the mainspring. The outer end of the
Fig. 6. Unwound open mainspring.
Fig. 7. Fully wound open mainspring.
1019
mainspring has a hook which engages a hole part way along one
side of the motor casing (Fig. 8). The kink is caused by the annealed
portion of the mainspring bearing against a corner of the motor
casing when fully wound. A different version of Magic motor has
the hole at the corner of the casing (Fig. 9) and no kink forms.
The major disadvantage in the use of mainsprings as a power
source is that they do not deliver a uniform torque during unwinding
[1,7–11]. This can be compensated for by using a device known as a
fusee [1,8,10]. An alternative approach is to use only a part of the
available turns, between fully wound and fully unwound, during
which the torque is approximately constant [12]. Saunier [10] gives
detailed instructions on how to achieve this. Mainsprings have to be
properly lubricated to wind and unwind smoothly. Nevertheless,
there is usually some hysteresis due to friction [10], as shown sche-
matically in Fig. 10. Typically, the torque during unwinding is 10–
20% less than that during winding. The figure also shows a portion
where the unwinding torque is approximately constant.
Repeated winding and unwinding means that mainsprings are
loaded in fatigue. Very little information is available on the fatigue
lives of mainsprings, that is the number of cycles (windings and
Fig. 8. A Meccano Magic motor with fully wound mainspring. Hole for hook at side
of casing. Mainspring width 7 mm.
Fig. 9. A Meccano Magic motor with fully wound mainspring. Hole for hook at
corner of casing. Mainspring width 7 mm.
Fig. 10. Hysteresis during winding and unwinding of a mainspring.
 Author's personal copy

1020 L.P. Pook / International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024

Table 1
Known service lives of some unbroken clock mainsprings.

Clock Maker Mainspring type Duration Service life (cycles)

Wall clock H. A. C. Open 8 day 600
Carriage clock Jacot Paris Enclosed 8 day 700
Wall clock Davidson Coatbridge Enclosed 8 day 800
Wall clock Kienzle Enclosed 8 day 2100
Mantel clock – Enclosed 8 day 2200
Shelf clock New Haven Clock Co. Open 8 day 2200
Alarm clock Ebosa Open 30 h 3300

A typical mainspring failure is shown in Fig. 11. This is a typical

Fig. 11. Fatigue failure of a 12 mm wide open mainspring, two coils from the centre
of the wound mainspring. Mainspring supplied by courtesy of John Nuttall.
bending fatigue failure. The crack profile is shown in Fig. 12a, this
is approximately straight across the mainspring. The fracture sur-
face is shown in Fig. 12b. The bright, polished spot near the centre
of Fig. 12b would be opposite to the hook on the arbor when the
mainspring was fully wound. This has caused a slight bulge, which
has become polished due to relative movement between adjacent
coils. The fatigue failure appears to have originated at a similar,
less well defined polished spot, two coils out from the hook.
Another fatigue failure is shown in Fig. 13. This is unusual in
that the crack has started straight across the mainspring, and then
turned to spiral around the mainspring towards the outer end,
with a secondary crack spiralling towards the inner end [3]. A close
up of the central portion is shown in Fig. 14. This shows polishing
due to relative movement between adjacent coils. An attempted
fracture mechanics analysis [3] only provided a partial explanation
of the failure.
Sometimes mainsprings break into three or more pieces, but
only when enclosed in barrels [14]. Fig. 15 shows an example:
the breaks are towards the outer end of the mainspring. Fig. 15a
shows the mainspring still in the barrel, with the end cover

unwindings) to failure. Table 1 shows data for numbers of cycles

without failure of some clock mainsprings. These were deduced
from known service lives during which mainsprings have not
failed. Numbers of cycles were calculated by assuming that the
30 h clock was wound daily and 8 day clocks were wound weekly,
and are rounded to the nearest 100 cycles. The data in the table
confirm that clock mainsprings are subjected low cycle fatigue. It
is reasonable to assume that mainsprings used in other applica-
tions are also subjected to low cycle fatigue.

3. Mainspring failures

When mainsprings fail it is usually due to fatigue, and the usual

place for failure is two coils out from the centre of the wound
mainspring [13]; there is a region of increased bending, and hence Fig. 13. Fatigue failure of a 27 mm wide enclosed mainspring, initially at two coils
increased stress, where the coil passes over the hook on the arbor. from the centre of the wound mainspring.

Fig. 12. Central portion of fatigue failure of a 12 mm wide open mainspring, two coils from the centre of the wound mainspring. (a) Fracture profile, (b) fracture surface.
 Author's personal copy
L.P. Pook / International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024
Fig. 14. Central portion of fatigue failure of a 27 mm wide enclosed mainspring,
initially at two coils from the centre of the wound mainspring.
removed, Fig. 15b shows it removed from the barrel, and Fig. 15c
the four pieces that are broken at both ends. These are all about
the same length, and have been polished due to relative movement
between adjacent coils. The five fatigue cracks probably initiated at
the same circumferential location near the outer end of the fully
wound mainspring. It is not clear why the cracks initiated at this
particular location. When final failure took place at one of the fati-
gue cracks the resulting jolt as the mainspring expanded appears to
have caused final failure at the other four fatigue cracks.
As a mainspring is repeatedly wound and unwinds during
service there may be additional permanent deformation due to
Fig. 15. Enclosed mainspring broken into six pieces. (a) Still in the barrel, with cover removed. (b) Removed from the barrel. (c) Pieces broken at both ends. Photos courtesy
Bill Butcher.
1021
Fig. 16. A tired open mainspring in an 8 day clock, fully unwound.
shakedown [2]. Such a mainspring is said to be ‘set’ or ‘tired’. An
extreme example of a tired open mainspring in an 8 day clock is
shown in Fig. 16. In the figure the mainspring is fully unwound
in the sense that the available torque was insufficient to operate
the escapement. Even when fully wound the clock would only
run for two days.
The witness marks on failed mainsprings (Figs. 14, 15c) confirm
that during winding and unwinding there is relative movement be-
tween adjacent coils in contact. This implies that correct lubrica-
tion is important, and also implies that friction between adjacent
coils must be taken into account in a complete theoretical analysis.
Indeed, adjacent coils in bundles tend to stick to each other if
mainsprings are stored fully wound. This is because lubricants
can deteriorate with time, leaving sticky deposits [15]. This often
happens to clocks that have stopped working are then stored for
long periods with their mainsprings fully wound. Corrosion can
have the same effect. Mainsprings with stuck coils do not unwind
evenly, but can usually be freed by application of a suitable oil,
obtainable from horological suppliers.
 Author's personal copy
1022 L.P. Pook / International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024
Fig. 17. Section of mainspring.
The mainspring of a partly wound Meccano clockwork motor
found spontaneously, with a loud bang, while the motor was in
storage [16], but the mechanism by which this occurred is not
known.
4. Theoretical analysis of mainsprings
In general, an enclosed mainspring is loaded primarily in bend-
ing, with loading and unloading moving along the mainspring as it
is wound and unwinds. The bending moment in the free coils is
constant, and it is this bending moment that provides the torque
needed to drive the going barrel. Bending moments in the outer
bundle of coils are smaller than in the free coils, whereas bending
moments in the inner bundle are larger. Finite element analysis of
mainsprings does not appear to be feasible because of the difficulty
of ensuring that solutions converge to the correct shape for the free
coils, so analytical methods have to be used. In addition, it is
impractical to instrument mainsprings themselves, as opposed to
measuring torques at arbors, in order to check the accuracy of
analyses.
As a first approximation using on engineer’s theory of bending,
following Rawlings [8], consider a section of mainspring of width,
W, and thickness, t, which in the unloaded condition is of constant
radius R (measured at the centre line), and is clamped at one end,
as shown in Fig. 17. The angle subtended at the centre of curvature
is a. If the section is bent to a smaller radius, r, by applying a clock-
wise bending moment to the free end then the subtended angle is
b. The length of the section at the centre line, l = Ra = rb. In the
stress analysis of mainsprings of normal proportions anticlastic
bending is not usually taken into account [11]. However, if the cen-
tral arbor is too small anticlastic curvature leading to permanent
deformation can occur [10]. The anticlastic curvature introduces
biaxial deformation. The work done, D, in bending the mainspring
through an angle c = b  a is given by [8]
Z b
WEt3 c2
D¼ Mdc ¼
a 24l
where M is the applied bending moment, and E is Young’s modulus.
The maximum energy that can be stored in the section of main-
spring, e, is given by
WS2 tl VS2
e¼ ¼ ð2Þ
6E 6E
where S is the maximum permissible stress, taken as the elastic lim-
it, and V is the volume of the section of mainspring. As a rule of
thumb the mainspring should occupy about half the space available
in the barrel. Since the mainspring is loaded in bending the maxi-
mum stress is at the surface. In principle, Eq. (2) could be integrated
numerically to give the total energy stored in a mainspring, but in
practice uncertainties in values to be inserted makes this
impractical.
Rawlings’ approximate analysis of an enclosed mainspring does
not take axial stresses, or friction between coils into account. How-
ever, it is clear that, to maximise stored energy, the surface stress
must be as high as is compatible with adequate fatigue life. For this
reason, in a high quality clock, the movement includes stop work
that prevents the mainspring either being fully wound or unwind-
ing fully. This avoids failures at the stress concentrations at and
near the ends of the mainspring.
Rawlings‘ approximate analysis also applies to an open main-
spring. In an open mainspring the bending moment is, in general,
constant along the mainspring and changes as it is wound and un-
winds. It is this bending moment that provides the torque needed
to drive the arbor. Interference between an open mainspring and
other parts of a mechanism causes additional bending moments,
and these can lead to failures [16].
It is difficult to assess the significance of approximations used in
Rawlings’ analysis. The most significant approximations appear to
be that simplifications used in engineer’s theory of bending are not
exact when applied to mainsprings [12], and that friction between
coils and axial stresses are both neglected. A recent detailed anal-
ysis of enclosed mainsprings by Emmerson [9] is an improvement
on Rawlings’ analysis, but friction between adjacent coils is not ta-
ken into account. In a response to Emmerson’s analysis Heldman
[12] argues that historical data needed to assess methods of clock
mainspring design are available and that these data, in general,
support traditional methods of mainspring design, using rules of
thumb. He also argues that, for design purposes, a clock as a whole,
including the mainspring, should be treated as an integrated sys-
tem. A similar approach is used by Denny [17].
5. Forces on a mainspring
The forces on a given cross section of a mainspring can be
decomposed into a bending moment and a direct force. The end fit-
tings for a mainspring are designed to resist tensile forces, so any
direct forces in a mainspring can be assumed to be tensile. Tensile
forces arise when a mainspring is fully wound. The outer fitting of a
mainspring usually approximates to a pin joint. In general, the sec-
tion of a fully wound mainspring from the closed bundle of coils to
the outer fixing, the free length, is approximately straight (Fig. 7)
and forces in the mainspring are dominated by an axial tension
along the mainspring. This tension has a circumferential compo-
nent that results in a torque which drives the barrel of an enclosed
mainspring and, indirectly, the central arbor of an open main-
spring. This effect is illustrated in Fig. 16 where the open main-
spring has shaken down into a coil with a nearly straight portion
leading to a loop around a pillar at the outer end of the mainspring.
The pillar is not visible in the photograph. As the mainspring un-
winds this tension relaxes so the loading is a sequentially varying
ð1Þ
biaxial loading.
Within a bundle, coils are pressed together leading both to
through thickness compressive stresses and frictional forces be-
tween adjacent coils. Furthermore, in a mainspring that has been
out of use for some time, adjacent coils in a bundle can become
stuck together due to solidified oil or to corrosion. If friction be-
tween adjacent coils in the bundle of a fully wound open main-
spring is zero, then relative movement between adjacent coils is
possible, and the tensile force is the same along the length of the
mainspring, However, if the friction between adjacent coils is suf-
ficiently large, then relative movement between adjacent coils is
not possible, and tensile forces are not transmitted along the
length of the mainspring. In practice, the effects of friction will
be somewhere between the two extremes described.
 Author's personal copy
L.P. Pook / International Journal of Fatigue 33 (2011) 1017–1024
In a fully wound open mainspring there is a cusp where the free
length meets bundle of coils (Fig. 7). Stress singularities for cusps
are the same as those for cracks so intensity factors can be defined
[18]. Lack of appropriate information means that at present only a
qualitative fracture mechanics analysis of mainsprings is possible.
However, energy rate analysis of a crack in a similar configuration
[19] shows that Modes I and II stress intensity factors, KI and KII,
are present for both a bending moment and a direct force. In both
cases KI is roughly equal to KII. However, for a mainspring KI must
be zero, unless adjacent coils are stuck together. Since KII is present
there will be a small amount of relative movement between adja-
cent coils in the vicinity of a cusp, analogous to a crack tip plastic
zone [2]. This relative movement explains why witness marks are
observed on mainsprings. Similar arguments apply to the cusps in
enclosed mainsprings.
The clock shown in Fig. 16 had been stored for many years with
the open mainspring fully wound. Adjacent coils in the bundle had
become stuck together by solidified oil. The bundle was effectively
solid since fresh oil applied to the mainspring was not drawn into
the bundle. The clock ran after rectification of an escapement fault,
and the mainspring unwound inwards, with the cusp moving
towards the inner end of the mainspring. Hence, stress intensity
factors at the cusp must have been high enough to debond adjacent
coils. On subsequent windings, after oil had been applied, the
mainspring unwound uniformly, as is usual for an open
mainspring.
6. Fatigue loads on a mainspring
Fatigue loads on a mainspring, and their effects, can be summa-
rised qualitatively as follows. Repeated winding and unwinding of
a mainspring results in an approximately constant amplitude low
cycle fatigue loading. The upper load depends on how hard the
key is turned as the mainspring becomes fully wound. However,
in a clock fitted with stop work this upper load is constant. The
lower load depends on how far the spring unwinds before being re-
wound. In a clock rewound on a regular schedule, as is usual, the
lower load is approximately constant, but in a clockwork motor
the lower load tends to vary.
The main fatigue loading on a given cross section of a main-
spring is bending between an upper and lower bending moment.
This is a uniaxial loading. When a mainspring is fully wound, or
nearly so, axial tensile forces appear in the vicinity of the outer
end, and loading on cross sections in this vicinity becomes a
sequential biaxial loading. Depending on lubrication conditions
sequential biaxiality can extend as far as the inner end.
A mainspring fails either in fatigue or by becoming tired so
that it no longer delivers sufficient power to operate the mecha-
nism correctly. Fatigue failure of a mainspring is usually by the
initiation, propagation and final failure of a dominant fatigue
crack. Final failure takes place when the cross section is so
reduced that the upper load can no longer be sustained. Usually,
fatigue cracks initiate on the outer surface of a coil, where stresses
due to fatigue loading are tensile, and then propagate through the
thickness until failure occurs. Fatigue failure usually takes place
near the inner end of a mainspring (Figs. 11 and 13) where distor-
tion due to the presence of the hook on the central arbor intro-
duces bulging and concomitant additional stresses. These are
biaxial so rotation of stress tensors can occur during winding
and unwinding.
The fatigue failure of a mainspring shown in Fig. 15 is unusual
in that five fatigue cracks have initiated, apparently at the same
circumferential location near the outer end of the fully wound
mainspring. It is not clear why the cracks initiated at this particular
location.
1023
7. Concluding remarks
Theoretical analysis of mainsprings used as a power source is
notoriously difficult, and in practice they are usually designed
using well established rules of thumb. At the present state of the
art it is not in general possible to design a mainspring by carrying
out a stress analysis and using material property data. Based on
general considerations, and on the evidence presented above, some
features of the behaviour of mainsprings used as power sources
can be summarised as follows.
(a) A major disadvantage of mainsprings is that they do not
deliver a uniform torque during unwinding.
(b) Relative movement takes place between adjacent coils in
contact. Lubrication conditions can have a significant effect
on the behaviour of a mainspring, so correct lubrication is
important. Appropriate oil is available from horological
suppliers.
(c) Winding and unwinding of a mainspring results in an
approximately constant amplitude low cycle fatigue loading
on a given cross section. In general, the fatigue loading is is
bending between an upper and lower bending moment. This
is a uniaxial loading. When a mainspring is fully wound, or
nearly so, axial tensile forces appear in the vicinity of the
outer end, and loading on cross sections in this vicinity
becomes biaxial. Depending on lubrication conditions biaxi-
ality can extend as far as the inner end.
(d) A mainspring subjected to low cycle fatigue loading can fail
either by fatigue or by becoming tired, that is shaking down
into a shape in which it can no longer supply adequate
power. Fatigue failure of a mainspring is usually by the ini-
tiation propagation and final failure of a dominant fatigue
crack, near the inner end.
(e) A fracture mechanics approach to some aspects of main-
spring behaviour is promising, but further work is needed.
Acknowledgements
Helpful comments by anonymous reviewer, and discussions
with members of the Horological Science Newsletter Chapter of
the National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors, and of
the Spanner online discussion forum is acknowledged. Figures
are copyright and are reproduced with permission.
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