overcome

the work function of the cathode with lower electric field. But in the case of
cold cathode, sufficient voltage is provided so that electrons can overcome the work
function and come out from the cathode at ambient temperature. Because it is not
deliberately heated, such a cathode is referred to as a cold cathode. Although several
mechanisms may eventually cause the cathode to become quite hot once it is operating.
Most cold cathode devices are filled with a gas which can be ionised. A few cold cathode
devices contain a vacuum.
15.4.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
One of the cheapest and convenient ways to display information electronically is by using
Light-Emitting Diodes ( LEDs). It is basically a p-n junction photodiode when excited at
forward-bias condition emits light (basic theory of LEDs are discussed in chapter on
“Fibre Optic Measurements”). It can be easily interfaced with a simple electronic circuit
and is durable and reliable. These LEDs are often arranged in different formats to display
information. Among these, the seven segments configuration and dot matrix display are
very common and widely used. The seven-segment configuration of an LED arranged in
the form of the digit 8 can be restrictive in that it does not adequately allow the display of
some alphanumeric characters. By contrast, the versatility of a dot-matrix arrangement
allows an LED unit to display more complicated shapes. The following sections discuss
the about seven-segment and dot-matrix LED display.
1. The Seven Segment Display
One common requirement for many different digital devices is a visual display. Individual
LEDs can of course display the binary states, i.e. ‘ON’ or OFF’. But when some numbers
or characters are to be displayed then some arrangement of the LEDs are required. One
possibility is a matrix of LEDs in a 7 × 5 array. However, if only numbers are to be
displayed then this becomes a bit expensive. A much better way is to arrange the
minimum possible number of LEDs in such a way that it can represent a number requiring
only 7 LEDs. A common technique is to use a shaped piece of translucent plastic to
operate as a specialised optical fibre, to distribute the light from the LED evenly over a
fixed bar shape. The seven bars are laid out as a squared-off figure “8”. The result is
known as a seven-segment LED.
Seven-segment displays having a wide range of applications. They used in clocks,
watches, digital instruments, digital balances and many household appliances already have
such displays.
There are basically two type of seven-segment displays—common cathode and
common anode. The common-anode type is shown in Figure 15.21, where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’,
‘e’, ‘f’ and ‘g’ represent individual LEDs which are arranged as shown in the figure. In
order to display numbers often decimal point have to be displayed. For that, another LED
has been added, which is represented by ‘dp’ (decimal point).
 Figure 15.21 Common anode connection of seven segment display unit

A typical seven-segment display unit is shown in Figure 15.22. Figure 15.23 shows the
pin diagram of a common anode type seven-segment display. That means that the positive
leg of each LED is connected to a common point which is the Pin 3 in this case. Each
LED has a negative leg that is connected to one of the pins of the device. To make it work,
you need to connect the pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment light up, connect the
ground pin for that LED to ground. A resistor is required to limit the current. Rather than
using a resistor from each LED to ground, you can just use one resistor from Vcc to the
pin 3 to limit the current.

Figure 15.22 Typical seven segment display unit

Figure 15.23 Pin diagram of seven segment display unit

Table 15.1 shows how to form the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, B, C, d, E, and F.
‘0’ means that pin is connected to ground. ‘1’ means that pin is connected to Vcc.
Table 15.1 Forming numbers and letters.
2. Dot Matrix Display
LEDs are arranged in matrix form—common configurations are 5 × 7, 5 × 8 and 8 × 8, as
shown in Figure 15.4. Based on the electrode connections, two kinds of LED matrices are
possible, one is common anode. All the LEDs in a row having the anode are connected
together. The other one is common cathode, having all LEDs in a row, the common
cathode or cathodes are shorted. It is easier to understand the construction and interface
capabilities of an LED matrix using an illustration. Figure 15.24 depicts a matrix
construction of the common-anode type. A single matrix is formed by thirty-five LEDs
arranged in five columns and seven rows (5 × 7). The anodes of the fi ve LEDs forming
one row are connected together. Similarly, the cathodes of the seven LEDs of a column are
connected together. In this arrangement of LEDs, the cathodes are switched to turn the
LEDs of a row on or off.
The matrix (unit) illustrated in Figure 15.25 can be used to display a single
alphanumeric character. Several such units can be placed next to each other to form a
larger panel to display a string of characters.
 Figure 15.24 LED Matrix with common-anode arrangement

Figure 15.25 5×7 and 8×8 dot matrix display

3. Display of Information using LED Matrix

From Figure15.26 it is clear that switching/multiplexing of rows is required to display a
character on the matrix unit. These are often done by using external hardware like latches.
Each row of the LED is driven for a brief period before switching to the next row. As the
human eye retains a visual impression of an object for a short duration after the object is
removed. Retention time depends on the brightness of the image. Due to this visual
phenomenon termed persistence of vision, the human eye considers that the LEDs are
glowing continuously and can visualise the characters.
Rapid switching between rows produces the illusion that all the rows are ON at the
same time. To function as intended, two additional requirements must be met:
1. The LEDs must be overdriven proportionately or they can appear dim. The dimness
occurs because a row is ON for only a fraction of time.
2. The rows must be updated often enough (e.g. each row is scanned about 30–40 times
per second), to avoid display flicker. For actual character display, it is necessary to
map the shape of the character to the 5x7 LED matrix. Figure 15.26 illustrates the
characters A and B.
 Figure 15.26 Illustration of the Characters A and B

For any given character, a corresponding pattern of LED ON and LED OFF must be
generated, for example, the character A, as displayed in the figure, is formed with the
pattern shown in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Display Pattern for the Character A

Other characters/objects can be developed in a similar manner and stored in the memory
to be used while displaying. By frequently switching the rows or columns with the proper
selection of LED ON/ OFF patterns, the human eye perceives the display as continuous.
15.4.3 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
The Liquid Crystal Display ( LCD) has been one of the enabling technologies of the
current electronic revolution. It is an essential part of every mobile phone, every laptop
and every personal organiser. Liquid crystal is an organic compound that polarises any
light that passes through it. A liquid crystal also responds to an applied electric field by
changing the alignment of its molecules, and in so doing changing the direction of the
light polarisation that it introduces. Liquid crystals can be trapped between two parallel
sheets of glass, with a matching pattern of transparent electrode on each sheet. Figure
15.27 shows different layers of a typical LCD display. When a voltage is applied to the
electrodes, the optical character of the crystal changes and the electrode pattern appears in
the crystal. A huge range of LCDs has been developed, including those based on seven-
segment digits or dot matrix formats, as well as a variety of graphical forms. Many
general-purpose displays are available commercially.
The liquid crystal fluid is the active medium that is used to create an image. It consists
of a very large number of elongated crystals suspended in a fluid. This reservoir is
sandwiched between two thin sheets of glass. Each piece of glass has a transparent
conductive pattern bonded to it. The crystals are aligned in a spiral pattern until an electric
field is impressed on the conductors.
 Figure 15.27 Different layers of a typical LCD display

A sheet of polarising material is bonded to the outside surfaces of both the front and
rear glass covers. As incident light of random polarisation enters the top polarizer, it is
stopped except for that which is polarised in the proper direction. With no electric field
applied, the light is twisted or its polarisation is changed by the spiral pattern of the
crystals. The bottom polariser is aligned opposite of the top one but the “twisted” light is
now aligned with the bottom polariser and passes through. The display is now transparent
and appears light.
A simple black-or-white LCD display works by either allowing daylight to be reflected
back out at the viewer or preventing it from doing so—in which case the viewer sees a
black area. The liquid crystal is the part of the system that either prevents light from
passing through it or not.
The crystal is placed between two polarising filters that are at right angles to each other
and together block light. When there is no electric current applied to the crystal, it twists
light by 90°, which allows the light to pass through the second polariser and be reflected
back. But when the voltage is applied, the crystal molecules align themselves, and light
cannot pass through the polariser: the segment turns black, this phenomena is shown in
Figure 15.28.
Many other types of LCD displays are being developed for the laptop and CRT
replacement market including full colour versions. These include double and Triple
Twisted Nematic (DSTN and TSTN) displays and the Active-matrix Thin-film Twisted
Nematic and Metal-Insulated-Metal Twisted Nematic (TFT-TN and MIM-TN) displays.
Unfortunately, these advanced display are too expensive for most of the calculator market.
TN LCDs almost completely dominate today’s calculator market due to their extremely
low power requirements, thin size and low cost.
 Figure 15.28 Working principle of LCD
Table 15.3 Comparison of CRT and LCD

Cathode Ray Tubes Liquid Crystal Displays

Advantages
Small in size
Light weight (typ. 1/5 of CRT)
Low power consumption (typ. 1/4 of
Advantages
CRT)
Fast response and high resolution possible Completely fl at screen—no
Full colour (large modulation depth of E-beam) geometrical errors
Saturated and natural colors Crisp pictures—digital and uniform
Inexpensive, matured technology colours
Wide angle, high contrast and brightness No electromagnetic emission
Fully digital, signal processing
possible
Large screens (>20 inch) on
desktops

Disadvantages
Disadvantages
High price (presently 3 × CRT)
Large and heavy (typ. 70 × 70 cm, 15 kg)
Poor viewing angle (typ. +/– 50
High power consumption (typ. 140W)
degrees)
Harmful dc and ac electric and magnetic fi elds
Low contrast and luminance (typ.
Flickering at 50–80 Hz (no memory effect)
1:100)
Geometrical errors at edges
Low luminance (typ. 200 cd/m2)

15.4.4 Flat Panel Display

Flat-screen monitors, often termed Flat Panel Displays (FPDs), are becoming more and
more popular, as they take up less space and are less heavy than traditional CRT monitors.
Other greater advantages of FPDs are they consume less energy when compared to CRT
monitors, and also have less electromagnetic radiation. There are basically two types of
Flat Panel Display (FPD)—the popular one is Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and the other
one is Plasma Display Panel (PDP).
The theory of Liquid Crystal Displays was discussed in the LCD section. Here, Plasma