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TQM
TQM implementation in a least implementation
developed country: an exploratory
study of Yemen
Ammar Mohamed Aamer 467
Mechatronics Engineering, Sana’a University, Sana’a, Yemen
Received 23 November 2015
Mohmmed A. Al-Awlaqi Revised 3 April 2016
11 June 2016
Business and Commerce, Sana’a University, Sana’a, Yemen, and 8 September 2016
Sharaf M. Alkibsi Accepted 7 November 2016
The School of Business, Lebanese International University, Sana’a, Yemen

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to assess the TQM readiness level of Yemeni Organizations.
In addition, this study compares the level of readiness between the various Yemeni organizations.
Design/methodology/approach – Based on the TQM literature, related and relevant information had been
gathered to develop an assessment tool used in this research. The main content of the assessment focused on
statements related to the most common TQM principles. Data were collected by an assessment team and
analyzed using quantitative methods to answer the related research questions.
Findings – The analysis results showed some of the TQM principles were being practiced by Yemeni
organizations, to some extent, and with variant levels. The most widely practiced principle was customer
focus, and the lowest principle practiced was continuous improvement. Also, the data showed the level of
TQM readiness in Yemeni organizations was 58.93 percent. This level of TQM readiness indicates there is a
potential for successful adoption of quality management standards and models in Yemeni organizations.
Research limitations/implications – This study extends previous limited research in TQM readiness
level measurement. It also adds to the body of TQM knowledge within the context of Yemen. In addition, this
study contributes to the understanding of TQM implementation in an least developed countries (LDC)
environment, where LDC organizational culture has its particularities on implementing TQM.
Originality/value – This paper contributes to a better understanding of TQM in an LDC country, which is
Yemen. The paper points out which of the TQM principles are important to potential adoption of quality
management standards and models. This study could further expand research, regarding the TQM in Yemen.
Keywords TQM, Management, Quality improvement, Least developed countries, Yemen,
Operational excellence
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Quality plays a major role in the global competitiveness of products and services, yet little
attention has been placed on quality relative to cost by Yemeni organizations. Organizations
in Yemen have faced several issues with lower levels of quality control and improvement
practices (Aamer, 2015; Al-Zamany, Hoddell and Savage, 2002). Given the limited success in
meeting international quality standards, Yemeni organizations face difficulties competing,
regionally, and globally. Therefore, increasing local demand and competitiveness for
products and services and exporting Yemeni products to the region and globally require
more aggressive work in quality to increase the competitiveness of Yemeni products.
The Republic of Yemen is in the Southern part of the Arabic Peninsula, with a population
of nearly 26 million people (UN, 2016). Yemen relies heavily on oil and gas as its main
resource for revenue. Given that the oil reserve is depleting and the production is declining,
Yemen is facing many economic challenges (Aamer, 2015). Being categorized by the The TQM Journal
World Trade Organization (WTO) as one of the least developed countries (LDC), it is not Vol. 29 No. 3, 2017
pp. 467-487
practical to compare the Yemeni practice of quality with world class organizations in © Emerald Publishing Limited
1754-2731
western countries or even regionally. The United Nations (UN) classified 48 countries DOI 10.1108/TQM-11-2015-0141
TQM worldwide as LDCs: 34 are in Africa, nine are in Asia, one is in the Caribbean, and four are in
29,3 the Pacific (UN, 2016). The classification of these countries is based on three main criteria.
According to the UN, the three criteria included per capita gross national income (GNI),
human assets index (HAI), and economic vulnerability index (EVI). As of December 2015,
the UN reported Yemen’s economic statistics as follows: per capita GNI: $1,234, HAI: 59.8,
and EVI: 35.4.
468 Not surprisingly, some local Yemeni organizations are not familiar with the TQM.
This might be due to the particularities of the organizations’ culture in LDCs and its impact
on managing operations. The culture of the organizations can increase or decrease
productivity, and enable or deter organizations from coping with change (Herath et al., 2006;
Baird, 2011, the relationships between organizational culture, total quality management
principles, and operational performance, ; Green, 2012; Naudé, 2010). LDCs face economic
challenges, which prompted many entrepreneurs to seek opportunities to improve their
financial status and satisfy their necessities (Abbas, 2014; Eijdenberg and Masurel, 2013).
Therefore, in LDCs such as Uganda, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Yemen, a high percentage
of organizations are family businesses, which, usually mean the organizational culture is
shaped by the owner (Eijdenberg and Masurel, 2013; Herath et al., 2006; Imran and
Gregor, 2010; Aamer, 2015). The quality culture in these organizations is highly influenced
by the founder of the family business.
It is, however, worth benchmarking Yemeni-organizations’ operational practices with
developed countries to seek quality improvement. This paper discusses, given the current
level of resources available to Yemeni organizations, if there is a potential for LDCs’
such as Yemen, to adopt TQM due to TQM proven importance in improving the quality of
products and services. The question here is: do Yemeni organizations have the basic
requirements potentially to adopt quality management standards and models? Based on the
TQM principles, what is the readiness level of Yemeni organizations potentially to
adopt TQM? To answer this question, an understanding of where Yemeni organizations
stand in TQM is needed. This understanding might be addressed by assessing companies in
terms of the TQM main principles. Therefore, the objective of this study is to assess the
readiness of Yemeni organizations for potential adoption, not already implementing quality
management standards and models such as TQM.
TQM is practiced internationally, and implementation can be found in developed
countries more than in developing countries and LDCs (Agus and Abdullah, 2000). TQM is
defined as a holistic management philosophy that requires organizational culture change
(Fu, 2015; Gimenez-Espin, 2013; Baird, 2011). The main benefit of TQM is moving the
organization culture toward the continuous thinking of quality improvement to sustain
productivity and growth.
Little research has been done in the area of quality in Yemen. This is mainly because
quality management initiatives in Yemen are still in their infancy stage (Al-Zamany,
Dulaimi, Hoddell and Savage, 2002). Very few organizations in Yemen have tried to raise
TQM awareness to move toward implementing quality management. One of these
organizations is the Ministry of Higher Education in Yemen. The Ministry has established
an accreditation center to ensure universities are following quality standards in their
academic programs.
Total quality management

TQM is defined as a management philosophy that encompasses the entire organization
activities to reach operational excellence (Weckenmann, 2015; Giaccio, 2013; Vanichchinchai
and Igel, 2011). The philosophy of TQM requires the implementation of certain principles
and tools, such as leaders’ commitment and continuous improvement, with the purpose of
managing the whole organization with quality in mind.
Several studies in the literature focused on the benefits of TQM implementation. Benefits TQM
encompassed improvement in productivity and efficiency, improved employee morale, better implementation
market shares, after sales service reputation, quality improvement, cost savings, improved
financial performance, an increase in employee performance, and competitive advantages
(Zairi, 2013; Sadikoglu and Zehir, 2010; Tena et al., 2001; Agus and Abdullah, 2000; Sousa and
Voss, 2002; Chan and Quazi, 2002; Nilsson et al., 2001; Reed et al., 2000). Other studies
in the literature reported problems of TQM implementation. Some problems and causes of 469
TQM failure in the literature included lack of management commitment, a low level of
employee involvement, and a lack of adequate quality and performance measurements
(Mosadeghrad, 2014; Nwabueze, 2001; Masters, 1996; Tatikonda and Tatikonda, 1996).
Principles of TQM
The TQM philosophy has principles and tools. Several studies in the literature presented
various TQM principles (Teixeira et al., 2015; Fotopoulos, 2010; Hellsten and Klefsjo, 2000;
Scharitzer and Korunka, 2000; Ugboro and Obeng, 2000; Wadsworth et al., 2002; Woon,
2000; Young et al., 2001). These are critical to the implementation of TQM. Although the
TQM principles in the literature vary from study to study, depending on the implementation,
there are common principles among the studies presented in the literature and summarized in
a study conducted by Jaeger and Adair (2016). A more comprehensive study of critical factors
and principles of TQM across countries were conducted by Sila and Ebrahimpour (2003).
The study confirmed the variability in the principles used in different countries and regions
due to many influencing factors, such as religion, culture, education level, information
technology, government regulations, and the extent of industrialization. A more regionally
related study, conducted by Jaeger et al. (2013), presented the ranking of quality criteria used
in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries, based on the MBNQA model. The most common
principles, as reported by Besterfield et al. (2003), and supported by Sousa and Voss
(2002), Motwani (2001), Agus and Abdullah (2000), are leadership commitment, employee
involvement, customer focus, supplier relationship, performance measurement, and
continuous improvement. In this paper, the six common principles were used to measure
the readiness of TQM in Yemen.
TQM readiness measure

First, it is important to define what is meant by TQM readiness level in this study. TQM
readiness level is an indicator of the potential for successful adoption of the TQM in
organizations. The higher the TQM readiness level, the higher the potential for adopting
TQM. Quality management models, such as TQM, rely on certain factors that impact their
successful implementation in any organization. Therefore, to understand how far or close
these organizations are in terms of potentially implementing TQM factors/principles,
a simplified TQM readiness level is used as a measurement tool. A few studies in the
literature addressed the TQM readiness level (Weeks et al., 1995; Arumugam et al., 2009;
Aksu, 2003; Arasli, 2002a; Arasli, 2002b; Bayazita and Karpak, 2007; Sadikoglu and Zehir,
2010; Sadikoglu and Olcay, 2014; Tavana et al., 2003).
Weeks et al. (1995) addressed the importance of assessing readiness to implement new
models, such as TQM and the resistance to change. Weeks et al. (1995) provided no
mathematical equation or quantitative analysis to assess the readiness level. Arumugam
et al. (2009) also presented a case study for one of the USA hard disk producers in Malaysia.
The study used business performance as a dependent variable, and MBNQA principles as
an independent variable to measure the level of quality. Mean scores and ranking were used
to determine the level and importance of quality readiness. Aksu (2003) adopted nine
dimensions from the literature to measure the TQM readiness level in the Ministry of
National Education in Turkey. The author also used 60 items to measure the nine
TQM dimensions. The TQM readiness level was measured by using the mean values of the
29,3 respondents. Criteria for an adequate and an inadequate level of readiness were used by
considering a mean value of higher than three to be adequate and a mean value of less than
three as inadequate. There was no clear justification from the literature on the use of
adequate cut-off values.
Other studies were conducted by Arasli (2002a, b). The author presented a TQM
470 readiness model to help small- to medium-sized hotels improve quality. The mean scores of
the respondents on a Likert scale of 1-5 was used to measure the TQM readiness, based on
eight TQM principles and 61 questions. No mathematical measurement of TQM readiness
level was used. However, the study stressed the importance of the earlier assessment of the
TQM readiness level to make the transition process to TQM smoother. The study also
indicated that authors agreed on the importance of having a readiness survey before
implementing TQM.
Bayazita and Karpak (2007) addressed the TQM readiness level, using analytic network
process (ANP) in Turkish manufacturing companies. The study used 39 factors from the
literature to assess manufacturing readiness level. The readiness level was calculated using
the ANP method, an alternative method to statistics. The importance of this study lies in
reporting the TQM readiness level in terms of percentage, which makes it easier for the
reader to comprehend the level of TQM readiness. The study concluded the readiness level
for Turkish manufacturing facilities to implement TQM was 59.2 percent.
Other studies in the literature used TQM index as a measurement for the TQM readiness
level. The TQM index can be defined as the operationalization of TQM factors into a single
measurement. This is manifested in recent studies conducted by Sadikoglu and Zehir (2010),
Sadikoglu and Olcay (2014) and Tavana et al. (2003). Sadikoglu and Zehir (2010), Sadikoglu
and Olcay (2014) assessed the impact of firm size and firm type on the practices of TQM
and the barrier of TQM implementation in Turkey. The authors used a TQM index to
operationalize the TQM factors. No readiness level percentage was used to compare firms,
only TQM factors and TQM index.
Another TQM index was conducted by Tavana et al. (2003). In this research, the authors
proposed a TQM index, based on the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and Delphi
methods to assess hospitals in terms of actual and ideal TQM practices. The authors
proposed an index, based on eight TQM factors, where each item and factor of TQM was
subjectively weighted, using pairwise comparison and inputted into the AHP model.
The result of the study showed little difference between the ideal and actual TQM practices
of the eight factors in clinical and no clinical departments.
In this paper, the TQM index was used to produce TQM readiness level to assess the
potential adoption of TQM. The TQM readiness level was reported in terms of percentage,
which makes it easier for the reader to comprehend the level of TQM readiness.
The equations of the TQM index and readiness level are explained further in the results and
discussion section.
TQM in Yemen
The literature on TQM in Yemen is very limited. According to the literature search, only
four TQM articles were found, where three were conducted by Al-Zamany et al. (2000),
Al-Zamany, Dulaimi, Hoddell and Savage (2002), Al-Zamany, Hoddell and Savage (2002)
and one by Aamer (2015). Aamer (2015) discussed the need for the manufacturing sector in
Yemen to move toward quality management implementation to increase the potential of
exporting Yemeni goods, but no assessment of quality management standards or models
was conducted. Al-Zamany et al. (2000), in his first study, presented results of a survey to
18 companies on their attitude toward TQM, some of which were ISO 9000 certified.
The study proposed an Islamic quality management model to align the TQM
philosophy with the Islamic teaching to be accepted in Yemen. The other two studies of TQM
Al-Zamany et al. explained the difficulties faced by Yemeni organizations in implementing implementation
quality management.
According to Al-Zamany et al., several reasons affected the low priority of
TQM in Yemen and Arab national countries. The study concluded with three main
categories for difficulty in implementing TQM. Category 1 was related to government
issues, the second was technological knowledge, and the third had to do with 471
organizational practices.
The studies presented by Al-Zamany et al. created a foundation for addressing the TQM
issues in Yemen. In addition, they presented good understanding about some difficulties
Yemeni organizations face for the implementation of TQM. However, the limitations of the
studies were manifested in the number of the organizations analyzed – only two – the
industries studied, and the use of advanced European excellence model for the analysis.
This is over-stretching the quality reality in Yemeni organizations, since Yemen is classified
as LDC by the WTO.
In this paper, the potential for successful adoption of quality management standards and
models, using the basic main principles of TQM, was studied. This study proposed the
following two hypotheses:
H1. Yemeni organizations have no potential to adopt TQM.
H2. No differences in TQM readiness levels amongst the different industries.
Study methodology
Design of the measurement and data collection tool
Given the low level of TQM awareness in Yemen and to avoid the risk of some companies
not understating the TQM principles and measurements’ meaning, direct observations and
a field assessment were conducted. Assessments help diagnose weaknesses and relevant
causes to improve performance and plan corrections (Conti, 1997, 2007; Teixeira et al., 2015;
Benavent et al., 2005).
A quantitative assessment was developed, based on six common and basic TQM
principles, as reported by Besterfield et al. (2003). The six common and basic principles
included leadership commitment, customer focus, employee involvement, supplier
relationship, continuous improvement, and performance measurement. Each principle has
a list of associated items or measures, used as a guide for the assessors to evaluate each
principle consistently among different organizations. The items/measures for each principle
were collected from the literature to fit each category. Table I presents the sources for items/
measures adopted in the assessment. Each item/measure was rated on a Likert scale of
1-5, where 1 means very low emphasis was being placed, and 5 meaning very high emphasis
was being placed (1 ¼ very low, 2 ¼ low, 3 ¼ moderate, 4 ¼ high, 5 ¼ very high).
A second review of the measuring items for each TQM principle was conducted to
minimize the redundancy of items that provided the same measurement. As a result of the
review, some measuring items were reduced. There were no modifications or translations for
the measuring items. Table II displays internal consistency test results after the pilot study
was conducted. The pilot study gave the researchers a chance to ensure the tool was
measuring what it was intended to measure.
The scales used in data collection were analyzed to achieve the highest purification level.
The reliability, validity, and unidimensionality of scales were tested. Unidimensionality can
be defined as the existence of one dominant latent variable underlying the data (Slocum-Gori
and Zumbo, 2011). The unidimensionality test is used to verify the validity of the construct.
The reliability of the assessment tool was conducted using Cronbach’s α. The reliability
TQM TQM
29,3 principle Measuring items Measuring items sources
F1. Commitment
F1.1 Organization’s top management (senior executives, major Zu et al. (2008), Ahire and
department heads, and supervisors) views improvement in Ravichandran (2001), Cua et al.
quality as a way to increase profits (2001), Sila (2007), Flynn et al. (1994),
472 F1.2 Organization’s top management has objectives for quality Saraph et al. (1989)
performance
F1.3 Organization’s top management is evaluated for quality
performance
F1.4 Organization’s top management assumes responsibility for
quality performance
F1.5 Organization’s top management provides personal
leadership for quality products and quality improvement
F1.6 Major department heads within the organization participate
in the quality improvement process

F1.7 Quality issues are reviewed in organization’s management
meetings
F1.8 Communication links are established between employees
and top management
F2. Employee involvement
F2.1 Training in advanced statistical techniques is given to the Das et al. (2000), Tari et al. (2007),
employees who need training Ahire and Ravichandran (2001),
F2.2 The organization forms teams to solve problems Claver et al. (2003), Conca et al.
F2.3 Employees possess sufficient knowledge of the basic aspects (2004), Cua et al. (2001), Rahman and
of the organization’s sector Bullock (2005), Saraph et al. (1989)
F2.4 Employees understand the basic processes used to make
organization’s products/services
F2.5 Managers and supervisors participate in specialist training
F2.6 Resources are available for employee quality training in the
organization
F2.7 Employees are recognized for superior quality improvement
F2.8 Hourly/non-supervisory employees are involved in quality
decisions
F2.9 The organization gives feedback to employees on their
quality performance
F2.10 The organization’s management adapt to the new ideas that
employees come up with
F3. Customer focus
F3.1 The organization frequently is in close contact with its Das et al. (2000), Zu et al. (2008),
customers Rahman and Bullock (2005), Flynn,
F3.2 The organization actively and regularly seeks customer et al. (1994), Sila (2007), Prajogo and
inputs to identify their needs and expectations Sohal (2006), Samson and Terziovski
F3.3 The organization informs customers’ current and future (1999), Chong and Rundus (2004)
needs and expectations to its employees effectively
F3.4 The organization’s customers give feedback on quality and
delivery performance
F3.5 Customer complaints are used as input to improve the
organization’s processes
F3.6 The organization measures customer satisfaction
systematically and regularly
Table I. F3.7 Employees know who the organization’s customers are
Sources for items
adopted for each
TQM principle (continued )
TQM
TQM
principle Measuring items Measuring items sources implementation
F4. Supplier relationship

F4.1 The organization strives to establish long-term relationships Prajogo and Sohal (2006), Samson
with suppliers and Terziovski (1999), Ahire and
F4.2 The organization’s suppliers have an effective system to Ravichandran (2001), Tari et al. 473
ensure quality of their products and/or services (2007), Claver et al. (2003), Conca
F4.3 The organization emphasizes quality and delivery et al. (2004), Cua et al. (2001), Rahman
performance rather than price in selecting suppliers and Bullock (2005), Sila (2007),
F4.4 The organization’s suppliers are involved in our quality Saraph et al. (1989), Flynn et al. (1994)
training
F4.5 The organization works closely with suppliers to improve
each other’s processes
F4.6 The organization’s suppliers are actively involved in our
new product and/or services development process
F5. Performance
F5.1 Performance data (error rates, defect rates, scrap, defects, Prajogo and Sohal (2006), Zu et al.
rework rates, cost of quality, etc.) are available (2008), Cua et al. (2001), Sila (2007),
F5.2 Performance data are available to managers, supervisors, Flynn et al. (1994), Saraph et al.
and engineers (1989), Bou-Llusar et al. (2009)
F5.3 Performance data are available to hourly/non-supervisory
workers
F5.4 Performance data are used as tools to manage quality
F5.5 Performance data are used to evaluate supervisory and
managerial performance
F5.6 The employees’ performance levels are measured and
monitored
F6. Continuous improvement
F6.1 The organization has a quality improvement program Prajogo and Sohal (2006), Zu et al.
F6.2 The organization practices continuous improvement in all of (2008), Cua et al. (2001), Tari et al.
its products, services and processes (2007), Bou-Llusar et al. (2009),
F6.3 The management ensures that employees are capable of taking Claver et al. (2003), Conca et al.
initiatives and assimilating better ways of doing their jobs (2004), Sila (2007), De Cerio (2003)
F6.4 The organization designs processes to be “mistake-proof” to
minimize the changes of errors
F6.5 The organization makes extensive use of statistical
techniques to reduce variation in processes
F6.6 The organization gives clear, comprehensive, and
standardized documentation about work methods and
process instructions to employees
F6.7 Continuous improvement processes are based on a
systematic assessment of organizational effectiveness
F6.8 Benchmarking techniques are used to establish
improvement standards and objectives
F6.9 Self-assessment processes take place on a regular basis Table I.
Factor description No. of items α value
F1. Commitment 8 0.756

F2. Employees’ involvement 10 0.764
F3. Customer focus 7 0.759
F4. Supplier relationship 6 0.814 Table II.
F5. Performance 6 0.714 Internal consistency
F6. Continuous improvement 9 0.786 test results
TQM tests the internal consistency of the assessment and ensures the test results provide
29,3 consistent outcomes in repeated measurements (Rahman, 2001). The accepted level of
Cronbach’s α is 0.7, while 0.6 is also acceptable in exploratory studies (Saraph et al., 1989).
The internal consistency of the assessment principles/constructs was measured separately
using SPSS. The limiting factor for acceptance used was an α level of 0.7. Table II presents
the reliability test for the assessment tool. The assessment reliability test produced an α
474 level of over 0.7 for all principles/constructs of the assessment.
The content and construct validity was also evaluated and measured. As far as the
content validity is concerned, it ensured all items were based on an extensive literature
search and previous studies, as stated in the literature review section. The constructs
validity of the assessment was measured using data reduction confirmatory factor analysis.
The factor principle component analysis was used with varimax rotation to maximize
factors loading and reach simple structure in SPSS (Hair et al., 2005). Also, two additional
statistical tests were conducted to test the suitability of factor analysis. That is Bartlett’s
test of sphericity, in which it examines if the sub-scales of the scale are inter-independent,
and the latter is the criterion Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy
(Kaiser, 1974). The KMO results, as shown in Table III, show values greater than 0.5 and
close to 1, which indicates the suitability of the factor analysis. The results for Bartlett’s test
of sphericity, as shown in Table III, present a low p-value of less than 0.05, which indicates
the usefulness of factor analysis for the used data. Items under each principle/construct
were tested and items with very low loading (less than 0.3) were eliminated from
the assessment. Last, an eigen value of less than 1 was used to eliminate items from the
construct of the assessment. Table III presents the results of the factor analysis.
Due to sample size constraints found in this research, partial least squares regression
(PLS) has been adopted to test the unidimensionality of scales (Chin et al., 2003). The PLS
test is a non-parametric method and makes no assumption about sample size. The result of
the test is checked by examining the average variance extracted (AVE) values. Any factor
with AVE value greater than 0.5 is a unidimensionality factor. The PLS test was conducted
using smart PLS software. Table IV presents the results of the PLS test, which suggests
unidimensionality for all factors used in the assessment tool.
% No. of items Post % Items Kaiser- Bartlett’s

Eigen variance removed variance loading Meyer- test of
Factor description value explained (o 0.3) explained range Olkin sphericity
F1. Commitment 3.11 38.82 2 49.31 0.61-0.80 0.795 0.00

F2. Employees’ involvement 3.50 35.02 3 45.78 0.61-0.76 0.763 0.00
F3. Customer focus 3.07 43.86 3 67.02 0.77-0.86 0.764 0.00
Table III. F4. Supplier relationship 3.21 53.50 1 62.49 0.68-0.84 0.755 0.00
Factor principle F5. Performance 2.55 42.44 1 50.08 0.60-0.81 0.657 0.00
component analysis F6. Continuous improvement 3.46 38.44 3 49.31 0.57-0.82 0.799 0.00
Factor description Average variance extracted (AVE)
F1. Commitment 0.584408

F2. Employees’ involvement 0.506438
F3. Customer focus 0.757621
Table IV. F4. Supplier relationship 0.853527
Results of the partial F5. Performance 0.605395
least squares test F6. Continuous improvement 0.581792
Data collection TQM
To ensure consistency, a team of five quality-educated members were trained for the implementation
assessment and for how to collect data. The team members were selected, based on previous
basic experience in data collection and interpersonal skills. Then, the team took a three-
month course in TQM principles, followed by a four-week intensive and advanced course in
data collection. These courses were conducted by a TQM professor. The intensive course
reinforced the required skills in quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques, 475
reliability and validity assessment, ethical issues in data collection, and presentation of data.
A pre-assessment session was held to explain the purpose of the assessment and what each
factor and item was measuring. It was explained to the assessors that the assessment was
not a survey where they had to ask people to answer questions; rather, they were trained
how to conduct direct observations and interview people. They were trained to know what
to look for to assess each factor and rate them, based on a Likert scale from 1 to 5.
The targeted people in all organizations were top management and employees. Three to five
members in each organization rated each item in the assessment.
Convenient sampling was used, where several letters were submitted to 75 large public
and private organizations asking for permission to meet and conduct evaluations.
The targeted organizations were registered at the Yemen Chamber of Commerce and
Industry, both manufacturing and services. Companies with ISO certifications, the 39 ISO
9001 certified in Yemen (ISO, 2014), were not approached. The ISO certified companies
were not included in the study, since the main objective of this research was to assess
the level of readiness under the assumption that assessed organizations were not
implementing quality management standards and models. Studies in the literature stressed
the importance of ISO-9000 certification and its role in setting the stage for TQM
implementation (Sila, 2007; Babatunde, 2016; Yusof, 2000; Escanciano, 2001a, b). The study
targeted very large organizations in Yemen, where the number of employees exceeded
300 people. Organizations with over 300 employees were considered very large
organizations in Yemen (Central Statistical Organization of Yemen, 2013).
The data collection was a time consuming step in the study. It took the team two to three
weeks to observe and assess each organization. To ensure time was not a nuisance in the
analysis, it was ensured that the assessment in each organization would be conducted in a
similar time frame. The assessment process involved observing activities and meeting
different management, shop floor, and frontline employees to get a clear picture of the
companies’ operations and to assess each factor effectively. After each visit from
the evaluation team, a meeting was held to populate the data and discuss the results.
Each team member would record the final evaluation for each question and enter it into a
database created for this study. Once the data were populated, it was entered into SPSS for
statistical analysis.
Results and analysis

General profile information
After contacting 75 organizations to be assessed, 23 organizations were accepted to
participate in the study. Some of the non-participant companies were reluctant to participate
in the study to avoid the exposure of internal operational inefficiency and problems.
Other companies refused to participate in this study, due to their time limitation and busy
schedule. Table V presents the participated industries in this study.
In total, 13 percent of the participating companies were in the manufacturing industry,
while 87 percent were from the service industry. Also, 26 percent were from the public
sector, while the other 74 percent were private organizations.
Initially, the assessors gathered general information about the organizations and asked
whether TQM was known to them. In addition, the assessors asked if the TQM was
TQM understood by management and employees. The majority of the interviewed management
29,3 and supervisors in all organizations were familiar with the concept of quality. However,
about 85 percent had heard about TQM. Out of the 85 percent who had heard about TQM,
a small percentage of not more than 10 percent had a superficial understanding of TQM, but
not to the extent of principles and implementation processes.
After gathering the general information mentioned above, the assessors investigated
476 whether the assessed organizations had established a quality department responsible for
any quality programs. Management talked highly on how they cared about quality and how
important it was for their organizations, yet it was surprising to find that, out of all the
assessed organizations, only about 25 percent of the companies had quality departments.
Their activities were limited to minimal quality practices, such as product inspections and
responding to customer complaints.
TQM index and TQM readiness level equations were developed, based on the central
tendency and scoring method equations (Comrey and Lee, 1995; Groebner et al., 2010).
Similar calculation of the TQM index was found in the literature by Sadikoglu and Olcay
(2014). Equation (1) calculates the rating for each TQM principle Fi by taking the summation
of the measuring-item ratings Iij in each TQM principle, where i ¼ 1, 2, …, n principles, and
j ¼ 1, 2, …, m measuring items under the ith TQM principle. TQM index, Equation (2),
calculates the overall average rating of TQM by taking the summation for principle ratings
from Equation (1) and dividing the results by the total number of principles. In Equation (2),
Fi denotes TQM principles mean rating. Equation (3) calculates TQM readiness, which
converts the TQM index to a percentage by dividing Equation (1) by the maximum rating
scale of 5, and multiplying the result by 100 to convert it into a percentage value. Having a
percentage value presented a simpler and more understandable measurement to draw a
conclusion on TQM readiness:
Pm
j¼1 I ij
Fi ¼ (1)
m
Pn
Fi
TQM index ¼ i¼1
(2)
n
2Pn 3
i¼1
Fi
TQM readiness ¼ 4 n 5 100 (3)

5
Results on TQM principles practiced

According to a previous study, where interviews and local visits were conducted with
different Yemeni organizations, no evidence of systematic implementation or clear
Industry Number Percentage
Aviation 2 8.7
Hospitals 6 26.1
Manufacturing 3 13.0
Hotels (5 stars) 2 8.7
Table V. Banks 3 13.0
List of organizations Higher education 3 13.0
that participated in Telecomm 4 17.4
the study by sector Total 23 100.0
understanding of TQM existed (Aamer, 2015). There were internal basic initiatives of TQM
quality management, but no evidence of a formal approach to quality management. As an implementation
indirect indication, only 39 organizations in the entire country were certified in ISO 9000, one
of which was the Yemen Standardization Metrology and Quality Control Organization.
Results of the statistical data analysis for the six main principles revealed continuous
improvement was the lowest principle practiced in Yemeni organizations, with a mean value
of 2.55 and standard deviation of 0.79. Table VI presents a summary of the data analysis for 477
the six main principles of TQM. This was not surprising, since there was no evidence the
concept of continuous improvement was well introduced, trained by management, or even
practiced by employees. The core of TQM is continuous improvement culture, yet this
culture is not dominant in Yemeni organizations, and it might be due to the low level of
quality education. This low level of quality education is manifested in the percentage of
employees, who understood what TQM was about, as indicated earlier. Another explanation
might be the lack of quality improvement programs available in these organizations and the
low emphasis management placed on encouraging employees’ creativity culture.
The second principle in an ascending ranking was employee involvement, with a mean
ranking of 2.81 and standard deviation of 0.66. This low level could reflect poor
management and weak leadership in getting the employees involved. This result confirmed
the low level of continuous improvement, since most improvements are employee driven.
Therefore, if there was a low level of employee involvement in making decisions and
developing products and services, it was expected to see low levels of continuous
improvement. To confirm the relationship, Table VII shows the correlation analysis among
the assessed TQM principles. According to the correlation analysis of the data, there was a
positive correlation between continuous improvement and employee involvement at
0.05 percent significant level. The interviews and assessment revealed the low rating was
Mean SD
Customer focus 3.26 0.85

Suppliers relationship 3.12 0.95
Performance measurement 3.03 0.76
Commitment 2.91 0.79
Employee involvement 2.81 0.66
Continuous improvement 2.55 0.74 Table VI.
TQM index 2.95 0.55 Data analysis for
TQM readiness 58.93% 0.11 TQM principles
Employee Customer Suppliers Performance Continuous

Commitment involvement focus relationship measurement improvement
Commitment Pearson correlation 1 0.312** 0.422** 0.318** 0.580** 0.557**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.000
Employees Pearson correlation 0.312** 1 0.261* −0.147 0.280** 0.224*
involvement Sig. (2-tailed) 0.002 0.012 0.160 0.007 0.031
Customer Pearson correlation 0.422** 0.261* 1 0.345** 0.361** 0.458**
focus Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.012 0.001 0.000 0.000
Suppliers Pearson correlation 0.318** −0.147 0.345** 1 0.399** 0.587**
relationship Sig. (2-tailed) 0.002 0.160 0.001 0.000 0.000
Performance Pearson correlation 0.580** 0.280** 0.361** 0.399** 1 0.573**
measurement Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.007 0.000 0.000 0.000 Table VII.
Continuous Pearson correlation 0.557** 0.224* 0.458** 0.587** 0.573** 1 Correlation analysis
improvement Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.031 0.000 0.000 0.000 among the assessed
Notes: **,*Correlation is significant at the 0.01, 0.05 levels (two-tailed), respectively TQM principles
TQM mainly because employees were rarely given the authority to make decisions, due to the
29,3 centralization of decision making in the general manager position. Also, there seemed to be a
lack of adaptation, sponsoring, and encouraging employees’ ideas for change and
improvement. In the Arabic national context, a similar finding of low level of employee
involvement was found in Kuwaitis organizations ( Jaeger and Adair, 2016).
The leaders’ commitment had a mean rating of 2.91 and standard deviation of 0.79.
478 Commitment is considered the most important principle for the successful implementation
of TQM. The implementation process of TQM is a long journey, which requires aggressive
and challenging organizational cultural change, yet the Yemeni organizations rating for
leaders’ commitment was low. This is a very serious warning about the potential of TQM
adoption in Yemen, which needs to be looked at. According to the data analysis of
measuring items in Table I, the main contributing reason for low management commitment
could have been the low level of TQM understanding and its importance in developing
services and products. In addition, management exhibited low levels of involvement and
support to the organizations’ goals and had weak communication links between
management and employees. It is worth mentioning again that the culture of
organizations in Yemen might be shaped by founders, since the majority of organizations
in Yemen are family businesses. Therefore, adopting quality management standards and
models ought to be driven by the commitment of the family business founders. This is
confirmed by the Herath et al. (2006) study in another LDC culture in Sri Lanka.
Organizations in the Middle East and North Africa regions still face challenges in
management commitment in the long run and face obstacles to create an excellence culture
(Aladwan and Forrester, 2016).
Performance measurements had a mean rating of 3.03 and standard deviation of 0.76.
The main contributing reasons for low performance measurement ratings could have been
the lack of setting specific and measurable goals and poor processes design, which did not
ensure the skills and capacities were right for the needs of the company. In comparing the
findings of this study to the rest of the Arab context, a study conducted by Aladwan and
Forrester (2016) concluded that lack of poor measurement system was one of the obstacles
in pursuing TQM implementation.
The next higher mean ranking out of the previously discussed principles was supplier
relationship, with a mean rating of 3.12 and standard deviation of 0.95. It was
understandable that companies in Yemen were doing better in supplier relationships,
compared to the other TQM principles, because the majority of assessed companies were
highly reliant on suppliers in providing their services and products. Therefore, these
companies had acquired better experiences over the years in developing a good and reliable
supplier base. However, there is room for improvement, since the ranking is out of 5.
According to the data analysis of measuring items in Table I, there were issues with
companies mainly in the emphasis on short, rather than long term, partnership and
improvement with suppliers, lack of records for suppliers’ quality data, choosing suppliers
based on prices rather than quality system, and the low level suppliers’ evaluation system to
monitor the performance.
The last in ranking, with the highest rating, was customer focus, with a mean rating of
3.26 and standard deviation of 0.85. This might be due to Yemeni companies facing higher
competition than a decade ago. This higher competition resulted from globalization, removal
of government barriers for imported products, and the membership of the country in the
WTO to ease international trade (Aamer, 2015). This placed more pressure on Yemeni
companies to realize the importance of the customers and place more emphasis on satisfying
customers more than they did in the past. Yet, the rating ought to improve for better
potential implementation of quality management standards and models. According to the
data analysis of measuring items in Table I, the contributing reasons for low ratings were
that companies focused on external customers more than internal customers, a low level of TQM
measurements and management of customer satisfaction to solve issues, and low utilization implementation
of customer complaints and feedback to improve services/products.
Applying the TQM index equation to the above principles resulted in a mean rating of
2.95 and a standard deviation of 0.55. This index value equated a TQM readiness of
58.93 percent, which is categorized as moderate, but close to being acceptable as a potential
to move toward implementing TQM. Scoring a TQM readiness level of almost 59 percent, 479
given that none of the assessed organizations were implementing TQM, is a good potential
for companies in Yemen in terms of TQM implementation.
To explore further, statistical analysis was conducted based on industry type,
manufacturing vs services. The mean rating for both manufacturing and services was close,
where manufacturing and services scored a TQM readiness of 59 percent. Table VIII shows
the analysis results for the comparison between manufacturing and services in terms of
TQM. Table VIII shows no major differences, except for employee involvement, with a low
mean ranking of 2.38.
Further analysis of the TQM readiness was conducted according to company type.
The initial analysis was conducted by running the mean rating comparison between the six
main principles according to company type. Table IX shows the results for the comparison
between TQM principles by company type. According to Table IX, hotels and telecomm
companies scored the highest in terms of TQM readiness, with 66.83 and 66.54 percent,
respectively. Aviation and higher education scored the lowest in terms of TQM readiness,
with 52.46 and 53.49 percent, respectively. This was alarming, since important and critical
industries, such as aviation and higher education were, based on the results, farther from
being close to TQM adoption, compared to other industries in Yemen. This might be due to
the low ratings in continuous improvement, which is a critical component/factor for TQM
implementation. This could result from managing cultures in LDCs, where there is a lack of
knowledge and rooted attitudes toward the importance of progress and coping with change.
Manufacturing Services
Mean SD Mean SD
Commitment 3.10 0.63 2.87 0.81

Employee involvement 2.38 0.60 2.89 0.65
Customer focus 3.21 0.79 3.27 0.86
Suppliers relationship 3.39 1.26 3.07 0.88
Performance measurement 3.01 0.86 3.04 0.75 Table VIII.
Continuous improvement 2.54 0.75 2.55 0.75 Comparison between
TQM index 2.94 0.54 2.95 0.55 manufacturing
TQM readiness 59% 0.11 59% 0.11 and services
TQM
Employee Customer Supplier Performance Continuous TQM readiness
Industry Commitment involvement focus relation measurement improvement index (%)
Hotels 3.48 3.1 3.57 3.63 3.49 2.79 3.34 66.83

Telecomm 3.32 3.07 3.82 3.32 3.54 2.88 3.33 66.54
Banks 2.74 2.68 3.15 2.97 3.42 2.76 2.95 59.07
Manufacturing 3.1 2.38 3.21 3.39 3.01 2.54 2.94 58.74 Table IX.
Hospitals 2.71 2.78 2.78 3.12 2.7 2.54 2.77 55.41 Comparison between
Higher education 2.62 2.93 3.43 2.36 2.64 2.07 2.67 53.49 TQM principles by
Aviation 2.33 2.84 2.89 3.31 2.31 2.05 2.62 52.46 company type
TQM The commonality of lack of knowledge in LDCs was confirmed by a study of the public
29,3 sector in Bangladesh (Imran and Gregor, 2010). This is also confirmed by another study in
the Arab national context, where organizations are not investing enough in the development
and education of the employees’ knowledge about quality and continuous improvement
(Aladwan and Forrester, 2016).
The study hypothesis that Yemeni organizations have no potential to move toward the
480 adoption of TQM was tested, using one sample t-test. Table X presents the one sample t-test.
The TQM readiness level was tested for at least 50 percent readiness level ( μ ¼ 0.5 vs
W0.5), using an α level of 5 percent. The t-test resulted in a p-value of (0.000), which is less
than 0.05. This indicates the statistical significance in rejecting the hypothesis of Yemeni
organizations have no potential.
In addition, the hypothesis of no differences in TQM readiness levels amongst the
different industries was tested, using the Kruskal-Wallis test. It is worth mentioning again
that three to five members assessed each of the 23 participating organizations. Unlike the
company level of analysis, industry level is better represented in disaggregated data.
According to Freedman, Pisani and Roger, the strength of interrelationships is expected to

be stronger when statistical analysis is performed at the aggregate level, compared to the
individual or disaggregate level. A total of 93 assessments, with a minimum of seven
assessments in each industry group, were reached. Table XI presents the Kruskal-Wallis
test results on TQM readiness. The Kruskal-Wallis tests resulted in a p-value of (0.001),
which is less than 0.05, indicating the statistical significance in rejecting the hypothesis of
no difference in TQM readiness level between different industries. Therefore, differences
exist in TQM readiness level between different industries. This indicates Yemeni
organizations are relatively practicing some of the TQM principles with varying levels
within the industries. Based on the results and data analysis presented earlier, perhaps,
Yemeni organizations have the potential and moderate organizational culture to adopt
quality management standards and models, such as TQM.
Conclusion
This paper presented the results of a TQM assessment of large, non-ISO-9000 certified
Yemeni organizations. The purpose of the assessment was to explore the potential of
Table X. Variable n Mean SD SE mean 95% lower bound t p

One-sample test
results TQM readiness 93 0.5893 0.1091 0.0113 0.5706 7.90 0.000
Industry n Median Ave rank Z
Aviation 7 0.530 30.9 −1.64

Banks 13 0.590 42 −0.72
Hospitals 20 0.595 38.9 −1.51
Hotels (5 stars) 7 0.660 64.2 1.75
Manufacturing 14 0.625 48 0.15
Higher education 14 0.500 34.4 −1.9
Telecomm 18 0.695 68.2 3.71
Overall 93 47
Table XI. H ¼ 21.75, df ¼ 6, p ¼ 0.001
Kruskal-Wallis
test results H ¼ 21.78, df ¼ 6, p ¼ 0.001 (adjusted for ties)
Yemeni organizations to adopt TQM using a readiness level. In addition, the study compared TQM
the level of readiness between the various types of Yemeni organizations. The study implementation
attempted to answer the question of: do Yemeni organizations have the basic requirements
potentially to adopt quality management standards and models? Based on the TQM
principles, what is the readiness level of Yemeni organizations potentially to adopt TQM?
The research question was answered by assessing organizations in terms of the main
principles of TQM. The analysis results showed some of the TQM principles were being 481
practiced by Yemeni organizations, to some extent, and with varying levels, even though the
majority of organizations were not familiar with TQM. According to Table VI, the most widely
practiced principle was customer focus, and the lowest principle practiced was continuous
improvement. Also, the data showed the level of TQM readiness in Yemeni organizations was
58.93 percent. This does not indicate or suggest Yemeni organizations are ready or face no
challenges in implementing TQM; this is merely an assessment of the Yemeni organizations,
based on TQM principles in only large, non-ISO-9000 certified organizations. This level of
TQM readiness suggests there is a potential for adopting TQM in Yemeni organizations.
This potential could be capitalized on by further improving high ranked principles and
overcoming challenges of low ranked principles.
There was no significant difference between the manufacturing and service industries.
However, there was a significant difference between company types, where aviation and
higher education scored the lowest, yet telecomm and hotel organizations scored the highest
in terms of TQM readiness. One explanation could be that the management culture in
telecomm and hotel organizations emphasize customer service to generate their revenue.
This is due to the competition in the market between telecomm companies and the level of
services one ought to receive from five-star hotels. This is manifested in the high score for
customer focus in Table IX. The monopoly exercised by the aviation industry in Yemen
might have led the industry to the complacency level in management. This is also
manifested in the low level of continuous improvement, as shown in Table IX. However, it is
contradictive to see higher education scoring low, yet Yemen’s Ministry of Higher Education
was identified earlier as having established an accreditation center to ensure universities are
following quality standards in their academic programs. One explanation could be
that the center for accreditation was not established until recently, in 2009. It is still setting
the standards and enforcing them in these universities. It is worth mentioning that, in
October 2016, the Ministry of Higher Education enacted a decree to close 50 programs
in different universities for not meeting the higher education standards.
Finally, the assumption initially made that Yemeni organizations were not familiar with
TQM principles was verified in this study. The study hypothesis that Yemeni organizations
have the basics/potential to adopt TQM was not rejected, based on the data analysis.
Therefore, this paper suggests Yemeni organizations are relatively practicing some of the
TQM principles and have the potential to adopt TQM. This assessment helps practitioners
and researchers understand where LDCs, such as Yemeni organizations, stand in terms of
TQM. It will also help them understand the gap that must be bridged to embark on the long
journey of reaching higher levels of performance and quality levels by implementing TQM.
The top management of Yemeni organizations must realize the benefit of implementing
TQM in their organizations. Management must place more emphasis on the most common
principles to initiate the quality movement. This, in return, should create more confidence in
Yemeni organizations with local and international customers.
Theoretical and practical implications

This study offers several important implications to the TQM literature and organizations. This
study extends previous limited research in the area of TQM readiness level measurement.
It also adds to the body of TQM knowledge within the context of Yemen, where there is very
TQM limited research on TQM. In addition, this study contributes to the understanding of TQM
29,3 implementation in the LDC environment, where LDC organizational culture has its
particularities on implementing TQM. The findings of this paper suggest placing more
emphasis of organizational culture when implementing TQM in LDCs to prevent
implementation failure. This suggestion is supported by other studies about organizational
culture and TQM implementation (Ahrens, 2013; Green, 2012; Mosadeghrad, 2014). Another
482 theoretical implication of this study is the regress research methodology and readiness
level instrument presented, which could be used in further studies in a different LDC national
context to assess the readiness level.
In the practical implication, very few studies have been conducted about TQM in LDCs.
This study helps organizations in LDCs, interested in implementing TQM, to self-assess their
current state of TQM readiness level. Knowing the current state of an organization in terms of
TQM success factors could help organizations identify gaps and allocate resources efficiently
to adopt quality management models. The study also suggests the TQM principles studied in
this research are aligned with the national culture, but they seem constrained by factors over
which organizations have no control and which are embedded in management culture.
In LDCs such as Yemen, poor economic situations force people to be more focused on how to
fulfill their basic necessities, desire for more money, and opportunity (Eijdenberg and
Masurel, 2013). Therefore, to overcome the management culture constraint and centralized
policy environment, there is a need to stimulate the learning culture by educating and training
management and employees to gain the required management the knowledge and skills that
are necessary to instill in them, management and employees, the culture of quality.
Limitations and future studies

This study focused on large and non-ISO-9000 certified organizations. In addition, the
manufacturing sample size was relatively small. Therefore, it is recommended that
future studies encompass larger manufacturing sample sizes. The results should not be
generalized for manufacturing in Yemen. Yemen, being an LDC, does not generalize
the results to other LDCs. However, the methodology and tools developed in this study could
be utilized to collect data from other LDCs in different regions to have a better
understanding of the organizational culture impact on TQM implementation in LDCs. It is
also interesting to assess organizations with ISO-9000 certifications and compare them to
non-ISO-9000 certified organizations to understand the differences and similarities of
emphasis and practice of TQM principles.
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About the authors

Dr Ammar Mohamed Aamer is presently an Assistant Professor at the Sana’a University, Sana’a,
Yemen, Mechatronics Engineering Department. He is graduated with a PhD Degree in Industrial and
Information Engineering from the University of Tennessee, USA. He has more than 19 years of
academic and industry experience. He has provided consulting and training services to more than
30 companies in the areas of Manufacturing System, Six Sigma, Lean Enterprise System, Projects
Evaluation & Monitoring, Supply Chain Management, Process and Quality Improvement, Capacity
Analysis, and Simulation Modeling. Dr Ammar Mohamed Aamer is the corresponding author and
can be contacted at: dr.ammar.aamer@gmail.com
Mohmmed A. Al-Awlaqi is a Lecturer in the Department of Business and Administration,
University of Sana’a, Yemen where he has been a Faculty Member since 2006. Mohammed completed
his graduate studies at the Maastricht School of Management, The Netherlands and his undergraduate
studies at the Sana’a University. His research interests lie in financial engineering, microfinance,
mathematical optimization, efficiency, and quality management. Recently, he is focused on developing
more practical tools in efficiency analysis. Mohammed is the Instructor for some popular online courses
on undergraduate topics in Quantitative Analysis and Financial Management.
Dr Sharaf M. Alkibsi is an Assistant Professor of Business Administration at the Lebanese
International University at the Sana’a, Yemen. His research interests center on service quality
management, technology, and banking. He had worked as the General Manager of Yemen Financial
Services Company specialized in Technology-based Retail Banking Services. He has also served as an
Assistant General Manager of the International Bank of Yemen. He earned his Doctorate Degree from the
University of Phoenix in Business Administration with a BS and MBA from the Murray State University.
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The School of Business, Lebanese International University, Sana’a, Yemen

Total quality management

TQM readiness measure

in the quality improvement process

F4. Supplier relationship

Factor description No. of items α value

F1. Commitment 8 0.756

% No. of items Post % Items Kaiser- Bartlett’s

F1. Commitment 3.11 38.82 2 49.31 0.61-0.80 0.795 0.00

Factor description Average variance extracted (AVE)

F1. Commitment 0.584408

Results and analysis

TQM readiness ¼ 4 n 5 100 (3)

Results on TQM principles practiced

Industry Number Percentage

Customer focus 3.26 0.85

Employee Customer Suppliers Performance Continuous

Commitment Pearson correlation 1 0.312** 0.422** 0.318** 0.580** 0.557**

Commitment 3.10 0.63 2.87 0.81

Hotels 3.48 3.1 3.57 3.63 3.49 2.79 3.34 66.83

According to Freedman, Pisani and Roger, the strength of interrelationships is expected to

Table X. Variable n Mean SD SE mean 95% lower bound t p

Industry n Median Ave rank Z

Aviation 7 0.530 30.9 −1.64

Theoretical and practical implications

Limitations and future studies

analysis”, The TQM Journal, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 46-58.

About the authors

1. BaidounSamir D., Samir D. Baidoun, SalemMohammed Z., Mohammed Z. Salem, OmranOmar

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Commitment Pearson correlation 1 0.312 0.422 0.318 0.580 0.557**