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Article history: In the present study the aerodynamic design procedure of a Medium-Altitude-Long-Endurance (MALE)
Received 23 November 2015 Unmanned-Aerial-Vehicle (UAV) is presented. The procedure is broken down into the conceptual and
Received in revised form 18 December 2015 preliminary design phases. For the conceptual design, four groups worked with a common roadmap
Accepted 28 December 2015
and developed four presizing tools and four different configurations, based on the same mission
Available online 4 January 2016
requirements. Following an evaluation procedure and merging process, a single design concept was
Keywords: eventually developed, which served as the basis for the preliminary design phase. Considering the
Aerodynamic design preliminary design phase, emphasis was given on the aerodynamic aspects of the study. Namely, the
UAV fuselage design, wing design, stability and control study, empennage design, and the winglet design
CFD optimization technique, as well as the inlets sizing and cooling study, are all included in this work. The
Conceptual design analytical calculations and methods are presented at each step of the study, whereas the CFD supportive
Preliminary design computations are also shown in detail. The UAV final concept, at the end of the aerodynamic study,
together with the main geometric, aerodynamic, stability and performance parameters, is presented and
discussed.
© 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2015.12.033
1270-9638/© 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
128 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
Nomenclature
2. Design methodology
The conceptual design is essentially the design phase where a 2.1.2. Design procedure
first configuration layout is developed, and the first estimates re- The conceptual design presizing tools that were developed at
garding aerodynamics, geometry, weight and performance are be- the Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachinery were based
ing calculated, based on the design requirements. In the present on the presizing methods and guidelines which are described in
study, the conceptual design study was carried-out from eight [9] and [10], whereas some changes were made in order to include
engineers divided into four groups. Therefore, after developing a the aspects of unmanned aircraft. The resulting conceptual design
common custom sizing methodology, four different UAV concepts procedure is presented in this section (Fig. 2).
were developed, whereas each team also developed an analyti- The presizing begins with an initial estimation of the aircraft
cal tool in order to facilitate the necessary presizing calculations. gross takeoff weight (GTOW or W 0 ), i.e. the aircraft total weight at
These tools were cross-checked by applying the calculations at al- the beginning of its mission. For an unmanned system it is com-
ready operational unmanned aerial systems. Some preliminary CFD prised of the payload weight W p , the fuel weight W f and the
analyses were carried out as well. empty weight W e , that is:
At the end of the conceptual design phase an evaluation pro-
cedure was defined, where the four concepts were compared in W0 = W p + We + W f (1)
terms of aerodynamic efficiency and performance. Thus, based on The payload weight refers to the total weight of the on-board
the most efficient concept, a single configuration was developed, electronic and surveillance equipment (e.g. computers, avionics, ra-
whereas the four presizing tools were merged into a common de- dio, gimbal, cameras, etc.), and is defined by the mission require-
sign tool that served as the base upon which the calculations for ments.
the following design stages were carried-out. The empty weight is essentially the tare weight of the aerial
vehicle and in this first design stage it is estimated using historical
2.1.1. Requirements trends and statistical data for operating aircrafts with similar re-
The design procedure initiates by defining the mission require- quirements and configurations [9,12], such as the ones presented
ments of the aerial vehicle, i.e. the operational requirements re- in Fig. 3.
lated to flight endurance, range, surveillance coverage and flight The fuel weight is calculated by breaking down the aircraft mis-
velocities. Considering the HCUAV, a detailed investigation was sion in segments (Fig. 4) and calculating the required amount of
carried-out in order to derive these requirements. Forest fires and fuel for each segment, either from statistical data, or by employing
illegal immigration were defined as the most important issues, analytical calculations [10], depending on the segment. For exam-
therefore it was decided that an intelligent observation platform ple, the Breguet equation (eq. (2)) is used to estimate the required
should be developed, that can carry out both forest monitoring and fuel for the loiter and cruise segments:
P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138 129
Table 1
HCUAV mission requirements.
Fig. 3. Empty weight fraction curves for various types of aircraft [12].
Table 2
Key aerodynamic features of the four design concepts.
lence model [15], which has been proven through the years that
performs with an excellent manner in external aerodynamic flows.
At this point, the weight of each of the components is esti-
mated based on its size, which was defined by the configuration
layout drawing. By summing up these components, a new estimate
for the empty weight ( W e,as drawn ) is derived, which in turn is sub-
stituted in eq. (3), thus yielding a new value for the total weight
of the aerial vehicle ( W 0,as drawn ). Furthermore, a performance es-
timation is carried out, to ensure that the design fulfills the initial
requirements and is up to the task.
Finally, a refined weight estimation procedure is being carried-
out, based on the methodology described in [9]. An iterative pro-
cedure is defined, where the W 0,as drawn is set as the initial value
for the total weight of the aerial vehicle. At first, a new estima-
tion for the fuel weight is calculated, based on the new estimates
regarding aerodynamics and propulsion. This fuel weight value is
added to payload weight and the last empty weight value, that is:
W 0 = W e,as drawn + W f + W p (3) Fig. 5. 3D CAD representation of the four design concepts.
Fig. 6. Lift coefficient (a) and Lift-to-Drag ratio (b) comparison between the four configurations, as a function of angle of attack.
Fig. 7. The HCUAV geometry at the end of the conceptual design phase.
dure was in turn repeated for the zero-Lift Drag coefficient, the Iterative procedures were also applied in order to optimize key
Lift-curve slope, etc. The final step was to compare the four de- aerodynamic and performance parameters. Furthermore, detailed
signs and sort them, based on their overall rating, following the CFD computations were carried-out in order to perform a thorough
methodology described in [16]. The concept of team 2 was even- study of the aerial vehicle. Aerodynamics, stability and control,
tually found to have the highest rating, i.e. to be the most efficient propulsion and cooling were all studied in detail. Attention was
one, having optimal aerodynamic efficiency and performance char- also given on issues related to manufacturability and functionality,
acteristics. whereas the parameters of cost played an important role as well.
However, even though the final concept was based on the most What is more, the aerodynamic design team had to constantly be
efficient design, it still featured some key elements from the other in touch with the other design departments, in order to exchange
three, thus ensuring that the design advantages of all four concepts information related to structural issues, equipment cost, center of
are exploited (Fig. 7): gravity and moments of inertia etc.
• The overall configuration, along with the main wing and fuse- 2.2.1. CFD methodology
lage characteristics resemble those of the concept of team 2. During the preliminary design stage, a detailed 3D CAD model
• The main wing airfoil of team 4, and more specifically the of the aircraft was designed so that the CFD computations could
NASA NLF(1)-1015 [17], was selected as the airfoil of the main be performed. The design had to be updated several times, until
wing, since it yields a lower C D 0 . the external geometry was established at its final form.
• A boom-mounted inverted V-tail configuration was eventually Two types of simulation were carried-out. The first referred to
selected for the empennage, combining the advantages of both the outer flow modeling, and the second to the modeling of the air
the inverted V-tail and boom-mounted tail configurations [9]. that flows through the fuselage. The analysis was carried-out with
• The final concept features a high-wing arrangement, as do the the commercial code Ansys CFX [14]. The grid for the outer flow
concepts of teams 1, 3 and 4, a feature that aids in terms of consisted of approximately 7,000,000 computational nodes (Fig. 8a)
lateral and directional stability [9]. whereas the grid for the inner flow had round 4,000,000 nodes
• The concept also features a first winglet geometry, based on (Fig. 8b). In both cases, 20 inflation layers were implemented on
the design of team 3. the walls, the first of which was placed at 2.5 · 10−5 m from the
wall, so that the boundary layer phenomena can be properly mod-
2.2. Preliminary design eled.
Regarding the flow around the HCUAV, the Reynolds-Averaged–
This design phase involved the use of more complex and de- Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations were solved coupled with the
tailed methods, whereas each component of the HCUAV was an- Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model [15]. The boundary conditions
alyzed separately and was designed at its final size and shape. correspond to loiter flight conditions, since the loiter phase con-
132 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
Fig. 8. Computational mesh (a) on the surface of the HCUAV and (b) around the electro-optical payload.
2.2.2. Fuselage design and cooling study directly exposed to the flow. The flow field around the engine was
A proper fuselage design should have enough room for the examined using CFD (Fig. 10), while semi-empirical equations, such
electro-optical equipment to be placed and for the engine to be as eq. (6), were also used in order to ensure the proper cooling of
installed, and at the same time ensure their proper cooling. It is the cylinders [20,21].
also vital that it produces as small a drag force as possible. Hence,
the external geometry was derived from a combination of airfoils a = 241.7 0.0247 − 0.00148 h0.8 / p 0.4 u 0.73 (6)
in order to minimize the drag (Fig. 9).
Note that α is the convection coefficient of engine fins, h and
The first step was to select an engine. From the conceptual de-
p refer to geometrical characteristics of the blades, and u is the
sign phase, it was estimated that the required horsepower should
velocity of the air.
be around 30 hp, so that the HCUAV could meet the initial re-
The next step was the design and sizing of the cooling ducts,
quirements. Several parameters were taken into account, includ-
which supply the internal of the HCUAV with the air needed to
ing horsepower, reliability and cost, and finally the model 305i
cool the payload equipment. Positioned in the front part of the
of Zanzottera Technologies was selected. It is a two-stroke piston,
fuselage (Fig. 11), the ducts were sized to have a specific section
air-cooled internal combustion engine, with a maximum available
area, which resulted from a 0D Heat Transfer analysis. Indicatively,
power of 25 hp. In order to verify the adequacy of the engine
some basic equations that were used for computing the required
model, a series of calculations were made, based on the methods
mass flow are the following [22]:
presented in [9], which showed that the engine will meet most
operating conditions.
Nu = 0.248 ∗ Re0.612 ∗ Pr1/3 (7)
In order to reduce the complexity of the concept, the engine
was positioned at the rear of the fuselage so that the cylinders are Q̇ req = ṁh T (8)
P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138 133
where Nu, Re, and Pr are the Nusselt, Reynolds and Prandtl num- it had to be ensured that the required heat flux, or Q̇ req (eq. (8)),
bers respectively, Q̇ req is the heat flow that is required for the must be at least equal to the total heat flux of all of the devices
payload cooling, ṁ is the mass flow rate, h is the heat transfer together, that is
coefficient, and T the temperature difference.
For optimization purposes, NACA shaped intakes were designed
N
Q̇ req ≥ Q̇ payload = Q̇ i (9)
[23] in order to accomplish better adduction of the cooling air in-
i =1
side the fuselage. The shape of the cooling ducts can be seen in
Fig. 11. where N is the number of the equipment parts.
After a first design had been made, CFD simulations were Fig. 12 depicts temperature contours on the surfaces of the pay-
carried-out to check the effectiveness of the cooling ducts and load. These temperature values were calculated after computing
the local temperatures developed on the equipment parts, in or- the thermal equilibrium between the payload ( Q̇ payload ) and the
der to apply the appropriate corrections to the inlets’ geometry. cooling ( Q̇ req ) heat flux values. The analyses showed that the heat
For this purpose, simplified 3D representations of the devices were adduction is sufficient, as the temperatures did not exceed the crit-
ical limits set by the manufacturers of the payload equipment.
designed, and a heat flux corresponding to the maximum load of
At the end of the preliminary phase the fuselage was re-
each device was applied. This heat flux value, or Q̇ i , was estimated
designed, taking the dimensions of the engine and the character-
based on the power consumption data given by the corresponding
istics of the electronic equipment into account. Moreover, modifi-
payload manufacturers. Hence, in order to achieve proper cooling,
cations were made in order to ensure that the wings and landing
gear can be integrated. Finally, the flow around the fuselage was
studied using CFD, in order to optimize the external geometry and
enhance aerodynamic performance (Fig. 13).
Fig. 17. HCUAV yawing (a) and rolling (b) moments as a function of the sideslip angle.
Fig. 19. Ruddervator at (a) 15◦ and (b) 25◦ deflection angle. The region of flow separation is represented with orange color. (For interpretation of the references to color in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
136 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
3. Results Note that in lower angles of attack, where boundary layer sep-
aration on wing’s surfaces does not occur, the two curves are in
The final concept, following the last stages of the aerodynamic agreement. In higher angles of attack however the results deviate,
design, is an inherently stable UAV with a total endurance greater as the analytical methods cannot predict effects due to stalling and
than 10 hours. Table 3 sums up the basic characteristics of the ve- viscous effects.
hicle, considering performance and geometry, whereas a 3D repre- Table 4 presents some of the stability derivatives of the HCUAV.
sentation of the HCUAV’s external geometry is presented in Fig. 20. Considering the control surfaces stability derivatives, the subscript
It should be noted that, based on the characteristics presented in “max” states that the derivative value corresponds to small deflec-
Table 3, the HCUAV can be classified as a MALE UAV design [4]. tion angles (i.e. the absolute value of the deflection value does not
Fig. 21 presents the HCUAV external geometry, whereas the lift
and drag coefficients of the aerial vehicle are presented in Fig. 22,
where a comparison between the CFD results and the analytical
methods is also made.
Table 3
HCUAV specifications.
GTOW 185 kg
Payload weight 35 kg
Fuel weight 55 kg
Wing loading (W/S) 8.49
Wingspan 6.4 m
Propulsion Two-stroke 25 hp reciprocating engine.
Cruise speed 160 km/h
Loiter speed 140 km/h
Maximum speed 190 km/h
Stall speed 70 km/h
Endurance > 11+ hours
Service ceiling >5000 m
Rate of climb >2.79 m/s (550 fpm)
Fig. 20. 3D representation of the HCUAV at the final stages of the aerodynamic de-
T.O. runway <130 m
sign.
Fig. 22. Lift coefficient versus angle of attack (a) and drag polar (b) of the HCUAV.
P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138 137
Acknowledgements
Fig. 24. Pressure contours on the HCUAV surface at (a) 0 and (b) 12 degrees of angle of attack.
138 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
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