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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Spectroscopy

Chemistry Project on Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Physical Quantities measured
3. What Is Spectroscopy
4. Nature of light
5. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
6. General Types of Spectra
7. Continuous Spectra
8. Emission spectra
9. Absorption Spectra
10. Types of Spectroscopy
11. How Spectrometer work?
12. Types of Spectroscopy
 13. Examples of Spectroscopy in Astronomy
14. Probing the Formation of Stars in Colliding Galaxies in the universe.
15. Uncovering the mystery of quasar
16. Spectroscopy in Astronomy camp
17. Stars like our own Sun
18. Bibliography
1. Introduction Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of matter and its properties by investigating light, sound, or particles
that are emitted, absorbed or scattered by the matter under investigation.
Spectroscopy may also be defined as the study of the interaction between light and matter.
Historically, spectroscopy referred to a branch of science in which visible light was used for
theoretical studies on the structure of matter and for qualitative and quantitative analyses.
Recently, however, the definition has broadened as new techniques have been developed that
utilize not only visible light, but many other forms of electromagnetic and non-electromagnetic
radiation: microwaves, radiowaves, x-rays, electrons, phonons (sound waves) and others.
Impedance spectroscopy is a study of frequency response in alternating current.
Spectroscopy is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the identification of
substances through the spectrum emitted from them or absorbed in them. A device for recording
a spectrum is a spectrometer. Spectroscopy can be classified according to the physical quantity
which is measured or calculated or the measurement process.
Spectroscopy is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most large telescopes have
spectrographs, which are used either to measure the chemical composition and physical
properties of astronomical objects or to measure their velocities from the Doppler shift of
spectral lines.
Physical Quantity Measured
The type of spectroscopy depends on the physical quantity measured. Normally, the quantity that
is measured is an amount or intensity of something.
• The intensity of emitted electromagnetic radiation and the amount of absorbed
electromagnetic radiation are studied by electromagnetic spectroscopy (see also cross
section).
• The amplitude of macroscopic vibrations is studied by acoustic spectroscopy and
dynamic mechanical spectroscopy.
• Kinetic energy of particles is studied by electron energy loss spectroscopy and Auger
electron spectroscopy (see also cross section).
• The mass-to-charge ratios of molecules and atoms are studied in mass spectrometry,
sometimes called mass spectroscopy. Mass spectrometry is more of a measuring
technique (metric) than an observation (scopic) technique but can produce a spectrum of
masses, a mass spectrum, similar in appearance to other spectroscopy techniques.
• The number of molecules or atoms or quantum-mechanical states to which the frequency
or energy parameter applies. In this case the spectrum is usually called cross section.
What is Spectroscopy?
Spectroscopy pertains to the dispersion of an object’s light into its component colors (i.e.
energies). By performing this dissection and analysis of an object’s light, astronomers can infer
the physical properties of that object (such as temperature, mass, luminosity and composition).
But before we hurtle headlong into the wild and woolly field of spectroscopy, we need to try to
answer some seemingly simple questions, such as what is light? And how does it behave? These
questions may seem simple to you, but they have presented some of the most difficult conceptual
challenges in the long history of physics. It has only been in this century, with the creation of
quantum mechanics that we have gained a quantitative understanding of how light and atoms
work. You see, the questions we pose are not always easy, but to understand and solve them will
unlock a new way of looking at our Universe.
The Nature of Light
To understand the processes in astronomy that generate light, we must realize first that light acts
like a wave. Light has particle-like properties too, so it’s actually quite a twisted beast (which is
why it took so many years to figure out). But right now, let’s just explore light as a wave.
Picture yourself wading around on an ocean beach for a moment, and watch the many water
waves sweeping past you. Waves are disturbances, ripples on the water, and they possess a
certain height (amplitude), with a certain number of waves rushing past you every minute (the
frequency) and all moving at a characteristic speed across the water (the wave speed). Notice the
distance between successive waves? That’s called the wavelength.

Keeping this analogy in mind, let’s leave the ocean beach for a while and think about light like a
wave. The wave speed of a light wave is simply the speed of light, and different wavelengths of
light manifest themselves as different colors! The energy of a light wave is inversely-
proportional to its wavelength; in other words, low-energy waves have long wavelengths, and
high-energy light waves have short wavelengths.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Physicists classify light waves by their energies (wavelengths). Labeled in increasing energy, we
might draw the entire electromagnetic spectrum as shown in the figure below:
Notice that radio, TV, and microwave signals are all light waves, they simply lie at wavelengths
(energies) that your eye doesn’t respond to. On the other end of the scale, beware the high energy
UV, x-ray, and gamma-ray photons! Each one carries a lot of energy compared to their visible-
and radio-wave brethren. They’re the reasons you should wear sunblock, for example.
When we look at the Universe in a different “light”, i.e. at “non-visible” wavelengths, we
probe different kinds of physical conditions — and we can see new kinds of objects! For
example, high-energy gamma-ray and X-ray telescopes tend to see the most energetic dynamos
in the cosmos, such as active galaxies, the remnants from massive dying stars, accretion of
matter around black holes, and so forth. Visible light telescopes best probe light produced by
stars. Longer-wavelength telescopes best probe dark, cool, obscured structures in the Universe:
dusty star-forming regions, dark cold molecular clouds, the primordial radiation emitted by the
formation of the Universe shortly after the Big Bang. Only through studying astronomical
objects at many different wavelengths are astronomers able to piece together a coherent,
comprehensive picture of how the Universe works!
General Types of Spectra
Typically one can observe two distinctive classes of spectra: continous and discrete. For a
continuous spectrum, the light is composed of a wide, continuous range of colors (energies).
With discrete spectra, one sees only bright or dark lines at very distinct and sharply-defined
colors (energies). As we’ll discover shortly, discrete spectra with bright lines are called emission
spectra, those with dark lines are termed absorption spectra.
Continuous Spectra
Continuous spectra arise from dense gases or solid objects which radiate their heat away through
the production of light. Such objects emit light over a broad range of wavelengths, thus the
apparent spectrum seems smooth and continuous. Stars emit light in a predominantly (but not
completely!) continuous spectrum. Other examples of such objects are incandescent light bulbs,
electric cooking stove burners, flames, cooling fire embers and… you. Yes, you, right this
minute, are emitting a continuous spectrum — but the light waves you’re emitting are not visible
— they lie at infrared wavelengths (i.e. lower energies, and longer wavelengths than even red
light). If you had infrared-sensitive eyes, you could see people by the continuous radiation they
emit!
Discrete Spectra
Discrete spectra are the observable result of the physics of atoms. There are two types of discrete
spectra, emission (bright line spectra) and absorption (dark line spectra). Let’s try to understand
where these two types of discrete spectra.
Emission Line Spectra
Unlike a continuous spectrum source, which can have any energy it wants (all you have to do is
change the temperature), the electron clouds surrounding the nuclei of atoms can have only very
specific energies dictated by quantum mechanics. Each element on the periodic table has its own
set of possible energy levels, and with few exceptions the levels are distinct and identifiable.
Atoms will also tend to settle to the lowest energy level (in spectroscopist’s lingo, this is called
the ground state). This means that an excited atom in a higher energy level must dump’ some
energy. The way an atom dumps’ that energy is by emitting a wave of light with that exact
energy.
In the diagram below, a hydrogen atom drops from the 2nd energy level to the 1st, giving off a
wave of light with an energy equal to the difference of energy between levels 2 and 1. This
energy corresponds to a specific color, or wavelength of light — and thus we see a bright line at
that exact wavelength! …an emission spectrum is born, as shown below:
An excited Hydrogen atom relaxes from level 2 to level 1, yielding a photon. This results in a
bright emission line.
Tiny changes of energy in an atom generate photons with small energies and long wavelengths,
such as radio waves! Similarly, large changes of energy in an atom will mean that high-energy,
short-wavelength photons (UV, x-ray, gamma-rays) are emitted.
Absorption Line Spectra
On the other hand, what would happen if we tried to reverse this process? That is, what would
happen if we fired this special photon back into a ground state atom? That’s right, the atom could
absorb that specially-energetic’ photon and would become excited, jumping from the ground
state to a higher energy level. If a star with a continuous’ spectrum is shining upon an atom, the
wavelengths corresponding to possible energy transitions within that atom will be absorbed and
therefore an observer will not see them. In this way, a dark-line absorption spectrum is born, as
shown below:
How does a spectrometer work?
Many people know how a telescope works, but relatively few have much experience with the
innards of a spectrometer. So let’s take apart the Astronomy Camp spectrometer to see how it
works! Keep in mind that there are as many optical designs for spectrometers as there are optical
designs for telescopes, and that this is but one example. Nevertheless, it points out the salient
features of most optical spectrometers.
It all starts with the telescope light beam entering the spectrometer. The focal point of the
telescope beam is brought to the slit of the spectrometer. This slit is what is ultimately imaged
on the detector. In the case of the Camp spectrometer, the slit is arranged at an angle and the slit
surroundings are silvered so that the portion of the telescope beam not passing through the slit
can be routed instead to an eyepiece for
easy telescope guiding.
The light passing through the slit then is reflected off a collimating mirror, which parallelizes the
beam of light, before sending it off…
… to the diffraction grating! This optical element disperses the parallel beams of light into their
component colors/wavelengths/energies. Each different wavelength comes off of the grating at a
slightly different angle. So now, we have an image of the slit that is spread out like a rainbow by
color.
This new color-dispersed beam of light is then focused and imaged on the detector by the
camera lens. A 35 mm camera is the detector in this diagram, but at Camp, we typically use an
eyepiece or a CCD array.
So, now let’s put all of this together to make a spectrometer!
There is something interesting to note here — in spectroscopy, we are not looking at ALL of the
light from an object, just a certain “band” of wavelengths or colors. Furthermore, even that band
is dispersed (“smeared out”) over the entire detector. This means that the effective brightness, or
surface brightness of an object on the detector is much lower than when simply taking images of
an object. This means that it takes a bigger telescope and/or more integration time to get a good
spectrum of a given object than an image.
The broader you disperse the light and the narrower you make the slit, the better your spectral
resolution; you can see finer and more subtle features in the spectrum. However, there is a stiff
price to pay: the emergent spectrum becomes much dimmer and more diffuse. High resolution
spectroscopy therefore requires large telescopes and fairly bright objects. For very faint objects,
some spectral resolution often must be compromised to even SEE the object.
TYPES OF SPECTROSCOPY
In general there are three main types of spectroscopy. They are as listed below:
1. Absorption Spectroscopy
2. Emission Spectroscopy
3. Scattering Spectroscopy
Absorption spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a substance
absorbs. In atomic absorption spectroscopy, the sample is atomized and then light of a particular
frequency is passed through the vapour. After calibration, the amount of absorption can be
related to the concentrations of various metal ions through the Beer-Lambert law. The method
can be automated and is widely used to measure concentrations of ions such as sodium and
calcium in blood. Other types of spectroscopy may not require sample atomization. For example,
ultraviolet/visible (UV/ Vis) absorption spectroscopy is most often performed on liquid samples
to detect molecular content and infrared (IR) spectroscopy is most often performed on liquid,
semi-liquid (paste or grease), dried, or solid samples to determine molecular information,
including structural information.
Emission spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a substance radiates.
The substance first absorbs energy and then radiates this energy as light. This energy can be from
a variety of sources, including collision (either due to high temperatures or otherwise), and
chemical reactions.
Scattering spectroscopy measures certain physical properties by measuring the amount of light
that a substance scatters at certain wavelengths, incident angles, and polarization angles.
Scattering spectroscopy differs from emission spectroscopy due to the fact that the scattering
process is much faster than the absorption/emission process. One of the most useful applications
of light scattering spectroscopy is Raman spectroscopy.
NMR SPECTROSCOPY
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy is a powerful and theoretically complex analytical
tool. On this page, we will cover the basic theory behind the technique. It is important to
remember that, with NMR, we are performing experiments on the nuclei of atoms, not the
electrons. The chemical environment of specific nuclei is deduced from information obtained
about the nuclei.
Examples of Spectroscopy in Astronomy
Spectroscopy is a powerful tool in astronomy — from it, we can often get information about the
temperature, density, composition, and important physical processes of an astronomical object.
This information can help us answer the questions:
• What is it?
• What is it like?
• What is it made out of?
• How did it get there? What will happen to it?
• Does it give us clues as to how WE got here?
A few examples of astronomical spectra are highlighted here. Some cool Astronomy Camp
spectra also live in these pages.
Molecular Spectroscopy and Comets
Comets consist of almost pristine material from the early formation of our solar system,
unprocessed by harsh solar sunlight. Studying the chemistry of these “dirty snowballs” gives us a
clue as to the composition and nature of our solar system in its infancy and constrains theories of
how life may have formed on Earth.
A link to radio-wavelength spectroscopy of comets may be found here.
Probing the Formation of Stars in Colliding Galaxies
Billions of years ago, when our galaxy took form, it is thought that there must have been an
epoch of rapid star-forming activity that has since subsided. We can get clues to how this may
have looked by observing galaxies currently exhibiting violent, extreme star-formation. Such
“starburst” galaxies are studied best in the infrared and at radio wavelengths, since star-forming
galaxies often harbor so much dust and gas that visible light cannot penetrate to the centers
where the majority of the star formation is taking place. Below is an infrared (2.0 – 2.5 microns
wavelength, or 20,000 – 25,000 Angstroms) spectrum of two such starburst galaxies. Most of the
features you see are from molecular hydrogen, H2, the stuff from which stars are made! These
molecular hydrogen emission lines tell us that the molecular gas we see is very warm; in the top
galaxy, the gas is excited by shock-heated gas. The bottom galaxy has molecular hydrogen
excited by ultraviolet light emitted from recently-formed young, hot stars.
K—band spectra
Wavelength (/^m)
Uncovering the mystery of Quasars
The distant nature of quasars were discovered in the early 1960′s, when spectral lines were noted
to be substantially-shifted redder than they should normally be. This redshift can be attributed to
the recession (speeding away) of quasars from us. In the standard Big Bang model of cosmology
(the faster it’s speeding away from you, the more distant it is), this rapid motion implies that
quasars are the most distant objects known. Below is a typical spectrum of a quasar. The
wavelength scale has been rescaled to the “appropriate” rest wavelengths for the spectral lines.
The most noticeable feature is the broad emission line at 1216 Angstroms due to hydrogen atoms
making the transition from the first excited state to the ground state. Although 1216 Angstroms
lies deep in the ultraviolet, where the Earth’s atmosphere is opaque, many quasars are receding
from us so fast, this line is redshifted into the visible part of the spectrum (4000-7000
Angstroms).
X
w
m
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2300 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
Wavelength (A)
I
Spectroscopy at Astronomy Camp!
Spectroscopy at Astronomy Camp is done with a spectrograph from Optomechanics Research
Inc, coupled with the Mount Lemmon 40″ or 60″ telescopes and the Camp’s SBIG ST6 CCD
detector array. With relatively short exposure times, good quality spectra can be taken of most
catalogued stars and high surface-brightness deep-sky objects. A few examples of Astronomy
Campers’ handiwork are shown below.
Planetary Nebulae, Or ‘Why Light Pollution Filters Work’!
Here’s an image of M57
(a.k.a. the Ring Nebula),
with a crude representation
of the spectrometer slit
superimposed. This image
is a 180 second exposure
using the Camp’s
ST6 CCD on a 10″ Meade
Schmidt-
Cassagrain telescope.
Astronomy Camp’s
spectrograph was mounted
on the Mount Lemmon 60″ telescope with the same ST6 CCD. The slit length is about 8
arcminutes long and 1 arcsecond wide; the representation of the slit width in the diagram is
exaggerated.
We combined four 5-minute exposures on the Ring Nebula using the 60″ and the ST6 camera.
We subtracted an appropriate 5 minute dark frame from each image and then combined the
images using IRAF. The resulting ST6 image follows: the dispersion (wavelength) axis is
horizontal, and the spatial axis (along the Ring Nebula) is vertical. The central lines are M57, the
upper and lower spikes are the calibration lamp spectra (Hg+He).
blue ■• wavelength *- red
We make a 1-D spectrum from the 2-D image by summing over the aperture of the slit covering
M57. Using the well-characterized wavelengths of the calibration lamps, we can use IRAF to
register our spectrum to provide a nice wavelength scale. Here’s what our spectrum looks like
once plotted as intensity versus wavelength.

The emission line at 4861

Angstroms comes from hot,
excited atomic hydrogen.
Highly-excited hydrogen
atoms in M57′s gaseous
shell, starting in energy
level 4, may eventually de-
excite to level 2, giving up
the energy difference in waves of light at that particular energy (and… they have a wavelength of
4861 Angstroms!).
The brightest two lines at 4959 and 5007 Angstroms come from twice-ionized oxygen (labeled
O++, or O III in spectroscopic notation). This means that two of oxygen’s eight electrons have
been ripped away. This is a also clue that conditions in this nebula must be harsh. In fact, these
lines can only be excited to emit light in temperatures of several thousand Kelvins and rather thin
densities of 1-100 atoms per cubic centimeter. There is no continuous spectrum here — this
points out the important fact that planetary nebulae are hot rarified gases — you see a LINE
spectrum. This also points out how astronomers can get valuable information about the physical
conditions and important processes in distant astronomical objects.
This spectrum also demonstrates why you can use light-pollution filters (like those made by
Lumicon or Orion) to get great contrast from reflection/ emission nebulae! These filters pass
light waves that lie at wavelengths covered by these three lines, but block light at all other
wavelengths. For nebulae, this is very beneficial since they only emit visible light in this
wavelength range. You can remove all that ugly skyglow and light pollution without reducing
the brighness of the nebula you’re looking for.
Would such a narrow-band filter be good for looking at stars or galaxies? Hmm?
Stellar Spectroscopy A look at Sirius
Now, onto stellar spectroscopy. This 1/2 second exposure of Sirius is centered near 4000
Angstroms (blue, near-ultraviolet) and clearly shows a series of deep absorption lines. These
lines are due to the hydrogen atom. Let’s explore how.
calibration lamps
ultraviolet *………………… wavelength ………………………… blue
In the cooler outer “atmosphere” around Sirius, mildly excited hydrogen atoms in the 2nd energy
level (the 1st excited state) are ‘zapped’ by photons (light waves) with just the right energy to
send them to even higher excited states. In this figure, we match the dark absorption line that
results from each transition upward in the hydrogen atom. Notice that the higher-energy
transitions on the left result in higher energy absorption lines out in the ultraviolet. This series of
lines, starting from level 2, is called the Balmer series after their discoverer.
Stars are classified by their temperatures, which can be determined by the star’s spectral features.
The hottest stars are termed O-stars, the next cooler are B stars, then A, F, G, K, and finally M-
stars. Sirius is a relatively hot A-type star at about 10,000 degrees Kelvin. Such stars have the
strongest hydrogen-features (simply due to temperature — cooler stars can’t ‘zap’ the hydrogen
atoms as effectively, and hotter stars will destroy/ionize the hydrogen atoms that create the
spectral lines!).
Molecules in Cool Stars!
On the other end of the scale — here is Delta Virgo; a cool M3-type giant star at about 3,500 K
and viewed at about 6000 Angstroms (in red light). Note a bright continuum at far left, which
suddenly dims into a series of striations (bands).
These don’t look like the sharp absorption lines of the hydrogen atom, do they? In fact, these
bands are due to MOLECULES that can live in the atmospheres of these cool stars!
This particular molecule is TiO (titanium oxide). Molecules have a dizzying number of lines
because they not only have the electron energy levels like atoms, but also have energy sublevels
due to the rotation and vibration of the molecule!
At the modest resolution of our spectrometer, these hundreds of lines are blended into absorption
bands like what we see here.
STARS LIKE OUR SUN
Somewhere between hotter A-type stars and cool M-class stars are stars like our sun, around
5500 degrees Kelvin. Here’s Beta-Bootes, a G8 giant star (roughly what our sun will be when it
begins dying in about 5 billion years). The first spectrum is at 5500 Angstroms (yellow light),
just like the M-star spectrum above. Notice that molecules don’t form here (it’s too hot for
molecules to readily form without being quickly destroyed), but there are still an awful lot of
lines around. Most of these features are due to heavy elements — things like carbon (in several
ionization stages), iron, oxygen, magnesium, calcium etc.
This is a spectrum of the same star, but now taken at 4000 Angstroms (deep blue-violet light).
The deep absorption lines at left are due to the ion Calcium II (the difference between this and
normal, neutral calcium is that one electron has been stripped off here). The small dip in the
middle is due to a blend of metallic features and hydrogen. Notice that the hydrogen lines are
very weak here nothing at all like Sirius (a hotter A-class star).
This project is made using the analytical data provided by the following reference books and
websites:
1. Schaum’s Outlines Organic Chemistry, Third Edition, Chapter Spectroscopy, Page
number 230-244.
2. The Science of Spectroscopy – supported by NASA, includes Open Spectrum, a Wiki-
based learning tool.
3. Wikipedia (Encyclopedia)
4. Professors Lectures University of Arizona (Semester II)
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Chemistry Project on Foaming Capacity of Soaps Chemistry Project to To Determine which
Antacid Neutralizes Stomach Acid Most

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Foaming Capacity of Soaps

Chemistry Project on Foaming Capacity of

Soaps

Foaming Capacity of Soaps

This is to certify that Mr. Pratyush Mishra of Class XI ‘B’ has satisfactorily completed the
project on “Foaming Capacity of Soap” under the guidance of Sir Francis Xavier during the
session 2009-2010.
Place: D-22 RDVV UNIVERSITY JABALPUR
Date:
(Sir Francis Xavier)
School Stamp
I’d like to express my greatest gratitude to the people who have helped & supported me
throughout my project. I’ m grateful to Sir Francis Xavier for his continuous support for the
project, from initial advice & encouragement to this day.
Special thanks of mine goes to my colleague who helped me in completing the project by giving
interesting ideas, thoughts & made this project easy and accurate.
I wish to thanks my parents for their undivided support & interest who inspired me &
encouraged me to go my own way, without which I would be unable to complete my project. At
last but not the least I want to thanks my friends who appreciated me for my work & motivated
me and finally to God who made all the things possible…
S. no. Contents Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 EXPERIMENT 1 2
3 EXPERIMENT 2 4
4 BIBLIOGRAPHY 6
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic and oleic acids can
be either saturated or unsaturated. They contain a long hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon
with one carboxylic acid group as the functional group.
A soap molecule a tadpole shaped structure, whose ends have different polarities. At one end is
the long hydrocarbon chain that is non-polar and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in water but oil
soluble. At the other end is the short polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic i.e., water
soluble but insoluble in oil and grease.
Long Hydrocarbon Chain Hydrophobic end Hydrophilic end
When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap solution that is colloidal in nature. Agitating it
tends to concentrate the solution on the surface and causes foaming. This helps the soap
molecules make a unimolecular film on the surface of water and to penetrate the fabric. The long
non-polar end of a soap molecule that are hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt
(fat or oil with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end containing the carboxylate ion, face the
water away from the dirt. A number of soap molecules surround or encircle dirt and grease in a
clustered structure called ‘micelles’, which encircles such particles and emulsify them.
Cleansing action of soaps decreases in hard water. Hard water contains Calcium and magnesium
ions which react with sodium carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids.
2C17H35COONa +Ca2+ (C17H35COO) 2 Ca +2Na+
(Water soluble) (ppt.)
2C17H35COONa + Mg2+ (C17H35COO) 2 Mg +2Na+
This hardness can be removed by addition of Sodium Carbonate.
Ca2++ Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+
Mg2++ Na2CO3 MgCO3 + 2Na+
Aim: To compare the foaming capacities of five different commercial soaps.
Apparatus: 5 test tubes, 5 conical flasks (100 ml), test tube stand, Bunsen burner and stop watch.
Materials 5 different samples of soap and distilled water
Required:
Theory: The foaming capacity of a soap sample depends upon the nature of soap and its
concentration. This can be compared for various samples of soaps by taking the same
concentration of solution and shaking them.
The foam is formed and the time taken for disappearances of foam in all cases is
compared. The lesser the time taken by a solution for the disappearance of foam, the
lower is its foaming capacity.
Procedure: • Five conical flasks (100 ml each) are taken and numbered 1 to 5.
• In each of these flasks equal amounts (say 5 gm) of the given samples of soap
shavings or granules are taken and 50 ml of distilled water is added.
• Each conical flask is heated few minutes to dissolve all the soap completely.
• In a test-tube stand, five big clean and dry test tubes are taken and numbered 1
to 5
• One ml of the five soap solution is then poured in the test tubes of
corresponding number.
• 10 ml. of distilled water is then added to each test tube.
• Test tube no 1 is then shaken vigorously 5 times.
• The foam would be formed in the empty space above the container. Stop
watch is started immediately and the time taken for the disappearance of foam is
noted.
• Similarly the other test tubes are shaken vigorously for equal number of times
(i.e., 5 times) with approximately with the same force and the time taken for the
disappearance of foam in each case is recorded.
• The lesser the time taken for the disappearance of foam, the lower is the
foaming capacity.
Observation: Amount of each soap sample taken = 5 gm.
Amount of distilled water taken = 50 ml.
Volume of each soap solution taken = 1 ml.
Volume of distilled water added = 10 ml.
S. No. Soap Sample Time taken (seconds)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Conclusions: The soap for which the time taken for the disappearance of foam is highest has
 maximum foaming capacity and is the best quality soap among the soaps tested.

Aim: Study the effect of the addition of Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda) on the foaming
capacity of different soap solutions.
Apparatus: 3 test tubes, test tube stand, Bunsen burner and stop watch.
Materials 0.5 g sample of soap, water (distilled & tap both) and M/10 Na2CO3 solution.
Required:
Theory: When sodium or potassium soaps are put into water containing calcium and
magnesium ions (Hard water), results in formation of scum which applies grey
appearance on the cloth. To achieve the same washing or cleaning action, more soap
must be added.
2C17H35COONa +Ca2+ (C17H35COO) 2 Ca +2Na+
(Water soluble) (scum)
Hard water is water that has high mineral content (mainly calcium and magnesium
ions) (in contrast with soft water). Hard water minerals primarily consist of calcium
(Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes other dissolved
compounds such as bicarbonates and sulphates. Calcium usually enters the water as
either calcium carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium
sulphate (CaSO4), in the form of other mineral deposits.
When Na2CO3 is added to tap water the calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) ions
precipitate as their carbonates .i.e. foaming capacity of soap increases.
Ca2++ Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+
Mg2++ Na2CO3 MgCO3 + 2Na+
Procedure: • Dissolve 0.5g of soap and dissolve it in 50 ml of distilled water.
• Take three test tubes and add distilled water in first, tap water in second and
third test tube.
• Add 5 ml of M/10 sodium carbonate to third test tube.
• To above test tubes add soap solutions separately.
• Now shake first test tubes for formation of foam.
• Now start the stop watch to calculate time taken for disappearance of foam.
• Similarly, perform the experiment with other soap solutions. Record the
observations in a tabular form.
Observation: Amount of each soap sample taken = 0. 5 gm.
Amount of distilled water taken = 50 ml.
Volume of each soap solution taken = 1 ml.
Volume of distilled water added = 10 ml.
S. No. Water used Time taken (seconds)
1.
2.
3.
Conclusions: Foaming capacity of soap in maximum in distilled water. The foaming
capacity of soap increases on the addition of Sodium Carbonate.
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