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¾ The electrical and magnetic properties of solids are mainly determined
by the properties of electrons in them.
¾ On the whole, the energy levels of electrons hold the key to the
properties of solids.
¾ The mathematical problem is not unlike the one you dealt in the case of
individual atom.
How can we determine the energy levels of electrons in a solid?
One possible approach:
¾ Take a wave function depending on the coordinates of 1025 electrons;
¾ Write down the Coulomb potential between each pair of electrons,
between electrons and protons; and solve Schroedinger equation.
You might have guessed by now that we are not going to try this approach
as it would mathematically very demanding.
Let us search for a simple approach
¾ Noting an empirical fact (true at room temperature) that there no electrons
beyond the boundaries of the metal.
¾ There is some mechanism keeping the electrons inside. What is it?
It might be an infinite potential at the boundaries.
¾ And what about inside? How will the PE of an electron vary in the presence of
enormous number of nuclei and other electrons?
Let us say it will be uniform. Seems like a sweeping assumption but it works. It
was introduced by Drude & Sommerfeld .
You may recognize that the model is nothing else but the potential well with
which you dealt earlier.
Drude Model (1900)
Za = atomic number =
# of electrons simple model for conductivity
isolated atom
in a metal
Z valence electrons are weakly bound to the nucleus (participate in reactions)
Za – Z core electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus (less of a role)
In a metal, the core electrons remain bound to the nucleus to form the metallic ion
Valence electrons wander away from their parent atoms, called conduction electrons
How the mobile electrons become mobile?
• When we bring Na atoms together to form a Na metal, the
orbitals overlap slightly and the valance electrons become
no longer attached to a particular ion, but belong to both.
U(r)
U(r)=0
(KE of each degree of freedom ½ kT; three defrees of freedom)
• Collisions between electrons are instantaneous and lead to scattering.
• Between these collisions , other interactions of the electrons with each
other and with the ions are neglected in detail (though an averaged
resistive term is included in the equation of motion).
• The MFP of the electron between collisions is τ, and this time is
independent of the electron’s position and velocity.
• Electrons achieve the thermal equilibrium with their surroundings only
through collisions with other electrons.
Let us try to explain some of the well known electrical and thermal
properties of metals.
Electrical conductivity of
materials (Note the variation)
Model for electrical conduction
– In the absence of an electric field, the
conduction electrons move in random
directions through the conductor with
large average speeds. The drift velocity
of the free electrons is zero. There is v
no current in the conductor since there
is no net flow of charge.
Estimate – When an electric field is applied, in
addition to the random motion, the
Average free electrons drift slowly (vd ~ 10‐4
m/s) in a direction opposite that of the
Speed electric field.