CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Definition

This project is aiming to design and build an automobile that runs primarily
on electric batteries while runs partially on solar panels which will be the secondary
source of power. This will require a clear understanding of electrical and solar
components, design of an automobile, automobile mechanism. In terms of electric
batteries, the car will use lead acid batteries which can be charged using the secondary
source of power, which are solar arrays that use photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight
into electricity. We are designing and creating a cleaner source of transport than an
ICE dependent vehicle.

1.2 Project Objectives

 To design and manufacture a vehicle with minimized dependency on fossil

fuels (only for charging batteries of the car) and produces zero emission.
 To use solar panels as a secondary source of power, which can charge the
batteries while parked under the sun, which eliminates the dependency on
fossil fuels completely.
 Ensure the car can accommodate five passengers, while driving at various
speeds up to 40 km/h.
 Identify, implement and explain the principles of force, motion and
aerodynamics.
 Explain and demonstrate a fully functional prototype.

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1.3 Project Specifications
Our project has basically two systems, electric system and solar system. The
components needed for both systems are solar panels, electric charge controller ,
batteries, motor, motor controller and converter, when converting the current from AC
to DC is needed. In terms of the mathematical parameters and specifications of
components, we have used 4 batteries of 12V connected in series, a motor controller
for the DC series motor which delivers maximum power of 3kW to move the car with
weight (including driver) 550-650 kg. What we were after in this project is to build a
high efficient and emission free – clean mean of transport that is practical and logical.
Firstly , the chassis was modified according to our design, ICE related components
were also taken out of the vehicle. Reinforced members were added to increase the
stability and safety of the car. Then, we painted the chassis mainly to prevent
corrosion and to cover all the dents and scratches and to make it look new and
presentable.

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 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Project background
Fossil fuels have been an essential source of energy since the Industrial
Revolution in the 18th century, and until today human kind depends on vastly as the
main source of energy/power. Global consumption of fossil fuel has increased
drastically in the past century and is nowhere close to slowing down; this is mainly
due the rise of human population and growing industries for economic growth
globally. According to British Petroleum’s report [1] issued in 2013 based on the
proven global oil reserves that Earth had approximately 1.69 Trillion Barrels of crude
oil in reserves as of 2013. B.P has estimated these reserves will last around 53 years
that is keeping in consideration that the annual global production won’t increase
further. Secondly according to USA Environmental Agency [2] the average
temperature of Earth has risen by 1.8 Fahrenheit over the past century and is
predicted to rise another 0.5 to 8.6 Fahrenheit.

We are close to running out of the natural resource known to us as fossil

fuel, which means it high time that we have to start considering other options to turn
to. Globally many institutes, research and development labs, and various universities
are looking into renewable energy now as that seems to be the only logical and
practical way. Furthermore Global Warming is turning out to be more real than
expected by all, weather changes can be seen everywhere which is causing
catastrophic effect not just to Earth but also to mankind. Solar vehicles and Electric
vehicles are considered to be the future of automobiles. We as students want to play
our role by contributing to solving these problems as much as possible. The project
was decided on the basis to build a cleaner mean of transportation, which has a lesser
dependency on fossil fuels and emits zero emission, while being economically
affordable. This meant for us to go completely electrical and depend on natural source
of energy as much as possible.
Renewable energy is vital for today’s world. Solar energy is being used to
produce electricity through sunlight. With the help of this technology we aim to make
solar energy powered car in our project. The main component to build a solar car is
the solar panel. The solar cells collect a portion of the sun’s energy and store it into

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the batteries of the solar car. Before that happens, power trackers converts the energy
collected from the solar array to the proper system voltage, so that the batteries and
the motor can use it, thus, producing zero carbon emission. Electric cars on the other
hand help reduce dependency on fossil fuels hugely; they cause zero carbon emission
and thus help reduce Global Warming.

2.2 Previous Work

The scope of this project is not relatively new. There are plenty of similar
projects which tackled the same issue. It has always been hard to credit one single
inventor for the invention of the first electric car. We look back at the first practical
electric automobile in USA ‘Morrison Electric’ (Fig.2.1); it was built in the year
1890(built on a carriage). Morrison Electric was developed by a William Morrison
who was a chemist interested in electricity. He used 24 of his self-improved storage
batteries, giving an electric output of 112A and 58V to a 4HP motor, these batteries
took 10 hours to recharge and weighed hefty 14.5kg (32lbs) each.

Fig.2.1: Morrison Electric, first practical electric automobile in USA

In addition, looking back at the first solar car ‘Sunmobile’ (Fig.2.2), was
invented by William G. Cobb in 1955 was a tiny 15-inch functional model, and first
demonstrated to public on August 31st 1955. This Solar car used 12 photoelectric cells
made out of a nonmetal substance Selenium. The first drivable solar car first shown in
1962 was a vintage 1912 Baker electric car converted by The International Rectifier
Company (Fig.2.3). The car was mounted with over 10,640 individual solar cells on

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the rooftop to make it drivable.

Fig 2.2: Sunmobile, the first solar car

Fig.2.3: The first drivable solar car (Vintage 1912 Baker)

Looking at the 21st century and recent development in electric cars and solar
cars, the most obvious name in current market for electric car is Tesla. Tesla is one of
the major Lithium- ion battery energy storage manufacturers in USA. They started by
building efficient rechargeable batteries, and now they are manufacturing completely
electric cars which emit zero carbon emission. Tesla cars were a huge motivation for
our project as they represent everything we are looking for in our car and more
(antonymous driving was never a part of our project). Tesla Motors started working
on its first electric car ‘Tesla Roadster’ in 2004, the model was later unveiled at the
San Francisco Auto Show in 2006 as a prototype, this was not only a major step in

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history but it also made a lot of car manufacturers to jump for the electric car market.
Roadster was the 1st electric car to use lithium-ion batteries. Following are the Tesla
Roadster Specifications show in Fig 2.4.

Fig 2.4: Tesla Roadster Specifications

Two other car makers (Renault & Nissan) have brought forward their
respective electric cars to the market. Nissan’s Leaf and Renault’s Zoe are two very
efficient compact electric cars. Nissan and Renault have formed a strategic alliance
and decided to share electric car platform to pursue their goals/targets. Nissan Leaf
was first manufactured in 2010 and hasn’t changed much over the years except for an
upgraded battery in 2016 to 30 kWh. Its specifications can be seen below in Fig 2.5.

Renault Zoe was first manufactured in 2012; the car wasn’t noticed / shown
interest in by customers till 2014. Fig 2.6 shows that Renault Zoe has been the lead

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Electric Car sold in Europe for year 2017. Specifications of Zoe and its various
models can be seen in Fig 2.7.

Fig 2.5: Nissan Leaf Car Specification

Fig 2.6: Renault Zoe, The Lead Electric car in 2017

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 Fig 2.7: Specifications of Zoe and its various models
2.3 Manufacturing
The manufacturing process for automotive industry is normally complicated,
expensive, long and risky (Nobelius, 2004).However, different companies have
various strategies to achieve their goal (Crawford and Bryce, 2003) such as platform
sharing (Kim, 2003), data base design (Cleveland, 2006b), lean manufacturing system
(Flores, 2003) and common tooling (Brown, 2004). For LVAM, the manufacturing
environment is different from the HVAM because the nature of LVAM is slower in
production speed compared to mass production, hence, there must be a new approach
to shorten the processes without compromising on the quality, cost and delivery of the
car. Those approaches will be discussed in the following sections.

2.3.1 Material
Material is one of the most important aspects in every manufacturing
industry. Due to the low volume environment, the correct choice of material will
definitely become an advantage to this automotive segment. According to Cui et al.
(2008), generally, the car body and its interior accumulate for about 40 % of the total
vehicle weight. Multi-material designs provide more opportunities for weight saving
and lower cost compared to single-material structures. Multi-material combination
method provides opportunities for designers to fully exploit the benefits of each
material and achieve the optimal production efficiencies.

The application of new materials such as carbon fiber–polymer composites

for Body- In-White (BIW) closure steel panels has successfully reduced weight
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(Turner et al., 2008). According to Turner, LVAM can take the advantage of this
material because it has only become cost effective for small and mid-volume
production levels of up to 500 parts per annum. As an example, BMW has adopted a
thermo plastic composite for its low volume M3 model‟s underbody shields (Jacob,
2008). The advantage of this material is it’s lightweight, optimized aerodynamic,
corrosion resistance and fuel efficiency (Sapuan et al., 2005). Besides that, BMW also
uses thermoplastic polyester for the front frame of sunroof for BMW Series 1 and 3
models (Jacob, 2005).

In another application of material for LVAM approach, Hypercar, Inc. uses

carbon- fiber composite body structure as the basis for design, fabrication, and
assembly of the Revolution concept car (Cramer and Taggart, 2002). Glass reinforced
sheet moulding compound (SMC) is chosen for the material due to its ability to be
stamped into shapes which make it much lower in capital costs relative to steel.
According to Cramer and Taggart (2002), with the aims of having low-cost
fabrication and assembly,each part is designed to reduce sharp edges, shallow draws,
enhance repeatability, and eliminate the need for labour- intensive pre and post
process steps. Through this concept, the body structure is 57% lighter than a
conventional steel body structure of the same size and yet offers better crash
protection, better stiffness and favorable thermal and acoustic properties.
Furthermore, it is a very suitable concept for LVAM because according to Fuchs et al.
(2008), the cost competitiveness for this approach is achieved at annual production
volumes of 30,000 or less. Then direct substitutions of glass-reinforced composites
for steel components for body-in-white are likely to reduce costs.
Grujicic et al. (2009), suggest that polymer–metal-hybrid (which is the
combination of two classes of materials into a singular component/sub-assembly)
should be fully utilized for automotive components such as Rear Cross Roof Beam as
in Fig 2.4. It works by placing a stamped part in an injection mould in order to coat
its underside with a thin layer of reinforced nylon. The benefits from this method
among others are reduction of the number of components, production of the integrated
components ready to assemble, and weight reduction compared to the allmetal parts.
Furthermore, the hollow core of the part allows functional integration such as cable
housings, air or water channels.

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 Fig.2.8: A rear cross-roof beam with the adjoining side brackets analyzed in the
present work: (a) the all-metal design and (b) the PMH rendition (Grujicic et al.,
2009)

In the recent study by Borsellino and Bella (2009), biomimetic cellular cores
of recycled paper is used to form sandwich materials for interior applications such as
door trim panels, headliners, package trays and trunk floors panels as in Fig 2.5.
However, this technique is only suitable for use in non-structural components because
of its failure during the impact test.

Fig.2.9: Automotive components (Borsellino and Bella, 2009

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2.3.2 Tooling and Process
In automotive manufacturing plant, there are four major shops that have
different functions in the manufacturing processes, namely; stamping shop, body
shop, paint shop, and trim and final shop. However, according to Joly and Frein
(2008), production process involves three shops: the body shop, the paint shop and the
assembly shop. This is because the stamping shop in the automotive environment is
separated from the main production line and has its own production line that produces
stamped parts. These parts will be transported to the body shop for assembly process
at the main line based on the scheduled date.
2.3.2.1 Stamping
In the stamping shop, stamping dies are required to produce 250-300 of the
automotive body-in-white parts (Sweeney and Grunewald, 2003). Stamping process
transforms flat sheets into a complex geometry parts including various forming,
cutting and bending techniques (Shivpuri and Zhang, 2009).
According to Nakagawa (2000), in general, metal forming is suitable for
high volume production, but not for low volume production. This is because each part
shape requires individual die to form the geometry resulting in high costs. However,
the press sheet forming is still a very practical method to produce a part even for small
lot production.

There are options for new forming process that are more cost effective such
as laser forming (Jeswiet et al., 2008), spray forming (Yang and Hannula, 2008),
incremental forming (Jeswiet et al., 2008), hydro-forming (Yuan et al., 2006), and roll
forming (Thuillier et al., 2008). Normally, a particular part requires different process
dies: draw die, trim die, pierce die and flanging die. LVAM manufacturer can take
advantage of these options by developing only the forming die to form the shape of
the part quickly and inexpensively (Nakagawa, 2000). This will avoid the fabrication
of dies for the following processes such as trimming and flanging. These processes
can be done manually as well as flexible automation of laser cutter (Qiu and Chen,
2007) and bending machine (Nakagawa, 2000). These flexible processes will give
options to the manufacturers to maximise their output and minimise the process (and
hence costs).

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 Tooling cost for LVAM is one of the major concerns among the automotive
producers. Cleveland (2005), suggested that soft tooling that is normally used to
produce prototype parts is designed so that the tooling can reliably produce parts in
the 15,000 to 20,000 range. Normally the soft tooling is made of soft casted material
compared to the high carbon steel for high volume tooling. Cleveland (2005) also
suggested another option which is to lean down the design of high volume tooling that
is targeted to run 750,000 parts and above so that it can run for several thousand parts
One way to reduce the cost is to reduce the number of parts through the combination
of different thickness of material known as tailor welded blanks (TWB) (Jeswiet et
al., 2008). This technique combines two or more sheet materials together by using
laser welding prior to the stamping process (Shi et al., 2007). The sheets of identical
or different materials of strengths, thicknesses or coating types represent different
parts that are combined to become a single part. According to Gaied et al. (2009), a
typical application of TWBs is the Door Inner as in Fig 2.6. The function of the inner
reinforcements is replaced by combining two blank pieces with different thicknesses
into a single Door Inner blank. Then, the combined part is transformed to become a
formed panel in stamping process. Qiu and Chen (2007), suggested that by adopting
TWB technique, 66% of the total number of body and chassis parts are reduced.
Hence, TWB can significantly reduce weight, process and cost besides create the
opportunity to maximise the consumption of material.

Laser forming technique is another solution for forming automotive body

parts. According to Jeswiet et al. (2008), a laser is used to assist in the forming
processes by directly heating the forming zone while the pressing rollers are used to
form the sheet. It works by placing the laser directly in front of the pressing rollers.
This technique is suitable for LVAM because it requires lower forming force
compared to the conventional die, it increases the flexibility and it also reduces the
tool wear.
Spray forming is another technique which is a rapid solidification process of
spray materials onto the ceramic mould. According to Yang and Hannula (2008), the
process starts by filling the metal in a tundish; the metal is then atomized by an inert
gas into droplets of 10– 200µm in size, spraying at subsonic speed onto a ceramic
mould as in Fig 2.7. In this technique, the thickness of the metal layer is controlled by
the duration of spray to ensure the uniformity of thickness on the mould. By applying

12
this concept for the dies inserts, the time and cost are significantly reduced due to the
rapid process of converting the molten alloy directly to a semi-finished product (Yang
and Hannula, 2008).

Fig.2.10: Door Inner based TWBs (a) developed blank and (b) formed sheet (Gaied et
al., 2009)

Fig.2.11: Spray forming process (Yang and Hannula, 2008)

Another way to form a body part is by using a Single-Point Incremental
Forming (SPIF) technique. According to Jeswiet et al. (2008), SPIF as illustrated in
Fig 2.8 uses a combination of blank holder and a semi-spherical head forming tool to
form a body part. According to Jackson and All wood (2009), this technique is
flexible because specialized tooling is not required in the forming process as the semi-
spherical head tool moves over the surface of the sheet according to the tool path
computer numerical control (CNC) planning data resulting in a highly localized
plastic deformation.

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 Fig.2.12: Single-point incremental sheet forming (Jeswiet et al., 2008)

The tool trajectory is generated from the CAD data of the part to be produced
which can include a basic geometry supporting die or not, depending on the
complexity of the shape (Cerro et al., 2006). Therefore, various 3D shapes can be
formed by moving the forming tool according to a programmed path. The main goal
of this technique is to avoid the need to manufacture specialized and expensive dies
(Lamminen et al., 2003). Due to a long processing time, the application of SPIF is
suitable for automotive body parts such as prototype, low volume production (Jeswiet
et al., 2008); small batch or customized production (Jackson and Allwood, 2009).
Liquid pressure is also being applied in metal forming industry, especially
for small lots production of complex forming shapes (Alberti and Fratini, 2004). This
technique, illustrated in Fig 2.9, usually known as hydroforming or hydro mechanical
forming processes which uses fluid counter pressure as female die. As the rigid punch
and the drawn cup enter into an enclosed liquid container, an opposing hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid is generated by pushing the drawn component against the punch
which finally transforms it into the desired shape. This not only produces the complex
shapes but can also be applied for tube hydroforming of hollow components with
variable closed-sections (Yuan et al., 2006). Hydroforming can reduce the number of
parts and weight as well as improving their stiffness. According to Nakagawa (2000),
liquid pressure technique is able to reduce processes which proved difficult in
conventional sheet forming methods. However, this technique is only applicable for
the first drawing process, the processes of trimming and bending are replaced by laser
trimming and bending press.

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 Fig.2.13: Hydraulic counter pressure deep drawing (Nakagawa, 2000)
Roll forming is another flexible process for forming a long body part that
requires constant cross sections, as illustrated in Fig 2.10. Sweeney and Grunewald
(2003) mentioned that “roll forming is a continuous bending operation in which flat
sheet metal (from coils or pre-cut blanks) is plastically deformed along a linear axis.
Tandem sets of rolls shape the metal stock in a series of progressive stages until the
desired cross-section is obtained”. Roll forming is a continuous manufacturing
process for a long part passing through the tooling and cut into different lengths
without changing the tool set-up. It is also possible to change the geometry of the
parts by simply changing the dies on the machine which makes this technique cheaper
compared to stamping and hydroforming (Sweeney and Grunewald, 2003). The
typical applications of roll forming are bumpers, door beams, frame rails and roof
bows.

Fig.2.14: Roller forming (Sweeney and Grunewald, 2003)

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2.3.2.2 Body Assembly
Body assembly is the second process in the automotive production which
combines individual parts or components to become a complete body in white. It is a
complex architectural system which requires synchronization and interaction of many
components (Mondragon et al., 2009). According to Miguel (2006), modularity is an
approach for building a complex product or process by combining smaller subsystems
that can be designed independently and then assembled together to become a
complete system. This modularity can be applied both in design and in production.
Modularity in design means the design boundaries of a product and its components;
whereas modularity in productions is related to plant design boundaries to cater for
manufacturing and assembly requirements such as product variety, production flow
and quality (Miguel, 2006).

The modularity concept is applied in designs of seats, cockpits, or external

structures such as bumpers (Howard et al., 2006). The cockpit module design for
GM Celta program for instance was joint developed by VDO and GM by sharing
costs and knowledge with regard to the concept design, prototyping, product
specification, and tooling development (Miguel, 2006). The Front End Module (FEM)
is also one of the body assembly concepts for reducing parts assembly as well as
weight. According to Kim (2007), FEM is an assembly which is made up of the
bumper beam, the head lamp, the radiator, the carrier and so on as a component
module. Then, the module is connected to the front side member and the fender of the
particular car. Goede et al. (2008) proved that by using the FEM, 12 steel components
are combined into a single component which significantly reduces assembly
operation, weight and cost. Among automotive manufacturers, Volkswagen (VW) and
Mercedes–Benz/Smart also use the modularity concepts in their Resende plant in
Brazil and Hambach in France, respectively (Doran and Hill, 2009).
An additional way to produce a low volume car or niche model is by re-
using the existing parts and platform, thereby reducing product development time as
well as the engineering and production costs. According to Hat (2009), due to
advances in Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Flexible Manufacturing Systems
(FMS), these carry-over parts are covered with different body styles or top hats. This
approach assists the car makers to concentrate on the design of the overall car body
styling. However, designers always need to keep all the fixing points, gaps and

16
dimensions of the existing parts or platform in the new design so that they will fit
perfectly to the existing panels and platform.
Daimler Chrysler for instance, is using this approach of assembly line
sharing. They are converting their assembly lines from the traditional approach of
dedicated line to a more flexible assembly line (Bogue, 2008). The Company‟s FMS
allows the programming of their robots to weld and assemble a range of different
models and variants at the same location. The shift in the strategy will also balance
production against demand and to accommodate building lower volume vehicles that
take advantage of market niches. Bogue added that due to automotive business trends
perspective, today production runs are more commonly in the 70,000-100,000 unit
range.

Lotus engineering (in UK) for instance, use the method of Versatile Vehicle
Architecture which is to share the same platform with other automakers with the aim
of having high commonality and reduced investment (Kermit, 2004). According to
Sawyer (2008), in spite of LVAM being normally run on its platform, the niche model
can also use the same platform for HVAM. He added that, with minor modification to
the platform, Toyota's Scion offers the best example of this approach. However, to
implement this method, the existing production line of HVAM must have balanced
capacity in order for this niche model to be integrated into the main production
schedule.
In the body assembly process, individual panels and components are joined
and assembled through a variety of processes, such as welding, riveting, and bonding
(Chen et al., 2006). LVAM has the opportunity to use different joining techniques
such as a structural adhesive which is suitable for aluminium and composite materials.
Because of the lightweight materials, it also reduces the vehicle weight (Jeff, 1999).
This joining technique has been used by Lotus since 1996 and has proved to be
successful because over 23,000 cars have been built using adhesives with no reported
failures (Kermit and Christopher, 2004). This technique eliminates the traditional use
of welding guns or robot which will reduce the investment cost of these heavy
machines as well as working space required. The continuous bond along the joints
gives improved joint stiffness compared to mechanical fasteners or spot welds. The
benefits of adhesive bonding have been now proven in many concept cars and low
volume niche products such as Jaguar's XJ220, Ford's AIV, Rover's ECV3, the Lotus

17
Elise, and Honda's NSX (Barnes and Pashby, 2000).
Besides adhesive, self-piercing rivets and clinch joints are two types of
fasteners that have been identified as potential for use in automotive parts (Barnes and
Pashby, 2000). Self- piercing rivets work by piercing the upper sheet of material and
then expanding in the lower sheet without piercing it to form a mechanical interlock,
as illustrated in Fig 2.11. According to Barnes and Pashby (2000), this single
operation requires large setting forces (typically 40 KN) and a C-frame structure in
order to hold the forces as well as allowing access to both sides of the joint.

Fig.2.15: Self piercing rivet process (Barnes and Pashby, 2000)

The clinching process, on the other hand uses a punch instead of rivet to
deform the material being joined to form a mechanical interlock. As shown in Fig
2.12, a joint in the clinching process interlocks the sheets to form a sealable joint
against moisture. Barnes and Pashby (2000) added that clinching process has been
tested at Volvo, whereas self-piercing rivet has been applied at Audi and Lotus. Lotus
applies self-piercing rivets as the secondary protection against peel in its adhesive
bonding extrusion structures.

Fig.2.16: Clinching process (Barnes and Pashby, 2000)

Closure parts are always referred to as automotive body-in-white opening
parts, such as doors, deck lids and hoods (Thuillier et al., 2008). These parts are the
assembly of the outer skin and an inner reinforcing part by a hemming process. It is a
process which avoids the use of traditional assembly such as welding in order to
maintain the outer surface quality. In a normal table-top hemming of HVAM, the

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whole edge of outer skin is hemmed at the same time, as in Fig 2.13. An alternative to
tabletop hemming, LVAM uses the roll hemming process. In this process, a roller is
guided by a robot along the hemming edge, bending the flanged height along the line
until a complete join is finished. According to Thuillier et al. (2008), this roller
hemming process is suitable for LVAM due to low cost, versatile tooling from
prototype to production and reduction tooling development time.

Table-top hemming Roll hemming

Fig.2.17: Schematic view of hemming tools (Thuillier et al., 2008)

2.3.2.3 Quality
It becomes a difficult task for automotive manufacturers to meet not only the
must-be- quality but also to reach the level of attractive quality (Hassan et al., 2000).
Kim (2007) suggested that the automotive manufacturers should consider
good/attractive product appearance, high surface quality as well as superior
performances in durability, NVH characteristics and crashworthiness. Therefore, it is
very important to consider all aspects related to the product thoroughly during the
development stage and it is obvious that quality conformance is very important in the
automotive competitive environment (Park et al., 2001).
According to Johnson and Khan (2003), “Process Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis (PFMEA) technique evaluates the potential failure of a product or process
and its effects, identifies what actions could be taken to eliminate or minimise the
failure from occurring and documents the whole procedure”. This technique is applied
from the initial planning stages of designing and continues throughout the end of its
life. This technique continuously improves products, processes, reliability; reduce
warranty and finally increasing customer satisfaction. PFMEA supports the practice
and philosophy of problem prevention and continuous improvement, which are key
elements of Total Quality Management (TQM) (Liu et al., 2011).

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 Another key element in manufacturing is Quality Function Deployment
(QFD). QFD is a well-structured, cross-functional planning technique that is used to
hear the customer’s ‟voice throughout the marketing analysis, product planning,
design, engineering and manufacturing and supply processes (Bhattacharya et al.,
2010). A complete QFD involves the House of Quality (HOQ) construction
diagram, which helps company views the relationship between the requirements of the
customer and the design characteristics of the new or improved product. It is also
considered as crucial for the TQM implementation programme because the function
of HOQ is to identify what are the customer requirements and then to relate to
measurable and prioritised engineering targets (Jia and Bai, 2011).
According to Flynn et al. (1994), a quality product design involves
concurrent engineering, reliability engineering and design for manufacturability.
Concurrent engineering establishes relationships among representatives from
manufacturing, purchasing, quality assurance and suppliers that meet and discuss the
details with the designers. It helps to achieve the ultimate quality goal by having all
the inputs from all related parties. Reliability engineering involves designing process
from the basic components that anticipates the failure probabilities of each individual
system and subsystem. Finally, design for manufacturability concentrates on the
design of parts which are simple to fabricate and assemble. The main considerations
are the use of modular designs, flexible materials, flexible tools and ease of assembly
process.
Hence, these three components are very essential in an LVAM environment.
The LVAM environment involves automotive manufacturing in slow speed
production. Most of the tools used are special purpose tools and also involve a lot of
manual processes. Therefore high process variations among the products are expected
in this kind of production. Sources of variations are from the single component,
locating sources and assemble components (Cai, 2008). Cai (2008) suggested that in
automotive assembly, such as in Fig 2.14, a typical tolerance model requires input
data from all single components geometry and tolerance information as well as the
assembly specifications such as locating, clamping and assembly sequence.
From these data, the final dimensional output for the assembly such as gaps
and flushness can be produced so that the final product is within the controlled
tolerance. According to Yu and Xi (2009), variations in production need to be

20
monitored and analyzed. They suggested that Statistical Process Control (SPC) is one
of the most effective tools of TQM in monitoring and minimizing process variations.
Control charts are the most widely applied SPC tools for revealing and controlling the
abnormalities in the monitored measurements.

Fig 2.18: Schematic of a body side assembly (Cai, 2008)

Quality assurance and reliability assurance are very important for both
HVAM and LVAM environment. González-Benito and Dale (2001) defined quality
assurance as practices aimed at reducing defects and improving performance features
of products; whereas reliability assurance aimed at minimising suppliers' failure in
production and delivery. Therefore, automotive manufacturers should focus on both
product quality assurance and supplier reliability assurance in order to capture the
automotive market.

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 CHAPTER-3
DESIGN OF VEHICLE

Overall dimensions:
Overall Length :
Overall Width :
Overall Height :
Wheel Base :
3.1. Front View of Vehicle

Fig 3.1.front view of vehicle

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3.2. Side View Of Vehicle

Fig.3.2.Side view of vehicle

23
3.3. Top View Of Vehicle

Fig.3.3.Top view of vehicle

24
3.4. Back View Of Vehicle

Fig.3.4.Back view of vehicle

25
 CHAPTER-4
MANUFACTURING AND WORKING OF VEHICLE
4.1. Material used:
The frame of vehicle is made up of AISI 1018 mild steel. It has an excellent
weldability and produces a uniform and harder case and it is considered as the best
steel for carburized parts. AISI 1018 mild steel offers a good balance of toughness,
strength and ductility.

Chemical Composition:
ELEMENT CONTENT
Carbon (C) 0.14 – 0.20%
Iron (I) 98.81 – 99.26%
Manganese (Mn) 0.60 – 0.90% Phosphorus (P) < = 0.040%
Sulfur (S) < = 0.050%
4.1.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Density : 7.87g/cc
4.1.2. Mechanical properties:
Hardness, Brinell : 126
Hardness, Rockwell : 71
Tensile strength, Ultimate : 440Mpa

Tensile strength, Yield : 370Mpa

Elongation at break (in 50mm) : 15%

Reduction of area : 40%

Modulus of Elasticity : 20Gpa

Bulk Modulus : 140Gpa

Poisson’s Ratio : 0.290

Machinability : 70%

Shear Modulus : 80Gpa

26
 4.1.3. Machining
The machinability of AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is graded at 78% of
B1112.
4.1.4. Weldability
AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel can be instantly welded by all the
conventional welding processes. Welding is not recommended for AISI 1018
mild/low carbon steel when it is carbonitrided and carburized.
Low carbon welding electrodes are to be used in the welding procedure, and
post- heating and pre-heating are not necessary. Pre-heating can be performed for
sections over 50 mm. Post-weld stress relieving also has its own beneficial aspects
like the pre-heating process.
4.1.5. Heat Treatment
The heat treatment for AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel consists of the
following processes:

4.1.6. Normalizing
AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel should be heated at 890°C – 940°C and then
cooled in still air.
4.1.7. Forging
 This process requires heating between 1150°C – 1280°C and AISI 1018
mild/low carbon steel is held until the temperature becomes constant.
 900°C is the minimum temperature required for the forging process.
 The steel is then cooled in air after this process.
4.1.8. Tempering
 AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is tempered at between 150°C – 200°C for
improvement of case toughness. This process has little or no effect on
hardness.
 The occurrence of grinding cracks is reduced when AISI 1018 mild/low
carbon steel is tempered at the above mentioned temperature.
4.1.9. Annealing
The AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is heated at 870°C – 910°C and
allowed to cool in a furnace

27
4.1.10. Stress Relieving
500°C – 700°C is required to relieve stress in AISI 1018 mild/low carbon
steel that is later cooled down in still air.
4.1.11. Case Hardening
This process requires heating to be carried out between 780°C – 820°C.
AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is then quenched in water.

4.1.12. Core Refining

 This is an optional process that requires heating at 880°C – 920°C.
 AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel after being heated is moistened in oil or
water.
4.1.13. Carburizing
Carburizing takes place at 880°C – 920°C.
4.1.14. Applications of AISI 1018 Mild/Low Carbon Steel
 It is used in bending, crimping and swaging processes.
 Carburized parts that include worms, gears, pins, dowels, non-critical components
of tool and die sets, tool holders, pinions, machine parts, ratchets, dowels and
chain pins use AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel.

 It is widely used for fixtures, mounting plates and spacers.

 It is suitably used in applications that do not need high strength of alloy
steels and high carbon.
 It provides high surface hardness and a soft core to parts that include worms,
dogs, pins, liners, machinery parts, special bolts, ratchets, chain pins, oil tool
slips, tie rods, anchor pins, studs etc.
 It is used to improve drilling, machining, threading and punching processes.
 It is used to prevent cracking in severe bends.

4.2 Product Subsystems and Components

Our system basically consists of two systems, electric and solar system.
Solar cars carry photovoltaic cells in order to convert sunlight into energy.
Photovoltaic cells are basically the components in solar panels that have a certain
purpose which is to convert the sun's energy to electricity. They're made up of
semiconductors; those can be usually made of silicon that absorbs the sunlight. The

28
sun’s energy dissipates and frees electrons in the semiconductors, creating what’s
called a flow of electrons. This flow of electrons generates electricity that charges the
battery and the motor in solar cars. Solar cars have some key benefits. Their solar
panels work silently and giving no noise, so they don’t add to the noise pollution
already on the road. Solar panels don’t create greenhouse gases, as internal
combustion engines do. Most importantly, solar energy is widely available, free, and
grants the solar car driver complete independence from gasoline or diesel oil. Electric
cars are powered by an electric motor (usually DC motors) instead of a gasoline or
diesel engine. The electric car’s motor gets energy from a motor controller, which has
a purpose of regulating the amount of power that should be delivered based on the
driver’s use of an accelerator throttle. The electric car (also known as electric vehicle
or EV) uses energy that is stored in its rechargeable batteries. Our project combines
those two systems in one. Fig 3.2 illustrates the two systems arranged together.

Fig 4.1: Arrangement of both Solar and Electric Systems

Each system in our car consists of a number of main parts. The solar system
consists of the Solar panel, Solar Tracker (Solar Charger Controller) and a Battery.
The electric system consists of the DC Motor, Motor Controller Assemblage, and
Batteries. In order to convert the electrical power to mechanical power we need to
implement a Chain-Sprocket mechanism in our car.
4.2.1 Solar System
 Solar Panels

We are using an OREX Model: AR-M100 W robust solar module with 40

solar cells. These modules can be used for off-grid solar applications. Those solar
panels are ensured for a high- yield, long-term performance for every module

29
produced. This solar panel has the following features:
 Increased system reliability and secured investment

 Robust frame to hold 5400 Pa load

 Salt Mist, ammonia and blowing sand resistance, apply to seaside, farm
and desert environment

Fig 4.2: Mounting of Solar Panel on the Car

Specifications:

Table 4.1: Electrical Specifications for Solar Panel

Nominal maximum power 100W

Optimum operating Voltage 19.6V

Optimum Operating Current (Imp) 5.11A

Open Circuit Voltage (V) 24.8V

Short Circuit Current (A) 5.56A

Operating Temperature -40oC~+85oC

Maximum System Voltage 1000V (IEC)/600V (UL)

Maximum Series Fuse Rating 10A

Power Tolerance ±5W

30
Table 4.2: Mechanical Specifications for Solar Panel

Cell Type Mono crystalline

Cell Arrangement 40 (4×10)

Dimensions 52 x 28 cm

Weights 10 (kg)

Front Cover Tempered glass

Frame material Anodized aluminum alloy

Standard Packaging (Modules/Carton) 2pcs

90% Power Output 20 years Warranty

80% Power Output 30 years Warranty

Solar Charger Controller

We will be using a 30A LCD solar charger controller. The controller has
battery equalization which restores battery capacity, revives efficiency and extends
battery life. The digital display shows charging stage, voltage, current and battery
Amp Hours. A single 30A controller can manage up to 100 Watts of total solar power.
4.2.2 Electric System
DC Series Motor

Our Motor is shown in Fig 4.3. It is a brushless electric DC motor that has
the following specifications:

Fig 4.3: Brushless Electric DC motor

31
  Nominal power rate: 3 kW

 Rated Speed: 2800 RPM

 Operating voltage: 48V

 Flange option: a square flange (as shown in the photos) can be provided
for easy installation
 Speed sensor mating connector is included and the Insulation is classified:
class H

 Dimensions (L×Ø): 272 (Max.) × 174 mm

 Weight: 21.4 kg

 Package environmental rating: IP2

CURTIS DC Series Motor Controller Assemblage

CURTIS 1204M programmable series motor controllers are designed to

provide smooth, silent, cost-effective control of motor speed and torque. This 1204M-
5203 controller assemblage is a completed electric vehicle DC Series Motor control
system. The assemblage includes:
 Controller
 Main contactor
 Forward / reverse contactor
 Fuses
 Wiring
 Heat-sink aluminum alloy installation plate
 Foot pedal accelerator (throttle)
 Plug-in connectors
 Installation (bolts, washes and nuts) kit Included

CURTIS 1204M controllers are the ideal solution for a variety of electric
vehicle applications, including industrial trucks, personnel carriers, material handing
vehicles, golf cars, etc. The specifications of the DC Series Motor Controller
Assemblage are listed below:
 full controlling set for 36V or 48V DC Series Motor
 proposed motor power rate: 2.3 – 3.6 kW
 simple motor connecting labels on assemblage

32
  easy installation with components mounted on a heat-sink aluminum alloy
installation plate
 foot pedal accelerator (throttle), pre-wired for assemblage
 simple plug-in connectors
 Easy to install
 reinforced carton package, safe for international delivery

Fig 4.4: CURTIS DC Series Motor Controller Assemblage

Batteries

In our project, we decided to go with Power Boss 12V 80AH Lead-

Acid Batteries, see
Fig 4.5. They are reliable and relatively come with a low cost. They
are known for delivering higher flow of currents and lower internal impedance.
Lead-Acid Batteries are not as highly reactive as Lithium Batteries, ad require an
easier circuit connection to be charged by Solar Panels. Lead-Acid batteries use a
chemical reaction to do work on charge and produce a voltage between their output
terminals. We will be using four Lead-Acid batteries with a voltage of 12 V each and
AH (Ampere Hour) of 80 AH. The batteries will be connected in series to deliver
more voltage and thus more power. Fig 4.6shows the four batteries connected in

33
series, giving us a power pack of 48 V. We use 4 batteries (12V each) in series to
obtain 48V, which is the required voltage to run our DC Motor

Fig 4.5: Power Boss 12V 80AH Lead-Acid Battery

Fig 4.6: four batteries of 12 V connected in series

4.2. Steering system:

Fig.4.7.Rack and pinion steering mechanism

34
Steering type: Rack and Pinion Minimum turning radius: 4.42m (14.5ft)
Rack and Pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of
steering on cars. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack and pinion gear set
is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack producing from the tube. A rod,
called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.
The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn, the steering
wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to
the steering arm on the spindle.

Mainly two gear are used in this steering system they are Pinion and
Rack gears
Pinion Gear: The gear which is connected to the extreme of the steering column
(steering column is the rod which is connected to the steering wheel and gets rotate as
the driver rotates the steering wheel).

Rack Gear: The horizontal gear on the horizontal strut connected with the steering
arms on both the wheels. The rack gear is mesh with pinion gear.
When driver rotates the steering wheel, the steering column gets rotate
which in turn moves the rack in horizontal direction. The rack pushes the steering
arms which turns the tire.
Now, the rack length is the actual horizontal length of rack gears or we can
say it is the end to end distance of rack gears.
Steering ratio is the ratio of the rotation of the wheels to the rotation of
steering wheel.
The steering system allows the operator to guide the vehicle along the road
and turn left or right as desired. The system includes the steering wheel, which the
operator controls, the steering mechanism, which changes the rotary motion of the
steering wheel into straight- line motion, and the steering linkage. At first most
systems were manual then power steering became popular. It is now installed in most
vehicles manufactured today. The steering system must perform several important
functions:
 Provide precise control of front-wheel direction.

 Maintain the correct amount of effort needed to turn the front wheels.

35
  Transmit road feel (slight steering wheel pull caused by road surface) to the
operator’s hands.
 Absorb most of the shock going to the steering wheel as the tires hit bumps
and holes in the road.
 Allow for suspension action.

4.2.1 Control Arms

A control arm is a bar that has a pivot at both ends. Your car has several,
including the upper control arm and the lower control arm, which are arranged to
form the letter A Control arms are part of the suspension system. They attach
suspension members to the chassis and manage the motion of the wheels so that it
synchronizes with that of the body of the car.

Like other body parts, the control arms should also be lubricated at every oil
inspection. Handling and steering could become erratic if the control arms are
malfunctioning and the unsteady movements of your car could take away your riding
comfort.

Fig.4.8.Control arms
4.2.2. STRUTRODS:
The primary functions of the strut rod are to limit fore/aft movement of the
lower control arm and to provide a means of fine tuning the amount of caster in the
alignment.

36
 Fig.4.9.Strut rods

4.2.3. Ball Joints:

The ball joints are connections that allow limited rotation in every direction
and support the weight of the vehicle. They are used at the outer ends of the control
arms where the arms attach to the steering knuckle. In operation, the swiveling action
of the ball joints allows the wheel and steering knuckle to be turned left or right and to
move up and down with changes in road surface. Since the ball joint must be filled
with grease, a grease fitting and grease seal are normally placed on the joint. The end
of the stud on the ball joint is threaded for a large nut. When the nut is tightened, It
force fits the tapered stud in the steering knuckler bearing support.

Fig.4.10. Ball joints

4.2.4. Steering Linkage:
Steering linkage is a series of arms, rods, and ball sockets that connect the
steering mechanism to the steering knuckles. The steering linkage used with most
manual and power steering mechanisms typically includes a pitman arm, center link,
idler arm, and two tie-rod assemblies. This configuration of linkage is known as
parallelogram steering linkage and is used on many passenger vehicles.

37
4.2.5. Pitman Arm:
The pitman arm transfers steering mechanism motion to the steering linkage.
The pitman arm is splined to the steering mechanism’s output shaft (pitman arm
shaft).A large nut and lock washer secure the pitman arm to the output shaft. The
outer end of the pitman arm normally uses a ball -and-socket joint to connect to the
center link.
4.2.6. Center Link:
The parallelogram steering linkage uses a center link, otherwise known as an
intermediate rod, track rod, or relay rod, which is simply a steel bar that connects the
steering arms (pitman arm, tie-rod ends, and idler arm) together. The turning action of
the steering mechanism is transmitted to the center link through the pitman arm.
4.2.7. Idler Arm:
The center link is hinged on the opposite end of the pitman arm by means of
an idler arm. The idler arm supports the free end of the center link and allows it to
move left and right with ease. The idler arm bolts to the frame or sub frame.
4.2.8. Ball Sockets:
Ball sockets are like small ball joints, they provide for motion in all
directions between two connected components .Ball sockets are needed so the steering
linkage is not damaged or bent when the wheels turn or move up and down over
rough roads. Ball sockets are filled with grease to reduce friction and wear. Some
have a grease fitting that allows chassis grease to be inserted with a grease gun.
Others are sealed by the manufacturer and cannot be serviced.
4.2.9. Draglink:

Fig.4.11.Drag link

The drag link connects the pitman arm to the steering arm, or in some
applications it connects to the tie rod assembly. Unlike a center link, the drag link
does not connect to an idler arm, and has no inner tie rod ends attached to it. On some

38
applications the drag link swings from the front to the rear of the vehicle. On these
applications the drag link connects to the steering arm located at the wheel. In some
Jeep applications, the drag link will swing from right to left on the vehicle and will
connect to the steering arm at the wheel. Drag links can be a solid one-piece design or
an adjustable design. Many drag links have replaceable or rebuild able ends.

4.2.10. Wheels:

Fig.4.12.wheels of a car

Wheels must have enough strength to carry the weight of the vehicle and
withstand a wide range of speed and road conditions. Automobiles and light trucks are
equipped with a single piece wheel. Larger vehicles have a lock ring (side ring) that
allows for the easy removal of the tire from the wheel and, when in place, it provides
a seat for one side of the inflated tire.
A standard wheel consists of the RIM (outer lip that contacts the bead) and
the SPIDER (center section that bolts to the vehicle hub).Normally the spider is
welded to the rim. Common wheel designs are as follows.
 Drop center
 Semi drop center
 Safety
 Split

39
4.3. Bushing:

Fig.4.13. Bushes

A bushing or rubber bushing is a type of vibration isolator. It provides an

interface between two parts, damping the energy transmitted through the bushing. A
common application is in vehicle suspension systems, where a bushing made of
rubber (or, more often, synthetic rubber or polyurethane) separates the faces of two
metal objects while allowing a certain amount of movement. This movement allows
the suspension parts to move freely, for example, when traveling over a large bump,
while minimizing transmission of noise and small vibrations through to the chassis of
the vehicle. A rubber bushing may also be described as a flexible mounting or anti-
vibration mounting.
These bushings often take the form of an annular cylinder of flexible
material inside a metallic casing or outer tube. They might also feature an internal
crush tube which protects the bushing from being crushed by the fixings which hold it
onto a threaded spigot. Many different types of bushing designs exist. An important
difference compared with plain bearings is that the relative motion between the two
connected parts is accommodated by strain in the rubber, rather than by shear or
friction at the interface. Some rubber bushings, such as the D block for a sway bar, do
allow sliding at the interface between one part and the rubber.

4.4. Braking system:

BRAKES:
Front Brakes : Disk, Drum
Rear Brakes : Drum
Brake Mechanism : Disk

40
 Fig.4.14.Typical automotive braking system
The hydraulic brake system uses brake fluid to transfer pressure from the
brake pedal to the pads or shoe. By exercising the pedal, brake fluid transfers this
pressure to the brake pads. This transfer of pressure is reliable and consistent because
liquids are not compressible, i.e. pressure applied to liquid in a closed system is
transmitted by the liquid equally to every other part of system.
A hydraulic brake system apart from liquid pipes mainly consists of Brake
pedal, Master cylinder, wheel cylinder and brake shoe connected at the wheel. The
function of the Master cylinder is to distribute pressure to lines leading to front or rear
wheels as required. At the wheel cylinder, a small piston is provided which is
operated due to pressure application through brake fluid. The operation of the piston
is converted to movement of brake liners.
In brief, When a driver applies pressure at the brake pedal, the mechanical
force is changed to hydraulic pressure which is transmitted through liquid to
respective wheel cylinder and changed back to mechanical force.
4.4.1. Drum brakes:
A drum brake assembly consists of a cast iron drum which is bolted to and
rotates with the vehicle’s wheel, and a fixed backing plate to which the shoes, wheel
cylinder, automatic adjusters and linkages are attached.

41
 Fig.4.15. Drum braking system

The shoes are surfaced with friction linings, which contact the inside of
drum when brakes are applied. The shoes are forced outward by piston located inside
the wheel cylinder. As drum rubs against shoes, the energy of the moving drum is
transformed to heat. This heat energy is passed into the atmosphere, hydraulic
pressure drops and the shoes are pulled back to their unapplied position by return
springs.

4.5. Transmission system:

Fig.4.16.Transmission system
Gear system:
Gear Box : 1forward, 1reverse
Gear Ratio : Forward 1.12:1
Reverse 5.94:1

42
 Transmission system in a car helps to transmit mechanical power from the
car engine to give kinetic energy to the wheels. It is an interconnected system of
gears, shafts, and other electrical gadgets that form a bridge to transfer power and
energy from the engine to the wheels. The complete set up of the system helps to
maintain the cruising speed of the car without any disturbance to the car’s
performance. The oldest variant of the transmission system in India is the manual
transmission that has undergone various modifications and alterations to form the
present day automatic transmission.

A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions from a

rotating power source to another device using gear ratios. The transmission reduces
the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. A
transmission will have multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the ability to
switch between them as speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the
operator), or automatically. Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be
provided.
In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will generally be connected
to the crankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via
driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn drive the wheels.
Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed
of a prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the output
shaft of a gearbox will rotate at slower rate than the input shaft, and this reduction in
speed will produce a mechanical advantage, causing an increase in torque.
4.6. Suspension system:
Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and
linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the
two. Suspension systems must support both road holding/handling and ride quality,
which are at odds with each other. The tuning of suspensions involves finding the
right compromise. It is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact
with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or ground forces acting
on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tires. The suspension also
protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The
design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different

43
SUSPENSION:
Front suspension : Macpherson struts and coil spring
Rear Suspension : Mono leaf spring and Dampers

4.6.1. Macpherson Strut:

Fig.4.17.Macpherson strut suspension

A coil spring is made of resilient steel rod. It extends as the wheel moves
down and compresses as the wheel moves up, so the car body remains reasonably
level.
Springs deflect as the car goes ever a bump, then bounce back. The car
would continue to bounce up and down if the energy stored in the springs were not
dissipated in some way.
4.7.2. Leaf spring:

Fig.4.18.Leaf spring suspension

A leaf spring is fixed to the axle by U-bolts that clamp the center of the stack
of steel strips. As the spring deflects, its leaves flatten, make greater contact with one
44
another and stiffen the spring. As the leave flattens, it lengthens so one end has a
pivoted shackle.
The oldest type is the leaf spring. The topmost and longest strip, the master
leaf, is curled at each end into an eye by which it is connected to the frame. The
leaves below are progressively shorter and less curved.

4.7.3. Dampers:

Fig.4.19.Dampers suspension
Dampers have an extra chambers containing gas, to slow the piston
movement even more. A damper has a piston which moves inside a sealed, oil filled
cylinder with the up and down movement of the wheel.
There are narrow passages and one way valves in the piston, which allow oil
to flow through it from one chamber to another but only very slowly. This action
slows down the spring oscillations and returns the car to a level ride.
The shock absorber controls the unwanted spring motion though dampening.
Shock absorbers turn the kinetic energy of the vibratory motions into heat energy that
is dissipated through hydraulic fluid. When a car hits a bump, causing the spring to
coil and uncoil, the energy is transferred to the shock absorber through the upper
mount and down through the Piston rod into the piston. Tiny orifices perforate the
piston and allow a small amount of fluid, when under great pressure, to pass through.
This slows down the piston and also the spring.

45
4.7. Rims of a car:

Fig.4.20. Rims of a car

Tire rims hold the rubber tire in place so that the vehicle can function. With
so many sizes and styles available, you may wonder what the difference is, how rims
work, and if the differences matter.
Rims are also known as wheels and are necessary for all automobiles, from
passenger cars to commercial vehicles. Wheels provide two uses: they reduce friction
and they provide leverage.
The rim is an important part of the wheel because it rotates around rods that
are called axles. Some friction is necessary to turn the wheels, and that is provided by
the tire contacting the pavement. This helps the vehicle move along. The rim
magnifies the amount of force applied, which provides the leverage. The amount of
leverage depends on how large the wheel or rim is. This impacts performance for your
vehicle.
4.7.1. Why Rims Matter:
Many people focus on rims because of their aesthetic appearance. Change
out the style or size of rims and you can create a new look. Bigger rims may make a
vehicle appear more muscular or sportier while smaller rims create a low profile look.
Rims do more than just make your vehicle look good. A good set of car rims
enhance your vehicle’s performance and provide a smoother ride. Changing the size
of the rims on your vehicle impacts the alignment, handling, braking, and acceleration
as well as the calibration of the speedometer.

46
Considerations before installing an aftermarket rims:
 Make sure it fits in the wheel-well
 Consider the correct backspacing, which is the width of the wheel and the
location of the mounting plate
 Ensure it matches the vehicle’s bolt pattern
 Determine if there is an adequate selection of tires to fit
 Make sure the wheels don’t rub anything on the vehicle
Working with professionals to choose new rims helps ensure that you select a
design that is suitable for your vehicle.

4.7.2. Components of the Rim

Outboard face – this is the part of the rim that you see on your vehicle, while people
often select it for the design, it also provides the structure for the rim.
Centre bore – the empty hole in the middle of the rim that is often covered by a cap
when the rim is on the car.
Plate – the section around the centre bore that contains the bolt holes for the lugs. It
connects to the axle seat and the rotor while everything else on the wheel connects to
the plate.
Spokes – the long, thin structures that connect from the plate to the edge of the rim.
They come in four-spoke, five-spoke and other patterns. They also provide part of the
design element of the wheel.
Dish – the part of the wheel that connects to the spokes, the exterior of the wheel
Bolt circle – the circle that is created by the centers of the bolts
Valve stem – provides a hole to fill the tire with air, may be made of rubber or metal
4.7.3. Important Measurements of the Rim:
When fitting a rim to a vehicle, there are two important measurements to
consider. The first is the centre bore, which is the hole in the middle of the rim. This
fits the axle that is attached to the hub of the vehicle. It holds the wheel in place and is
measured in millimeters.
The second measurement is a combination of the bolt pattern and the bore
circle diameter. The bolt pattern is how many holes are in the rims that bolts or lugs
attach to. Four- and five-lug patterns are common in most vehicles.
The bore circle diameter is the diameter of the circle measured in
millimetres or in inches. For four-lug rims, you measure the two opposing holes. With

47
the five-lug rims, you look for the two holes that are directly opposite from each
other.

4.7.4. Rims making material:

Car rims can be designed from a variety of materials. The choice not only
affects the look of the rims but the performance through its strength, weight and
durability.
Steel rims – these rims are often the most affordable and may come with hubcaps
Aluminium alloy rims – one of the most popular choices to bridge the importance of
affordability and durability, also very stylish
Carbon fiber rims – newer than other materials, offers lightweight design while
providing durability
Wheels made of aluminium alloy may feature several different finishes,
including polished, painted, machined and chromed. Each finish has a unique look
and requires specific maintenance to keep it looking good.

4.7.5. Construction of Aluminium Wheels:

When choosing aluminium wheels for your vehicle, you also must decide
what kind of construction you want. Forged aluminium is the most durable method
because it takes a solid piece of aluminium and puts a massive amount of pressure and
heat against it to crush it into shape. The resulting rim is lightweight and strong.
Low pressure casting forces the molten aluminium into the mould to pack it
tightly and increase its strength. Counter pressure casting uses the opposite idea with a
vacuum that sucks the metal into the mould. The process is different, but the results
are the same as with low pressure casting.
Gravity casting is the simplest process and involves pouring the metal into a
mould. More metal must be used to provide the necessary strength and creates a
heavier rim.
Flow forming is another process where the aluminium is stretched using
high-pressure rollers and heat. Many older racing wheels used this process.

4.7.6. Problems with Rims:

The rim must fit the vehicle and the other entire component that make up the
performance of the automobile. If the rim doesn’t fit the vehicle, it can lessen
performance and stability, causing a higher risk of a collision.

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 Another issue is that the rim must be durable enough for the type of driving
you do. Lightweight rims are more susceptible to dents and cracks. A truck that hauls
heavy equipment or an SUV that goes off-roading will need different rims than a
passenger car that travels in the city or on the highway.
4.8. Foot controls

Fig.4.21.Foot controls
On the floor are 2 pedals. On the right is the accelerator pedal and on the left
is the brake pedal. From right to left it's easy to remember by A
(Accelerator) & B (Brake)

Accelerator

This pedal is operated with the right foot and controls the flow of petrol into
the engine. The harder you push the pedal the more petrol is pumped into the engine
making the car go faster.

When you ease off the gas pedal the engine runs slower making the car slow
down. This pedal is very sensitive and only slight pressure is required to get a result.

Brake

This is also operated with your right foot as there is no need to speed the car
up whilst simultaneously slowing the car down. By applying pressure to the brake
pedal, it in turn uses carbon pads that apply pressure to metal discs attached to the car
wheels. Friction is used to slow the car. The harder you push the pedal the more
pressure is applied to the brake pads and discs, slowing the car down faster.
Progressive braking needs to be used. Think of a bicycle.
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4.9 Arc Welding

Fig.4.22. Arc welding

Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using
electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result
in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to
create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at
the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and
consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected
by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual,
semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th
century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the
Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel
structures and vehicles.
4.9.1 Consumable electrode methods
One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick
welding. An electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and a
consumable electrode rod or stick. The electrode rod is made of a material that is
compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that gives
off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of which
50
protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts
as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile,
requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are
rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because
slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the
process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes
have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminium, copper and other
metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications
including repair work and construction.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-
gas), is a semi-automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed
consumable wire acting as both electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-
inert shielding gas flowed around the wire to protect the weld site from
contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used
with GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used as well. With
continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds;
however the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in
comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminium and
other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to
steels. Today, GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the automobile
industry for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the need to maintain a stable
shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to use the GMAW
process in areas of high air movement such as outdoors.
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique.
FCAW wire is actually a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An
externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied
upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely
used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in

which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc
quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that
forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a
continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much

51
improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke
is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products.
As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F (flat
fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.
4.9.2 Safety Issues
Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper
precautions; however, with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks
of injury or death associated with welding can be greatly reduced.
Heat, fire, and explosion hazard
Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or
flame, the risk of burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders
wear protective clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long
sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. The use of
compressed gases and flames in many welding processes also pose an explosion and
fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air
and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.
Eye damage

Auto darkening welding hood with 90×110 mm cartridge and 3.78×1.85 in

viewing area Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called
arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the
retinas of the eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker
than those in sunglasses oroxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In
recent years, new helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which
automatically self-darkens electronically.[17] To protect bystanders, transparent
welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl
chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the
electric arc.
Inhaled matter
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter.
Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke
containing particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question
tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater
danger. Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most commonly carbon
52
dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if ventilation is
inadequate.
Interference with pacemakers
Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current
component have been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of
the power unit and 1 meter of the weld site.

53
 CHAPTER-5
SYSTEM TESTING AND ANALYSIS
5.1 Subsystem 1 Electric System
Objectives

 To verify the voltage being delivered to the motor.

 To analyze the code that is programmed in the motor controller.
 To check the sensitivity for the throttle in correspondence with max and
min pedal movement
Setup
We have taken the car to a workshop for an electrician to test our system. We
had the electric subsystem prepared (DC motor, motor controller, batteries) for
testing. We have implemented the mating connections between the DC motor and the
motor controller based upon the guidelines in the manual (See Appendix E). Fig 5.1
shows the mating connections between the motor controller and the batteries. We
connected the batteries in series to gain a maximum voltage of 48 volts (12V x 4).Fig
5.2 shows the four 12 batteries connected in series. Then we connected the motor
controller to the output + and – terminals of the battery.

Fig 5.1: Mating connections between the motor controller and the batteries

54
 Fig 5.2: Series Connection for Batteries

Results
 Electric system was working decently in general.
 Batteries were charging properly from an external generator port.
 Rotation of motor by using the throttle pedal proved that both the DC motor and
motor controller were connected properly as the guidelines illustrated in the
manual
 Batteries were drained when driving at max speed for one hour.
 Batteries charging time from an external generator source took approximately 10
hours.

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5.2 Subsystem 2 Solar System

Objectives
 Checking the solar panel charging status.
 Checking the charge level of the batteries.
 Ensure the functioning of the solar charger controller.
 Having the system to run in harmony with the electric system.

Setup
We have placed the solar panel containing 40 photovoltaic cells on top of our
car. This is mainly to get an orthogonal angle from the sun to the solar panel to
maximize the capturing of sun rays. We got the solar panel connected to the solar
controller that was connected to the battery. Fig 5.3 shows the mounting of solar
controller on the car, and, Fig 5.4 shows the mounting of solar panel.

Fig 5.3: Shows the mounting of solar controller on the car

Fig 5.4: Mounting of Solar Panel on the Car

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5.3 Difference between Electric Vehicle and Other Vehicles:
1. The electric vehicle is 90kms/once charge but the present vehicles are giving 50-
60kms/once charge only
2. The electric vehicle is requires with very low cost but the other vehicles are more
cost to purchase
3. The electric vehicle is having less maintenance but other vehicles are having more
maintenance
4. The electric vehicle is efficiently working transportational fields also without
facing any damage but if we use present vehicles in the transportational fields that
may have chances to get damage.
5. The electric vehicle is pollution free vehicle compare to other vehicles.
6. The electric vehicle is noiseless vehicle compare to other vehicles.

5.4 Demerits of the Vehicle

1. The material of the vehicle is having more strength but it is a corrosive material

2. If more weight is added at the rear side then the suspension will damage.
3. Recharge Points: Electric fuelling stations are still in the development stages.
Not a lot of places you go to on a daily basis will have electric fuelling stations
for your vehicle, meaning that if you’re on a long trip and run out of a charge,
you may be stuck where you are.
4. Electricity isn’t Free: Electric cars can also be a hassle on your energy bill if
you’re not considering the options carefully. If you haven’t done your research
into the electric car you want to purchase, then you may be making an unwise
investment. Sometimes electric cars require a huge charge in order to function
properly – which may reflect poorly on your electricity bill each month.
5. Short Driving Range and Speed: Electric cars are limited by range and speed.
Most of these cars have range about 50-100 miles and need to be recharged
again. You just can’t use them for long journeys as of now, although it is
expected to improve in future.
6. Longer Recharge Time: While it takes couple of minutes to fuel your gasoline
powered car, an electric car take about 4-6 hours to get fully charged. Therefore,
you need dedicated power stations as the time taken to recharge them is quite
long.

57
7. Silence as Disadvantage: Silence can be a bit disadvantage as people like to
hear noise if they are coming from behind them. An electric car is however
silent and can lead to accidents in some cases.
8. Battery Replacement: Depending on the type and usage of battery, batteries of
almost all electric cars are required to be changed every 3-4 years.

58
 CHAPTER – 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The design and fabrication of Electric car is successfully working in efficient
manner on highways and in the rural areas. The vehicle is giving 80-90kms/once
charge and it is moving with 40-45kmph. The vehicle is comfortable with 5members
to travel. And it is fabricated with the amount of RS. 85000. By this we got awareness
to fabrication of a car and good experience that how to assemble car, how overcome
the technical problems in the car.
We collected scrap parts and we done research on design and fabrication of a
car and assembled all the parts. Frame of the vehicle is prepared with AISI 1018 Mild
Steel by using arc welding.
The vehicle is efficiently used to travel on highways and rural areas without
any problem and we tested the mileage as 90kms/once charge by travelling on roads.
It is used to travel with the speed of 40kmph.

Fig.6.1. Electric vehicle final view

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 CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusion
Fossil Fuels are still considered as an essential and ideal source of energy.
Reducing the dependency on fossil fuels is considered to be a huge challenge. We are
utilizing a cleaner source of energy; this was achieved by utilizing electric batteries,
Dc Motor and a Solar Panel to charge the batteries. Our testing shows that our car can
reach the top velocity 40km/h and that it is stable and safe Summary of main results.
Previous word done by other groups in different fields was slightly based on a single
source system. It was either electric or solar. What we did is combining the two
systems to be incorporated in a car. The individual experience that each one of us has
been through is priceless and very informative and knowledgeable. We learned more
about power generation and utilizing renewable energy. We eventually had a chance
to put what we have learned through the years in PMU to a real life project. This was
basically achieved due to dedication, passion and hard work.
Future Recommendations
The recommendations that we have come up regarding our project can be
listed as follow:

 Implementation of Electric Cars is possible in Saudi Arabia,India,Japan,China.

 Solar Panels can be used in Electric cars to have cleaner energy, due to
abundance of sunlight throughout the year

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 REFERENCES

[1] Building of an Electric Car, Senior Projects of 2012, University of Ohio, USA,
Retrieved on March 22nd from https://www.ohio.edu/engineering/eecs/

[2] Climate Change Indicators: U.S. and Global Temperature, 2016, National Centers
for Environmental Information. Accessed February 2017
[3] AnyosJedlik, Electric Vehicles History Part II, Early History, 1998, the invention
of the electric vehicle, Accessed April 2017
[4] James, First Solar Car in History, Classification of ancient solar cars, 2014,
Automostory,
[5] Accessed April 2017

[6] Zachary Shahan, Electric Car Evolution, the history of solar power science,
2015, April 26th, Accessed May 2017
[7] Tesla Motors, Inc, forum, Specification of Tesla car, Performance Specs, 2007,
Accessed May 2017
[8] Nissan Leaf, car manufacturing forum, Business and Economy, 2010, Accessed
May 2017

[9] Chris Lilly, New Class Leading Renault, ZOE Z.E., zap map forum, 2016,
Accessed April 2017.
[10] Internet website, www. wikipedia.com

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IMAGES OF ELECTRIC CAR WITH SOLAR PANEL

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