s h ri n k ab l e soi l

Soils that shrink on drying (and swell on re-wetting) are shrinkable. Several kinds of clay
are shrinkable.

Materials expand or contract when subjected to changes in temperature. Most materials

expand when they are heated, and contract when they are cooled. When free to deform,
concrete will expand or contract due to fluctuations in temperature. The size of the concrete
structure whether it is a bridge, a highway, or a building does not make it immune to the
effects of temperature. The expansion and contraction with changes in temperature occur
regardless of the structure’s cross-sectional area. Thermal expansion and contraction of
concrete varies primarily with aggregate type (shale, limestone, siliceous gravel, granite),
cementitious material content, water cement ratio, temperature range, concrete age, and
ambient relative humidity. Of these factors, aggregate type has the greatest influence on the
expansion and contraction of concrete.

1. Thermal expansion and contraction of concrete varies primarily with aggregate type (shale,
limestone, siliceous gravel, granite), cementitious material content, water cement ratio,
temperature range, concrete age, and ambient relative humidity. Of these factors, aggregate
type has the greatest influence on the expansion and contraction of concrete. Curing of
concrete and masonry – Proper curing from the start of initial setting to at least 7 to 10 days
helps in reducing initial shrinkages. The moisture provided through curing helps concrete and
masonry to expand and thus, when they dry up, the final shrinkage is less.
2. e) Surface area of aggregates -Surface area of concrete increases with increase in fine
aggregates and this requires large water quantity for the required workability. With increase
in water quantity, the shrinkage of concrete and masonry increases when they dry up.
3. f) Chemical composition of cement – Shrinkage is less for the cement having greater
proportion of tri-calcium silicate and lower proportion of alkalis i.e. rapid hardening cement
has greater shrinkage than ordinary port-land cement.
4. g) Temperature of fresh concrete and relative humidity of surroundings – With
reduction in the ambient temperature the requirement

Vertical cracks are usually the direct result of foundation settling, and these are the more
common of foundation issues. Horizontal cracks are generally caused by soil pressure and are
normally worse than vertical cracks.

Identifying vertical cracks (caused by settling), early on, may often be repaired quickly and
effectively before they turn into bigger issues and permanent structural damage. Horizontal
cracks will generally move along a wall, to the connecting wall, compromising a wide span
of your foundations area of support. The horizontal cracks can be the direct result of poor
drainage and soil (or hydrostatic) pressure. These cracks are generally more serious in nature
and require professional and immediate inspection and repair.

Shrinkage cracks in poured concrete foundation can be diagonal or vertical and are usually
uniform in width. Sometimes these cracks have a V-shape (less common), with the top of the
crack looking larger and the crack getting smaller as it travels towards to floor and
diminishing or stopping before reaching the bottom of the foundation wall. If the crack
reaches the bottom, the crack might damage the building's footings and the crack might have
a major impact on the foundation structure. Shrinkage cracks should not be ongoing nor of
structural significance, though they may invite water entry through the wall.

In poured concrete foundations, shrinkage cracks are usually due to conditions at original
construction: poor concrete mix, rapid curing or possibly other conditions. In any case,
concrete shrinkage causes the concrete to develop internal stresses. Unless control joints were
included in the wall or floor slab design, these stresses will cause the wall or floor is likely to
crack in a classic "concrete shrinkage pattern" as the concrete cures.

Hairline cracks may develop in concrete foundations as the concrete cures. Hairline cracks
do no cause problems with the stability of the foundation but do cause leakage problems. If
the cracks appear shortly after pouring the concrete foundation, concrete may have been
mixed poorly or poured too quickly. In poured concrete foundations, hairline crack frequently
appear in the center of the walls because the wall corners have a greater stability.

Settlement cracks may appear when the underlying ground has not been compacted or
prepared properly or if the subsoil was not of the proper consistency. A settlement crack may
also appear as a random crack above areas where the soil of the subgrade was uneven after
the concrete was poured. Settlement cracks are usually wider at the top of the crack than the
bottom as the foundation "bends" over a single point, allowing differential settlement. This
type of crack is usually continuous, and may occur multiple times in a wall.

Temperature and Shrinkage cracks are often vertical or diagonal. You typically see these
cracks formed from a corner of a window, beam pocket, step down, or other opening. Cracks
of this type are called reentrant cracks. These are very common and, unless they leak or show
significant lateral displacement, are of no structural concern.

Vertical cracks often appear in multiples (multiple cracks in one or more area). Vertical
foundation cracks in poured concrete foundations that tend to appear nearly straight or
wandering, generally even in width, intermittent, or more often straight is caused by
shrinkage/thermal and are generally low risk. If there is significant vertical dislocation or
signs of ongoing movement, you should consult a structural engineer. If the cause is
shrinkage, it is probably less of a concern than if due to settlement. A vertical foundation
crack due to earth loading or frost would be unusual. A larger vertical crack can occur when
the construction contractors incorrectly prepare the concrete footings and when the wall had
poor steel reinforcement as the workers poured the concrete for the wall. Cracks can also
occur during the footing settlement.

Horizontal cracks found in the center of the wall are most likely caused by an applied load
such as back fill around foundation compacted improperly or too soon, earth compacting as it
settles, hydrostatic pressure against foundation due to high water table and poor drainage
against the foundation wall, or heavy equipment operated too soon or too close to the
foundation wall. Horizontal cracks found high up on the wall are most likely caused by frost
damage. Sometimes these fine cracks are not noticed for years. In a case like this, a structural
engineer should be consulted.

Diagonal cracks that are almost the full height of the foundation wall are usually caused by
settlement. When there's a settlement problem with footing on one side of the wall, this
settlement can also cause a diagonal crack. In a case like this, a structural engineer should be
consulted. If the diagonal crack is wider at the top than at the bottom, then it may be caused
by expansion clay soil or frost damage. If the crack is wider at the bottom than the top, there
is likely a problem with the settlement beneath. Some uniform diagonal cracks are simply
caused by shrinkage and will only cause water leakage problems. Diagonal cracks that
emanate from a corner of a window and other openings are called reentrant cracks and are
usually the result of stress built-up at the corner.

Bonding with epoxies

Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding compounds under
pressure.
Usual practice is to drill into the crack from the face of the concrete at several locations;
inject water or
a solvent to flush out the defect; allow the surface to dry (using a hot air jet, if needed);
surface-seal
the cracks between the injection points; and inject the epoxy until it flows out of the adjacent
sections
of the crack or begins to bulge out the surface seals, just as in pressure grouting. Usually the
epoxy is
injected through holes of about % inch in diameter and % inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centers.
Smaller
spacing is used for finer cracks. The limitation of this method is that unless the crack is
dormant or the
cause of cracking is removed and thereby the crack is made dormant, it will probably recur,
possibly
somewhere else in the structure. Also, this technique is not applicable if the defects are
actively
leaking to the extent that they cannot be dried out, or where the cracks are numerous [2].
epoxy (resin and hardener mix)

Definition of Epoxy:

 Epoxy is a class of resin derived by polymerization from epoxides. Epoxies are used
chiefly in adhesives and coatings.
 Epoxy is a thermosetting resin capable of forming tightly linked cross-polymer
structures.
 Epoxy is characterized by toughness and strong adhesion, especially when used for floor
coatings.

Epoxy Synonyms:

epoxy resin, epoxy polymers, epoxy coating, epoxy paint

What is an Epoxy?

Epoxies are polymer materials that begin as liquids and are chemically changed into a solid.
An epoxy based polymer is mechanically strong, chemically resistant to degradation from
chemical elements in the solid form, and highly adhesive during conversion from liquid to
solid.

5. Grouting

 same manner as the injection of an epoxy

 cleaning the concrete along the crack

 installing built-up seats at intervals along the crack

 sealing the crack between the seats with a cement paint or grout

 flushing the crack to clean it and test the seal; and then grouting the whole

Grouting is a process of injecting mixture of cement, sand water at high pressure in the
cracks, joints, voids etc.

Purpose of grouting:

 To strengthen the porous Concrete

 To prevent the seepage in dam and water retaining structures

 To reduce uplift pressure below dam

  To fill the cracks in concrete structure

Procedure for grouting:

Drilling of Grouting holes

For drilling grouting holes, equipment's like jack hammer, diamond drill, shot drill etc are
used. The choice of type of drilling equipment depends upon the type of stone, size of hole
and depth of hole.

Arrangement of grout pipes

Grout pipes of 4 to 5 cm dia and 45 to 90 cm length are inserted in the grout holes. The space
surrounding the pipe is filled with cement mortar. The top end of the pipe is connected to the
pump.

Cleaning of cracks

Before injecting grout mixture in the cracks, it is necessary to clean the cracks.

Inserting grout in holes

Normally grout is inserted in the holes at a pressure 0.65kg/cm2 per m depth hole

Types of grouting:

1. Consolidation Grouting:

This type of grouting is used for shallow depth grouting holes. Normally pressure below 3
kg/cm2 is known as low pressure grouting.

2. Stage grouting:

When thick layers are to be grouted the total thickness of layer is divided into stages of 1m
each and grouting of each layer is carried out one by one. Grouting of upper layer is started
only after the grout in the lower layer had properly set.

3. Curtain Grouting:

This type of grouting is done to prevent the seepage of water below foundation of dam.
Grouting holes are drilled in the upstream side of dam in the bed rock and impermeable grout
wall is created.it will prevent seepage of water through dam foundation

 Portland cement grouting-Wide cracks, particularly in gravity dams and thick

concrete walls, may be repaired by filling with portland cement grout.
  This method is effective in stopping water leaks, but it will not structurally bond
cracked sections.

CAUSES AND PREVENTION

OF CRACKS IN BUILDINGS - SP : 251984