Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
ABSTRACT
A 1D model was performed with PetroMod software using a multi-1D approach within the
framework of a fully integrated dynamic geologic model. The conceptual model was created by di-
viding the penetrated preserved stratigraphic sequence into uninterrupted time series, based on
the petrophysical interpretation of the logged sequence and age equivalent formations. A detailed
well log interpretation was performed for the reservoirs and the organic-rich source rock inter-
vals and integrated into a conceptual model used for 1D basin modeling. Geochemical data were
used to calibrate the log interpretation, which enabled basin modeling with a high resolution of
the stratigraphic sequence, resulting in a detailed and calibrated burial and thermal model. The
Wata Formation of the Turonian has high organic carbon content and the capacity to generate
petroleum liquids. The simulations for three wells in the study area show differences in the buri-
al, thermal history and maturity and, in consequence, differences in the petroleum generation.
The carbonate organic-rich interval of Wata Formation has generated oil around the Early Mio-
cene (~18.25 Million year before present (Mabp)) in RB-B5 and RB-C1 wells. Combining the re-
sults of the petrophysical, geochemical and the 1D basin modeling studies provides a compari-
son between the generation potential with time for the carbonate organic-rich intervals. Most
hydrocarbons were generated in the Miocene. This means that, the hydrocarbon generation has
occurred after Oligocene Rift and during the deposition of the Lower Rudeis Formation. At RB-A2
well, the organic rich interval is completely over-mature due to the magmatic activity of the Oli-
go-Miocene igneous intrusion.
Key words : Ras Budran Oilfield – Wata Formation – Gulf of Suez - Basin Modeling.
57
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
was formed only after the deposition of the (Passey et al., 1990 and Jia et al., 2012).
cap-rock shales of the Early to Middle Mio-
cene upper Rudeis. The Ras Budran structure The Petroleum System Modeling (PSM) is
has major synclinal depressions to its north, an approach using the structural, strati-
west and south, in which the source rocks graphic and seismic data integrated with the
reached the peak stage of oil generation dur- other geological and geochemical analysis
ing the Pliocene (Chowdhary and Taha, data to simulate the basin development in a
1987). The Nubian Sandstone and Paleozoic forward modeling approach, e.g. subsidence,
sand rock units are the main reservoirs in structural and tectonic events, hydrocarbon
the study area, while the Thebes and Brown generation, migration and emplacement
limestone Formations are the main source through geologic time. It aims at a four-
rocks in the Ras Budran Oil Field. Source dimensional (X, Y, Z, and time) reconstruction
rocks are commonly shales and lime-mud- of the characteristics of rock and fluid prop-
stones, which contain significant amounts of erties, as a function of the paleo-history of a
organic matter. Other source rocks also con- sedimentary basin. The model is designed to
tain organic matter, but the amount is improve the match occur between predictions
generally not significant (Passey et al., 1990). and observations for the purpose of integrat-
Good hydrocarbon source rocks must con- ing the multi-phase tectonic history of Ras
tain organic matter higher than 1% (wt% Budran Oil Field responsible for the develop-
TOC). These organic materials could only ment of the basin, as a result of sedimenta-
generate hydrocarbons, if they reach a level tion, tectonics and erosion, with a petroleum
of thermal maturation, high enough to characterization model, to evaluate the petro-
generate and expel commercial quantities leum system and hydrocarbon potentialities.
of oil and/or gas (Lindquist, 1889). Well log- Moreover, the processes of oil and gas genera-
ging methodology in geochemical evaluation is tion, expulsion and migration is quantified
a very important technique, not only for its and investigated. It outlines the spatial extent
usefulness as a quick scan of potential source of the different petroleum systems and pro-
rock, but also in its ability to identify the vides data for risk maps to guide the subse-
organic richness (TOC %) of these rocks quent new exploration phases.
58
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Figure (1:a) : Landsat Thematic Mapper image showing the basement outcrops and oil fields around
the Gulf of Suez region. Satellite image courtesy o f GeoTech, Bahrain. Original Copyright
Earth Satellite Corporation after Farhoud (2006). b) Enlarged location map of the study
area showing the spatial distribution of the available wells addressed throughout the cur-
rent study. This dataset belongs to Suez Oil Company “SUCO” concessions. The deepest
penetrated sequence is Paleozoic Sand Formation with depth ranging from 11655 ft bmsl
at RB-B1 well, to 12171 ft bmsl at RB-A1 well. A total well count of 10 includes 3 dry
wells; and 7 oil producers. Underlined wells represent the studied area throughout the re-
search.
59
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
60
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Syrian Arc folding (Early Late Cretaceous to the flanks of this basin began to rise, because
Early Eocene) was a north-south compres- of the heating effects (Steckler, 1985). Several
sion, swinging to NNW-SSE. The principal unconformities interrupt the sedimentary
structures were folds with axes oriented record, with major ones in the Paleozoic, Tri-
approximately ENE-WSW. Geochronological- assic–Jurassic, Oligocene, and Late Miocene
ly, the Pre-rift continental margin Sag Unit (Messinian). These basin wide unconformities
continued to 35.4 Mabp. The Gulf of Suez have formed primarily in response to the re-
Rift was then initiated by a lithospheric gional tectonic adjustments associated with
stretching in the latest Oligocene times fol- the different rift phases of the Gulf of Suez
lowed by extensionally driven subsidence, (Dolson et al., 2001). Rifting was caused by
which commenced in the earliest Miocene tensional stresses transmitted through the
times. After this initial phase of subsidence, lithosphere, accompanied by upwelling of hot
there was a period of isostatic uplift on the rift asthenospheres. Both the crustal extension
shoulders and some re-arrangements of the and tectonic subsidence of the axial trough
rift blocks during the Early Miocene, before reached their maximum development between
renewed extensional subsidence, which end- 19 and 15 Mabp (Steckler et al., 1988). A fur-
ed in the Mid-Miocene. Active divergent con- ther pulse of extension and fault blocking
tinental margin (gravitational subsidence) ended in the Middle Miocene (14.2 Mabp). The
was ranging in age from 29.3 to 14.2 Mabp principal structures formed during this period
(IHS, 2006). were tilted fault-blocks, half-grabens, rollover
and other accommodation structures in the
The Syn-rift Unit is characterized by the in- hanging wall blocks. A number of other
itial extension due to lithospheric stretching, trends are commonly reported, of which the
at the northern extremity of the East African- most important are the NNE-SSW Aqaba
Red Sea Rift System, followed by isostatic up- Trend (020°-200°) and the so called " ENE-
lift of the rift shoulders (17Ma). The rifting WSW cross" trend (050°-230°) (IHS, 2006). At
commenced in the pre-Miocene, with the max- this time interval (from 14.2 to 14Ma), the
imum tectonic subsidence, accompanied by Suez phase extension terminates and the Aqa-
magmatic events, occurring during the Late ba transverse begins (Figure 3) (Bosworth et
Oligocene–Early Miocene (Gandino et al., al., 1998; Griffin, 1999). Further extension of
1990). Subsidence may have continued until the fault block rotation tectonic event has oc-
the Late Neogene. The interpretation of the cured at 14.2 Mabp (Figure 4) (IHS, 2006).
phases of tectonic subsidence and their peri- The period 14.2-5.2 Mabp is characterized by
ods and structural stages during the late Ter- post-rift thermal subsidence, during a period
tiary are shown in Figure 3. The Suez rift it- of relative quiescence on the whole Red Sea
self was initiated between 24 and 21 Mabp, rift system. The principal structures are rollo-
that is the Latest Oligocene to Earliest Mio- ver and other accommodation structures in
cene (Evans, 1990). The uplifting of the rift the hanging-wall blocks of the re-activated
shoulders was through the time from 21 to 20 faults, and compaction/subsidence driven
Mabp (IHS, 2006). Between 20 and 17 Mabp, structures. Following Kareem deposition,
61
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
there appeared to have been another period of tive rifting, but with an overprint of locally re-
relative uplifting resulting in a local unconfor- newed extensional faulting in the south of the
mity at the top of the Kareem Formation. basin (5.2-4 Mabp). The main structures in-
Thereafter the dominant control appears to clude half-grabens, drape structures and
have been post-rift thermal subsidence, dur- modification of existing block traps through
ing a period of quiescence on the whole Red the rejuvenation of the bounding faults (IHS,
Sea Rift System, until the latest Miocene time 2006). A pronounced unconformity is recog-
when the Red Sea Rift System again became nized at the top of the Zeit Formation, before
active. This relative uplift may have been re- the renewed subsidence and accumulation of
sponsible for establishing a barrier, that iso- the Plio-Pleistocene clastics commenced. This
lated the Suez Rift from its former open link renewed subsidence appeared to reflect the
to the Mediterranean Sea. The result of the resumption of extension and sea floor spread-
barrier was the end of normal marine condi- ing in the south of the Red Sea Rift System.
tions in the Gulf of Suez and the first phase of Although the bulk of the extension in the Red
massive evaporite deposition. Within the first Sea appeared to have been accommodated by
of the evaporite units, the Belayim Formation, movements on the Dead Sea-Gulf of Aqaba
there were, however, two periods of normal transform, there is an evidence for renewed
marine deposition, the last of which produced extension in both the north and south of the
important carbonate reservoir facies, in the Gulf of Suez, from about 5 Mabp to present.
form of algal buildups on the crest of the tilt- In the south, a number of faults cut the
ed pre-Miocene fault-blocks. Thermal subsi- seabed with earthquake activity, which indi-
dence time is 11.4-10.7 Mabp (IHS, 2006) cates the active faulting at the present. In the
(Figure 2). Post-Belayim deposition consists of north, the very large thicknesses of Zeit For-
two further evaporitic units, the South Gharib mation and Post-Zeit sediments (EL-Tor
Formation (dominantly halite) and the Zeit Group), adjacent to the Darag Fault, following
Formation (interbedded anhydites and clas- negligible deposition of the South Gharib sedi-
tics, with minor halite). These evaporites are ments, points to renewed extension (Figure 2)
the key sealing facies in the basin (Figure 2) (IHS, 2006). The evolution of the Gulf of Suez
(IHS, 2006). basin in stages from the Paleozoic to the Holo-
cene is characterized by tectonic extensional
By 5 Mabp, the Aqaba–Dead Sea trans- episodes producing tensional block faulting
form fault replaced the Gulf of Suez as the (horst and graben) and block subsidence (Fig-
primary plate boundary between the African ure 4) (Kingston et al., 1983). The Gulf of
and Arabian plates (Evans, 1990). The period Suez has developed in a series of distinct evo-
5.2-0 Mabp is characterized by subsidence lutionary stages, as shown in Figure 4.
driven dominantly by cooling following the ac-
62
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Figure (2) : Litho-stratigraphic column and tectonic correlation chart of Belayim Marine Oil Field,
Gulf of Suez, Egypt .The facies succession, ages, distribution of potential source and res-
ervoir rocks are also represented (IHS, 2006).
63
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Figure (3) : The relationship between tectonic subsidence rates, types, periods, climate and sea level chang-
es during the Neogene in the Gulf of Suez (compiled and modified from (Bosworth et al., 1998
and Griffin, 1999). Smaller V symbols represent periods of rapid basin subsidence, for example,
the Burdigalian; larger V symbols represent modest rates of basin subsidence, for example, in
the Serravallian.
64
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Figure (4) : Development stages of the Gulf of Suez, as an example of a typical interior frac-
ture rift basin (Alsharhan, 2003).
65
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
66
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Table (1) : Chronostratigraphic conceptual model of the basin fill in terms of geologic processes operating at
a specific time for RB-B5 well.
*Source rock interval with 4.7 wt% TOC, HI is 741 mgHC/g TOC, Kinetics (Pepper and Corvi 1995_TIIS(A)).
67
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Table (2) : Chronostratigraphic conceptual model of the basin fill in terms of geologic processes operating at
a specific time for RB-A2 well.
*Source rock interval with 4.7 wt% TOC, HI is 741 mgHC/g TOC, Kinetics (Pepper and Corvi 1995_TIIS(A)).
68
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
The backbone of basin modeling is the re- the specific properties to the geological layers
construction of paleo-temperature and its (Table 3). For the source rock sequences, the
spatial variation with time and location in the content of organic matter (TOC) and quality of
basin. Basin modeling simulation tools deter- Hydrogen Index (HI) has to be defined togeth-
mine temperature fields using the finite ele- er with the reaction kinetic parameters for the
ment method. Therefore, the simulation pro- thermal primary cracking to light and heavier
gram needs boundary conditions. petroleum components. Once the paleo-
Temperature at the top, the bottom and sides temperatures are well modeled and calibrated,
of a sedimentary basin must be established, equations for chemical kinetics can be used to
to determine the interior temperature field evaluate petroleum generation. From labora-
(Broichhausen, 2004 and Broichhausen et al., tory pyrolysis, experiments at different heat-
2005). Temperature is calculated from basal ing rates, activation energies and a pre-
heat flow values specified for each geologic exponential factor are calculated and used for
event, thermal conductivity (Table 3) and sur- the temperature history of the relevant sedi-
face temperature (Yükler et al., 1978). The ments. This approach assumes the conver-
thermal boundary conditions are the sedi- sion of kerogen to oil and gas to be irreversi-
ment-water interface temperature at the top ble reactions, which can be defined by a set of
of the model and the paleo heat flow at the parallel pseudo-reactions. For a more detailed
bottom (Tables 4 and 5 – Figures 6 and 7). description of the basin modelling, its concept
Temperatures at the sediment–water interface and limitations (Yalcin et al., 1997). The re-
depend on the water depth and paleolatitude. spective kinetic values used for hydrocarbon
Surface temperature trends as a time-latitude generation are those of (Pepper and Corvi,
diagram, which is useful for estimating values 1995). The available geochemical data include
for shallow water sediments within the global vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) and Rock-Eval
climatic belts, have been synthized (Wygrala, Tmax, as well as the total organic carbon
1989). For paleo-heat flow values, the most (TOC), Rock-Eval S1 (free low-molecular-
reasonable initial approach consists of using weight hydrocarbons), S2 (hydrocarbons gen-
the known plate tectonic framework and anal- erated by thermal cracking of kerogen, gener-
ogies of the basin to be modeled and crustal ation potential), S3, Hydrogen Index and Oxy-
evolution models (Allen and Allen, 1990). The gen Index.
calculation of vitrinite reflectance from the
temperature histories was carried out using The thermal modeling procedures include
the EASY%Ro algorithm of (Sweeney and the reconstruction of the present-time tem-
Burnham, 1990), that allows the calculation perature regime and the temperature history
of vitrinite reflectance values between 0.3 and evaluation. Bottom-hole temperatures (BHTs)
4.5 % VRr and allows a better calibration of were used to calculate the present-day tem-
the thermal histories than earlier approaches. perature. Deficiencies in the database must
Therefore, it is widely applied in numerical be recognized. Normally, more than one inter-
basin simulations (e.g., (Littke et al., 1994)). pretation fits the observable data. The calcu-
The petroleum system is defined by applying lated parameters are compared with the
69
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
measured data, so that the thermal model can sills of the rifts of northeast Africa. Some of
be calibrated (Figure 5). If necessary, the con- these sills and dykes were emplaced at tem-
ceptual model is adjusted or modified to lead perature of 1000˚c at shallow levels into rocks
to a better match between the simulation re- with temperature in the range (0-100˚c).
sults and calibration data. The kinetic equa- Therefore, whether the heating of dykes and
tions are defined for different kerogen types. sills has a significant effect on the tempera-
For kerogen types I and II, the kerogen to oil tures experienced by sedimentary rocks of the
reaction is the main process, while for kero- basin fills. The heating is effective for a dis-
gen type III, kerogen to gas reactions predomi- tance into the country rock or basin sedi-
nate. The 1D models for wells were estab- ments roughly equal to sill width, but also de-
lished, using the modeling software pend on the emplacement temperature of the
(PetroMod® V.2011.1 SP3) developed by IES sill. The heating from sill is clearly extremely
GmbH (Aachen, Germany). The Interactive- important in affecting the thermal maturity,
Petrophysics software of Schlumberger was but is restricted within a zone approximately
used for borehole geophysical data processing one to two sill widths of either side of it (Allen
and petrophysical evaluation of the penetrat- and Allen, 2013). Magmatic intrusions can
ed sequence in each well. The available data have substantial effects on the pa-
were utilized for differentiation of the logged leo–temperatures and all thermal calibration
sequence into elements of the petroleum sys- parameters. Although the duration of such
tem as source rock, reservoir zone, pay zone events is relatively short, extremely high tem-
and seal rock. Wireline logs were applied to peratures can trigger rapid chemical reactions
deduce the vertical extent of source rock in the adjacent environment. Igneous intru-
units. Evaluations of source rock intervals re- sions are modeled with the magmatic temper-
quired calibration with organic geochemical ature, as inner boundary condition at the lo-
reports and maturity data for certain wells, in cation and time of the intrusion. In
order to distinguish the source rocks from subsequent time steps, the temperature de-
non-source rock intervals. creases in both the intrusion and the sur-
rounding layers. Then, hot liquid magma
Modelling Igneous Intrusions crystallizes to solid rock. The related crystalli-
Some Basins, especially those associated zation heat is important and has to be taken
with lithospheric stretching have been intrud- into account in the heat balance (Hantschel
ed by igneous bodies, such as the dykes and and Kauerauf, 2009).
70
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Table (3) : Summary of some established characteristic parameters of lithostratigraphic unit in Belayim Ma-
rine Oil Field used for modeling.
*Actual used lithologies for the used model. IP: Initial Porosity. MP: Minimum Porosity.
71
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Table (4) : The thermal boundary conditions for RB-B5 well including the sediment-
water interface temperature at the top of the model and the paleo-heat flow
at the bottom. Sediment–water interface temperature depends on water
depth and paleolatitude, synthesized after (Wygrala, 1989). The basal heat
flow values are specified for each geologic event using the known plate tec-
tonic framework and crustal evolution models (Allen and Allen, 1990).
72
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Table (5) : The thermal boundary conditions for RB-A2 well including the sediment-
water interface temperature at the top of the model and the paleo-heat flow
at the bottom. Sediment–water interface temperature depends on water
depth and paleolatitude, synthesized after (Wygrala, 1989). The basal heat
flow values are specified for each geologic event using the known plate tec-
tonic framework and crustal evolution models (Allen and Allen, 1990).
73
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Figure (5) : Plot of paleotemperature calibrated with measured corrected static bottom hole tem-
perature in a reference wells (RB-A2 and RB-B5) against depth. The cross-plot of ob-
served and computed reflectance shows a good fit.
74
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Figure (6) : The boundary conditions assessments for RB-B5 well including the paleo water depth at
the top, the sediment-water interface temperature at middle (top of the model) and the pa-
leo-heat flow at the bottom must be established to determine the interior temperature
field. Sediment–water interface temperature depends on water depth and paleolatitude,
synthesized after (Wygrala, 1989). The basal heat flow values were specified for each geo-
logic event using the known plate tectonic framework and crustal evolution models (Allen
and Allen, 1990).
75
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Figure (7) : The boundary conditions assessments for RB-A2 well including the paleo water depth at
the top, the sediment-water interface temperature at middle (top of the model) and the pa-
leo-heat flow at the bottom must be established to determine the interior temperature
field. Sediment–water interface temperature depends on water depth and paleolatitude,
synthesized after (Wygrala, 1989). The basal heat flow values were specified for each geo-
logic event using the known plate tectonic framework and crustal evolution models (Allen
and Allen, 1990).
76
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
77
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Wata-S is in the range, in which a single- 0.65% at ~17.55 Ma (Early Miocene) with a
phase fluid (Medium oil) might be expected temperature of 232 °F (Figure 11). The
(Figures 13) at RB-C1 and RB-B5 wells. How- present-day vitrinite reflectance values are
ever, at RB-A2 well, the organic rich interval based on the calculation (Sweeney and Burn-
is completely overmaturing (Figure 13). Petro- ham, 1990), in association with the present-
leum generation starts at a vitrinite reflec- day depth, showing varying vitrinite reflec-
tance close to 0.5%, which is reached at dif- tance values for the organic rich interval of
ferent depths throughout the area (Figure 9), Wata Formation, Wata-S. The present-day
(~18.25 Mabp Burdigalian) at RB-C1 well at a maximum simulated vitrinite reflectance val-
crosspending paleo-temperature value of ue 0.76% at RB-B5 well corresponds to a tem-
155°F. At RB-B5 well, the vitrinite reflectance perature of 252°F (Figure 9). The maximum
value of 0.51% is encountered since ~18.25 present-day temperature of 252°F at RB-B5
Mabp (Early Miocene); at a temperature of well is due to a shallower depth of the base-
177°F (Figure 11). Rifting was caused by ten- ment relief, in association with the effect of
sional stresses transmitted through the litho- the complete missing of the Shale Marker of
sphere, accompanied by an upwelling of the the Nubia A Formation, which is character-
hot asthenosphere. A rapid tectonic subsi- ized by low thermal conductivity. In addition,
dence in the Middle Burdigalian-Langhian the burial effect due to the deposition of the
was followed by strong block faulting and up- Matulla (344ft), Rudies (3226ft), Kareem
lifting of the rift shoulders, about 17-19 Mabp (731ft), Zeit (1347ft) and Post-Zeit (2989ft)
(Evans, 1988 and Patton et al., 1994). By con- sediments, has also the same reason, that af-
trast at RB-A2 well, petroleum generation fect the shallower depth of gas generation at
starts at a vitrinite reflectance close to 0.5%, RB-B5 well. The thicknesses as of the individ-
which is reached at different ages and depths ual units vary greatly, because of the irregular
(Figure 12), (~22 Mabp Early Miocene) with a topography of the underlying block-faulted
corresponding paleo-temperature value of Early Miocene Formations (Fichera and Giori,
174°F. Moreover, it has been in the overma- 1992).
ture stage since ~22 Mabp (Early Miocene),
that characterized by a vitrinite reflectance However, the present-day minimum simu-
value of 1.55%Ro and a temperature value of lated vitrinite reflectance value of 0.68% and
453 °F (Figure 12). With increasing maturity, temperature value of 235°F (Figure 9) has
the generation of gas from both kerogen (pri- been calculated at RB-C1 well. This is ex-
mary cracking) and already generated, but plained by the opposite effect due to the rela-
unexpelled oil (secondary cracking) increases tively considerable thickness of 79ft, that be-
by breaking of the carbon-carbon bonds (Dow, longs to the Shale Marker of the Nubia A
1977; Horsfield et al., 1991 and Behar et al., Formation, that was characterized by relative-
1995). The gas-onset vitrinite reflectance val- ly low thermal conductivity. Moreover, the rel-
ue is 0.54% at ~17.55 Ma (Early Miocene) in atively low basal heat flow value due to the
RB-B5 well with a temperature of 205°F; deep-seated basement. Although, the burial
whereas in RB-C1 well, it was reached to effect due to the maximum thickness of the
78
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Esna (42ft), Thebes (389 ft), Nukhul (543ft) resultant low expulsion efficiency causes a
and Belayim (915ft) sediments. In addition, preservation of hydrogen until gas is generat-
the great influence of high thermal conductivi- ed by cracking of the trapped bitumen at
ty of the thick South Gharib Formation more elevated maturity stages (Littke and Ley-
(924ft), that effectively transfers heat to the thaeuser, 1993). Therefore, the shallower
overlain formation. This indicates that, the depth of explusion at RB-C1 well may be ex-
maturity of the organic-reach intervals of plained by the small thickness (23ft) of the or-
Wata Formation is closely related to the basin ganofacies Wata-S compared to the larger
burial and evolution with a minor heat flow thickness of 110 ft at RB-B5 well. At RB-C1
influence. This means that, the source rock well, the generated hydrocarbon, partially ac-
may have to be buried to greater depths in the cumulated in the source rock and adsorbed
area to generate oil, even all other factors be- by the organic matter. Whereas at RB-B5
ing the same. The present-day transformation well, the generated hydrocarbons slightly ac-
ratio ranges between 43.31% at RB-C1 well cumulated in the source rock and adsorbed
and 68.73% at RB-B5 well, whereas the maxi- by the organic matter, the expulsion occurred
mum bulk generation mass is 0.04 Mtons at after the Miocene rifting phase (~17.2 Mabp),
the present-day at RB-B5 well (Figure 10). By where the paleotemperature has reached a
the advent of the Miocene rifting phase, an value of 262°F. Not all the expelled hydrocar-
abrupt increase in the transformation ratio of bons have accumulated in the reservoir but,
2.19% to 56.43% was observed at ~17.17 mostly were lost through the migration path-
Mabp at RB-B5 well (Figure 10). This is due to ways. The important aspects of primary mi-
the increased heating rate, that accompanied gration are the nature of the hydrocarbons ex-
the Miocene rifting phase. The expulsion of pelled (oil or gas), the efficiency of expulsion,
the hydrocarbons occurred mainly after the and the timing of the expulsion. Whether mi-
generation of the gas and after the Miocene gration occurs mainly in vertical or horizontal
Rifting Phase. Biostratigraphic data indicate direction also depends on the source rock
that, extension began in the northern part of properties. For example, fractures seem to de-
the Gulf of Suez and spread southward dur- velop more often parallel to the bedding plane
ing the Miocene (Patton et al., 1994; Krebs et in the shaly source rocks than in the carbo-
al., 1996 and Wescott et al., 1998). nate source rocks, in which fractures cut bed-
ding at high angles (Littke et al., 1988). The
The expulsion occurred since the Early Mi- Ras Budran structure has major synclinal de-
ocence (~17.2 Mabp) at a depth ranges be- pressions to its north, west and south in
tween 4619 ft (TVDss) at RB-C1 and 5324ft which the source beds reached the peak stage
(TVDss) at RB-B5 well. The efficiency of expul- of oil generation. The expelled oil from these
sion depends on the petrophysical properties beds has migrated laterally and upward along
of the source rock interval such as the thick- the fault planes, which acted as conduits for
ness of the organic rich interval and the migration, and accumulated in the low-
amount of generated hydrocarbon that is re- potential reservoirs of the Ras Budran trap
lated to the initial amount of TOC value. The (Chowdhary and Taha, 1987). Rocks with low-
79
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
80
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
and maturity curves. It should be noted that, flow values during the syn-rift and early
the maximum heat flows reached during both post-rift stages, i.e. for both the Oligocene
rifting phases did not affect the present-day and Miocene rifting phases. However, heat
maturity, because the sediments were depos- flows much higher than those applied do not
ited as Miocene post-rifting basin fill at a seem to be probable, since there is an evi-
shallow depth and younger in age. In con- dence of intense magmatic activity in the
trast, there is no clear evidence for heat study area.
Figure (8) : Quantitative simulated geohistory, burial history and recalibrated temperature development
history as a function of time and space of the reference (RB-A2) well using the paleotempera-
ture determined by Easy% Ro approach. The solid lines traces the depth-time relation for the
sediment with discrepancy between present (compacted) and decompacted thickness. The low-
er curve shows subsidence of the basement. The upper curves are sea-level and the sediment
interface .
81
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Figure (9) : Quantitative simulated geohistory, burial history and recalibrated temperature de-
velopment history as a function of time and space of the reference (RB-A2) well using
the paleotemperature determined by Easy% Ro approach. The solid lines traces the
depth-time relation for the sediment with discrepancy between present (compacted)
and decompacted thickness. The lower curve shows subsidence of the basement. The
upper curves are sea-level and the sediment interface .
82
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Figure (10) : The simulated transformastion ratio value and the associated bulk generation mass
of Wata Formation in a reference wells (RB-C1, RB- A2, RB-B5) against geologic time
scale (Ma).
83
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Figure (11) : The simulated vitrinite reflectance value and the associated thermal history of
Wata formations in a reference well (RB-B5) as a function of time and space. The cal-
culated vitrinite reflectance value carried out using the Easy%Ro algorithm (Sweeney
and Burnham, 1990) and temperature profile against geologic time scale (Ma).
84
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Figure (12) : The simulated vitrinite reflectance value and the associated thermal history of
Wata formations in a reference well (RB-A2) as a function of time and space. The cal-
culated vitrinite reflectance value carried out using the Easy%Ro algorithm (Sweeney
and Burnham, 1990) and temperature profile against geologic time scale (Ma).
85
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Figure (13) : The simulated burial history at RB-A2 and RB-B5 well, with the hydrocarbon zone
properties overlay according to the Papper and Corvi 1995_TIIS(A) oil-gas kinetics
equation of (Pepper and Corvi, 1995) for the source interval of Wata formations
through geologic time scale (Ma).
86
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
87
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Bosworth, W., Crevello, R.D., Winn, J.R., H. (2001): The Petroleum Potential of Egypt.
and Steinmetz, J. (1998): Structure, sedi- In Downey, W.M., Threet, C. J., Morgan, A. W.
mentation, basin dynamics during rifting of (Ed.), Petroleum proviences of the twenty-first
the Gulf of Suez and northwestern Red Sea. century (Vol. Memoir No. 74, p.^pp. 453-482),
In Purser, H.B., andBosence, J.W.D. (Eds.), American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Sedimentation and tectonics of rift basins: Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Red Sea-Gulf of Aden (77-96), Chapman and
Hall, London. Dow, W.G. (1977): Kerogen studies and
geological interpretations. 'Review Journal of
Broichhausen, H. (2004): Mudstone com- Geochemical Exploration 7, 79-99.
paction and overpressure calculation in a 3D
petroleum systems analysis tool: development Engel, A.E.J., Dixon, H.T., and Stern,
of the software and application to the North J.R. (1980): Late Precambrian evolution of
Sea. Unpublished Dissertation thesis, Institut Afro-Arabian crust from ocean arc craton.
of Geology and Geophysics of Petroleum and 'Review Geol. Soc. Of Amer. Bull., 91, 699-
Coal, RWTH-Aachen University, Aachen, Ger- 706.
many. 233 pp.
Evans, A.E. (1990): Miocene sandstone
Broichhausen, H., Littke, R., and Hants- provenance relationships in the Gulf of
chel, T. (2005): Mudstone compaction and its Suez: Insights into synrift unroofing and
influence on overpressure generation, eluci- uplift history. 'Review American Association
dated by a 3D case study in the North Sea. of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 74, 1386-
'Review International Journal of Earth Sci- 1400.
ence, 94, 956-978.
Evans, A.L. (1988): Neogene stratigraphic
Burrus, J., Osadetz, K., Wolf, S., Doli- and tectonic events in the Gulf of Suez area,
gez, B., and Visser, K. (1996): A two- Egypt. 'Review Tectonophysics, 153, 235-247.
dimensional regional basin model of Williston
basin hydrocarbon systems 'Review American Farhoud, K.S. (2006): Geomagnetic study
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, of Gulf of Suez rift basin and its implication
80(2), 265-291. on oil exploration. Geophysics Department-
Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo.
Chowdhary, L.R.S., and Taha, M.A. 25-45 pp.
(1987): Geology and habitat of oil in Ras Bu-
dran field, Gulf of Suez. 'Review American As- Fichera, R., and Giori, I. (1992): In
sociation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 71, Southern Gulf of Suez integration of seismic
1274-1293. gravity and magnetic data as constraints in
the resolution of deep structural setting (pp.
Dolson, C.J., Shaan, V.M., Matbouly, S., abstract). Paper presented at the 11th Petrole-
Harwood, C., Rashed, R., and Hammouda, um Exploration Product, Agenda.
88
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
Gandino, A., Giori, I., and Milad, G. Jia, J., Liu, Z., Meng, Q., Liu, R., Sun,
(1990): In Magnetic interpretation controlled P., and Chen, Y. (2012): Quantitative Evalu-
by interactive 3D modeling: the Ashrafi Field ation of Oil Shale Based on Well log and 3D
case history (Vol. 1, pp. 345-767). Paper pre- Seismic Technique in the Sangliao Basin,
sented at the 10th Petroleum Exploration and North -East Chia. 'Review Oil Shale, 29(2),
Production Conference, Egyptian General Pe- 128-150.
troleum Corperation, Cairo, Egypt.
Kingston, R.D., Dishroon, P.C., and Wil-
Gass, I.G. (1981): Pan-African (Upper Pro- liams, A.P. (1983): Global basin classification
terozoic) plate tectonics of the Arabian Nubian system. 'Review American Association of Pe-
Shield. In Korner, A. (Ed.), Precambrian plate troleum Geologists Bulletin, 67(12), 2175-
tectonics (387-405), Elsevier Scientific pub- 2193.
lishing company, Amsterdam.
Krebs, W.N., Wescott, A.W., Nummedahl,
Griffin, D.L. (1999): The late Miocene cli- D., Gaafar, I., Azazi, G., and Karamat, A.S.
mate of northeastern Africa: unravelling the (1996): Graphic correlation and sequence
signals in the sedimentary succession. 'Re- stratigraphy of Neogene rocks in the Gulf of
view Journal of the Geological Society, 156, Suez. In Youssef, M.I. (Ed.), Proceedings of
817-826. the 13th Petroleum Conference (214-226),
Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation,
Hantschel, T., and Kauerauf, I.A. (2009): Cairo.
Fundamentals of Basin and Petroleum Sys-
tems Modeling. 476 pp. Berlin, Springer- Lindquist, S.J. (1889): The Red Sea Basin
Verlag. Provience: Sudr-Nubia and maqna Petroleum
Systems (2pp). US Geological Survey.
Harland, B.W., Armstrong, R.R., Cox,
V.A., Craig, E.L., Smith, G.A., and Walters, Littke, R., Baker, D.R., and Leythaeuser,
R. (1990): A Geologic time scale. 1-131 pp. D. (1988): Microscopic and sedimentologic ev-
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. idence for the generation and migration of hy-
drocarbons in Toarcian source rocks of differ-
Horsfield, B., Schenk, J.H., Mills, N., ent maturities. 'Review Organic Geochemistry,
and Welte, H.D. (1991): An investigation of 13, 549-560.
the in-reservoir conversion of oil to gas: com-
positional and kinetic findings from closed- Littke, R., Baker, D.R., and Rullkötter,
system-programmed-temperature pyrolysis. J. (1997): Deposition of petroleum source
'Review Organic Geochemistry 19(1-3), 191- rocks. In Welte, H.D., Horsfield, B., Baker, D.
204. R. (Ed.), Petroleum and basin evolution: in-
sights form petroleum geochemistry, geology
IHS, E. (2006): Gulf of Suez Basin Monitor and basin modeling (271-333), Springer-
(No. Iris21 ID:410900. IHS Energy. Verlag, Berlin.
89
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
Littke, R., Buker, C., Lückge, A., Sach- (535), Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
senhofer, F.R., and Welte, H.D. (1994):
(199 A
new evaluation of paleo-heat flows and eroded Salah, G.M., and Alsharhan, A.S. (1996):
thicknesses for the Carboniferous Ruhr basin, Structural influence on hydrocarbon entrap-
Western Germany. 'Review International Jour- ment in the northwestern Red Sea, Egypt. 'Re-
nal of Coal Geology, 26, 155-183. view American Association of Petroleum Geol-
ogists Bulletin, 80(1), 101-118.
Littke, R., and Leythaeuser, D. (1993):
Migration of oil and gas in coals. 'Review Schlumberger. (1984): In Geology of Egypt
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (pp. 1-64). Paper presented at the Well Evalu-
Study Geology, 38, 219-236. ation Conference, Schlumberger, Cairo.
Passey, R.Q., Greaney, S., Kulla, B.J., Steckler, M.S. (1985): Uplift and exten-
Moretti, J.F., and Stroud, D.J. (1990): A sion at the Gulf of Suez: indications of in-
practical model for organic richness from po- duced mantle convection. 'Review Nature,
rosity and resistivity logs. 'Review American 317, 135-139.
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
74(1), 1777-1794. Steckler, M.S., Berthelot, F., Lyberis, N.,
and LePichon, X. (1988): Subsidence in the
Patton, T.L., Moustafa, A.R., Nelson, Gulf of Suez: implications for rifting and plate
A.R., and Abdine, A.S. (1994): Tectonic evo- kinematics. 'Review Tectonophysics, 153,
lution and structural settings of the Gulf of 249-270.
Suez rift. In London, M.S. (Ed.), Interior rift
basins (Vol. Memoir No. 59, p.^pp. 9-56), Sweeney, J.J., and Burnham, K.A.
American Association of Petroleum Geolo- (1990): Evaluation of a simple model of vitri-
gists . nite reflectance based on chemical kinetics.
'Review American Association of Petroleum
Pepper, S.A., and Corvi, J.P. (1995): Sim- Geologists Bulletin, 74(10), 1559-1570.
ple kinetic models of petroleum formation.
Part I: oil and gas generation from kerogen. Ungerer, P., Burrus, J., Doligez, B., Che-
'Review Marine and Petroleum Geology, 12(3), net, P., and Bessis, F. (1990): Basin evalua-
291-319. tion by integrated two-dimensional modelling
of heat transfer, fluid flow, hydrocarbon gen-
Poelchau, H.S., Baker, D.R., Hantschel, eration, and migration. 'Review American As-
T., Horsfield, B., and Wygrala, B.P. (1997): sociation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 74
Basin simulation and the design of the con- (3), 309-335.
ceptual basin model. In Welte, H.D., Hors-
field, B., Baker, D. R. (Ed.), Petroleum and ba- Welte, H.D., and Yükler, M. (1981): Pe-
sin evolution: insights form petroleum troleum origin and accummulation in basin
geochemistry, geology and basin modeling evolution- a quantitative model. 'Review Amer-
90
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
ican Association of Petroleum Geologists Bul- tion in the Berkine basin, eastern Algeria. 'Re-
letin, 65, 1387-1396. view American Association of Petroleum Geol-
ogists Bulletin, 85, 1439-1467.
Wescott, A.W., Krebs, W.N., Nummedahl,
D., and Dolson, C.J. (1998): In Field trip Yalcin, N.M., Littke, R., and Sachsenhof-
guidebook: Miocene sequence startigraphy, er, F.R. (1997): Thermal history of sedimen-
chronostartigraphic correlation and subsur- tary basins. In Welte, H.D., Horsfield, B., Bak-
face exploration and producation analogues, er, D. R. (Ed.), Petroleum and basin evolution:
Gulf of Suez: Outcrop to subsurafce (pp. 150). insights form petroleum geochemistry, geology
Paper presented at the AAPG Hedberg Confer- and basin modeling (71-167), Springer-Verlag,
ence, Integrated Structural and Sequence Berlin.
Startigraphic Analysis in Rift Settings, Ameri-
can Association of Petroleum Geologists, Hed- Yükler, M.A., Cornford, C., and Welte,
berg. H.D. (1978): One-dimensional model to simu-
late geologic, hydrodynaamic, and thermody-
Wygrala, B.P. (1989): Integrated study of namic development of a sedimentary basin
an oil field in the southern Po basin, northern 'Review Geologische Rundschau, 67, 960-979.
Italy. Unpublished Dissertation thesis, Be-
richte Kernforschungsanlage Jülich, Universi- Zhou, Y., and Littke, R. (1999): Numeri-
ty of Köln, Köln. 217 pp. cal simulation of the thermal maturation, oil
generation and migration in the Songliao Ba-
Yahi, N., Schaefer, R.G., and Littke, R. sin, Northeastern Chia. 'Review Marine and
(2001): Petroleum generation and accumula- Petroleum Geology, 16, 771-792.
Received on 15 / 6 / 2014
91
Hafsa Mahmoud Atiaa, et al...
ا ﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻰ
ﻣﺤﺎﻛﺎة اﻟﻨﻀﺞ اﳊﺮاري واﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﻛﺮﺑﻮﻧﻲ ﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﻮاﻃﺎ ذات اﻟﻌﻤﺮ اﻟﺘﻮرﻧﻰ
ﺣﻘﻞ رأس ﺑﺪران -ﺧﻠﻴﺞ اﻟﺴﻮﻳﺲ -ﻣﺼﺮ
ﻋﻤﻞ ـﻮذج أﺣـﺎدي اﻷﺑﻌـﺎد ـﺘـﻜﻮن اﻟـﻮاﻃـﺎ ﺣﻘـﻞ رأس ﺑﺪران ﻣـﺘـﻀﻤـﻨـﺎ اﻟﺘـﻄـﻮر اﳉـﻴﻮﻟـﻮﺟﻲ وﺗـﺄﺛـﻴﺮ اﻷﺣـﺪاث اﻟـﺘﻜـﺘـﻮﻧـﻴﺔ واﻟـﻔـﻴﺰﻳـﺎﺋـﻴﺔ
واﻟﻜﻴـﻤﻴـﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺧﻼل اﻟـﺰﻣﻦ اﳉﻴـﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﺑﻬـﺪف ﺗﻘـﻴﻴﻢ اﻟﺘـﻜﻮﻳﻦ اﻟـﻬﻴﺪروﻛـﺮﺑﻮﻧﻲ ﺑـﺈﺳﺘﺨـﺪام ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ “PetroMod 2011.1 Sp1” .وﺑـﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻲ
ﻣﻌـﺎﻳﺮة اﻟـﻨﻤﻮذج أﺣـﺎدي اﻷﺑﻌـﺎد اﺗﻀﺢ ﺗﺒـﺎﻳﻦ درﺟﺎت اﻟـﻨﻀﺞ اﳊﺮاري ﻟـﻠﻤـﻮاد اﻟﻌﻀـﻮﻳﺔ اﶈـﻔﻮﻇﺔ ـﺘﻜـﻮن اﻟﻮاﻃﺎ ﺑـ اﻟﻨﺎﺿـﺞ إﻟﻲ اﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻧـﻀﻮﺟﺎ
و ﻘﺎرﻧﺔ اﻟﻨـﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﺒﺘﺮوﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ واﳉﻴﻮﻛـﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻌـﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺪي اﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﻪ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﻛـﺮﺑﻮن ﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﻮاﻃﺎ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺰﻣﻦ اﺗﻀﺢ ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻧﻀﺞ
ا ـﺎدة اﻟﻌﻀـﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘـﻄﻮر اﳉﻴﻮﻟـﻮﺟﻲ ﺣﻴﺚ زاد ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟـﺘﻐﻴـﻴﺮ اﳊﺮاري ا ﺮﺗـﺒﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻓﻦ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘـﻄﻮر اﻟﺘـﻜﺘﻮﻧﻲ ا ﺼـﺎﺣﺐ ﻟﻠﻬﺒـﻮط اﳊﺮاري اﻟﻨﺎﰋ ﻋﻦ
اﳋـﺴﻒ اﻷوﻟﻴـﺠﻮ -ﻣـﻴـﻮﺳﻴـﻨﻲ أﺛﻨـﺎء ﻣﺘـﻜـﻮن رودﻳﺲ اﻟﺴـﻔﻠﻲ .وﻣـﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻄـﺒﻴﻖ ﻣـﻌﺎدﻻت ? II-S Kineticsﺗـﺒ أن إﻧـﺘﺎج اﻟـﺰﻳﺖ ﺑﺪأ ﻣـﻨﺬ
18.25ﻣﻠﻴـﻮن ﺳﻨﺔ وأن ﺗـﻜﻮﻳﻦ اﻟﻐـﺎز ﺑﺪأ ﻣﻨﺬ 17.55ﻣﻠﻴـﻮن ﺳﻨﺔ ﻟـﺒﺌﺮ رأس ﺑﺪران B5ورأس ﺑﺪران C1ﻋﻠﻲ أﻋﻤـﺎق ﻣﺨﺘـﻠﻔﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ أن
ﻧـﻀﺞ اﻟـﺰﻳﺖ ﻓـﻰ ﺑـﺌـﺮ رأس ﺑﺪران C1ﺑﺪأ ﻋـﻠﻲ ﻋـﻤﻖ ) (3771ft TVDssوﻫـﻮ ﻋـﻤﻖ أﻗﻞ ﻣـﻦ ﺑـﺌـﺮ رأس ﺑﺪران )B5 (4521ft TVDss
وذﻟﻚ ﻧﺘـﻴﺠـﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﺳـﻴﺐ أﺳﻤﻚ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣـﺘﻜﻮن ) 534ft ( Nukhulوﻣﺘﻜﻮن ) Thebes (389ftذو اﻟﺘﻮﺻـﻴﻞ اﳊﺮاري ا ﺘـﻮﺳﻂ ﻟﺒﺌﺮ رأس
ﺑﺪران C1وﻋـﺪم ﺗﺴﺠـﻴﻠـﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺑـﺌﺮ رأس ﺑﺪران . B5وﺑﺘـﻜﺎﻣﻞ اﻟـﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟـﺒﺘـﺮوﻓﻴـﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴـﺔ واﳉﻴـﻮﻛﻴـﻤﻴﺎﺋـﻴﺔ اﻟـﻌﻀـﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻧﺘـﺎﺋﺞ اﶈﺎﻛـﺎة اﻟﺮﻗـﻤﻴﺔ
وﺑـﺎﺳـﺘـﺨﺪام ﺑـﺮﻧـﺎﻣﺞ ” “PetroMod 2011.1 Sp1ﺗـﺒـ ﺗـﺄﺛـﻴـﺮ اﻟﺘـﺪاﺧﻞ اﻟـﻨـﺎري )ا ـﻴـﻮﺳﻦ ا ـﺒـﻜـﺮ( ﻓﻲ ﺑـﺌـﺮ رأس ﺑﺪران A2ﻋﻠـﻲ ﺗﻜـﻮﻳﻦ
اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﻛـﺮﺑﻮﻧﺎت ﺣﻴﺚ زاد ﻣﻌﺪل ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻨﻬـﺎ وﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻨﻀﺞ اﳊـﺮاري ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﻴﺮ ﻧﺎﺿﺞ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺘﺪاﺧﻞ اﻟﻨـﺎري إﻟﻲ اﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻧﻀﻮﺟﺎ ﺑﻌﺪه وذﻟﻚ ﻟﺰﻳﺎدة
92
THERMAL MATURATION SIMULATION AND HYDROCARBON etc .....
JOESE 5
Reprint
from
Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2015; Vol. 44, No. 1 : 57-92
57-92
93