Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1: An Introduction

University of Benghazi
Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
FLUID MECHANICS
(CE 325)
Mr. Khalid Fadel

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITIONS
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no matter how
small that shear stress may be.
A substance may be solid or fluid, a fluid may be liquid or gas. A fluid can flow and has no fixed shape.
Fluid mechanics is that branch of applied mechanics that concerns with the study of fluids at rest
and motion. The branches of fluid mechanics are:
a- Fluid statics
1- Hydrostatics: study of incompressible fluids at rest.
2- Aerostatics: study of compressible gases at rest.
b- Fluid dynamics
Study of fluid, velocity and acceleration, etc. with force or energy causing flow.
1- Hydrodynamics: study of incompressible flow of liquids.
2- Aerodynamics: study of compressible and incompressible flow of gases.
c- Fluid Kinematics
Study of flow patterns and relation between velocity and acceleration of fluid without reference
to the cause of motion (like force or energy).
Hydraulics is the study of liquids at rest and motion.
1.2 SCOPE OF FLUID MECHANICS

A knowledge of fluid mechanics is required:
i- to understand the fluid behavior under all conditions of rest and motion.
ii- to determine the pressure distribution on hydraulic structures like dams, spillways, and gates.
iii- for flow classification and flow analysis in pipes, open channels, and groundwater flow.
iv- for the design of ships and naval vessels.
1.3 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Physical quantities such as length, time, mass, and temperature are referred as dimensions, whereas
meter, second, kilogram, and Kelvin are referred as units. For example, Width and height have the
dimension of length [L] and unit of (m), (cm), (mm), etc. Table 1.1 gives the main dimensions and units
in the international system of units (SI System).
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction
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Table 1.1 Dimensions and units in SI System
Quantity Dimension Unit

Mass M Kilogram (kg)
Length L Meter (m)
Time T Second (s)
Temperature ө Kelvin(K)
Celsius (co)
Because Newton's 2nd law deals with force, mass and acceleration (F=ma), so there are two systems
of dimensions (MLT) and (FLT). Some derived units in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Dimensions and units for some physical quantities in SI System
Dimension
Quantity SI Unit Basic Units
(MLT) (FLT)
Force MLT-2 F Newton, N kg m s-2
Energy ML2T-2 FL Joule, J (N.m) kg m2 s-2
Power ML2T-3 FLT-1 Watt, W (N.m/s) kg m2 s-3
Pressure ML-1T-2 FL-2 Pascal, Pa (N/m2) kg m-1 s-2
1.4 FLUID PROPERTIES

1.4.1 Density (ρ)
The density, ρ, of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume.
where m is the mass of the fluid and V its volume.

Fluid density is related to two properties, specific weight , and relative density S.
where w is the weight of the fluid.
Because w=mg, where g is the acceleration of gravity (g=9.81 m/s2), Eq. (1.2) can be written as
The relative density S of a liquid (sometimes specific gravity) is the ratio of its mass to the mass of
an equal volume of water at standard conditions.

3
Example 1-1
2.5 m3 of a certain liquid weighs 15000 N. Determine: (i) specific weight, (ii) Density, and (iii) Relative
density of the liquid. ( )
Solution
(i) Specific weight
(ii) Density
or
(iii) Relative Density
or
1.4.2 Viscosity (µ)

The viscosity, µ, is the property that causes existence of
friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion and v
Moving plate of area A F
momentum interchange between molecules. In liquids
viscosity decreases with increasing temperature, while in
gases viscosity increases with increasing temperature. h Fluid Velocity
Consider the situation in Fig. 1.1, where a fluid is between to profile
plates, the top plate is moved by a force F moving at a Fixed plate
constant velocity v.
Fig. 1.1 Definition of viscosity

4
or
The constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity µ. Since shear stress can be written
as
then
This relation is right when the velocity profile is linear. In general the velocity profile is as shown in Fig.
1.2
This relation (Eq. 1.10) is known as Newton’s law of

viscosity.
dy Velocity
2 v profile
The SI unit of is Pa.s (N.s/m ),it has no name. The
common unit of is Poise. y dv
Fig. 1.2 General case for velocity profile
The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of viscosity to density
The SI unit of is (m2/s), it has no name. The common unit of is Stoke, 1Stoke = 10-4 m2/s.

5
1.4.2.1 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids that obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known as Newtonian fluids. For such fluids,
doesn't change with velocity gradient dv/dy, i.e, is constant as shown in Fig. 1.3. In some cases the
friction forces due to viscosity are very small and can be neglected, in this case the fluid is called ideal
fluid ( =0). In reality, there is no existence of ideal fluid.
id
Shear Stress, 
Flu
  tan 
ian
ton
d
ui
ew
Fl
an
n-N
o ni
t Ideal Fluid 
No
N ew
Velocity Gradient, dv/dy
Fig. 1.3 Relation between shear stress and velocity gradient
Example 1-2
A plate, 0.5mm distance from a fixed plate, moves at 0.25 Moving plate v=0.25 m/s  = F =2Pa
A
m/s and requires a force per unit area of 2 Pa to maintain
this speed, see Fig. 1.4. Determine the viscosity of the fluid
between the plates, assuming linear variation of velocity. 0.5 mm
Fixed plate
Solution
Fig.1.4 EX 1-2

6
Example 1-3
l
Oi
A flat plate of area 1m2 and weight 100 N slidesdown a 30o
inclined plane lubricated with 1mm uniform layer of oil of ?
v=
viscosity 0.1 N.s/m2, see Fig. 1.5. Determin the steady velocity of 1mm
the plate.
30° w=100N
Fig. 1.5 EX 1-3

Solution
Since the velocity is steady (v=constant), then the acceleration
a=0, so
x
y
F 30°
30° w
Fig. 1.6 EX 1-3
Example 1-4
The velocity distribution over a plate is given as v=2y-y2
in m/s, where y(m) is the distance above the plate, see Fig. dy 2
1.7. Determine the shear stress at the boundary and 0.15m v=2y-y
above it. The viscosity of the fluid is 0.8 N.s/m2. v
boundary
y dv y=0
Fig. 1.7 EX 1-4

Solution
at the boundary y=0: [ ]
at y=0.15m: [ ]

7
Example 1-5
The velocity v at radius r in a pipe of radius r0 is given in terms of center-line velocity vc for laminar
flow as
( )
If the center-line velocity in a pipe of 1 m diameter is 6 m/s and the viscosity is 0.002 N.s/m2, draw the
velocity and shear stress profile for a cross section. What is the drag per km length of the pipe.
Solution
* ( ) +
[ ( ) ]
Velocity profile is given by
Shear stress profile is given by
Table 1.3 Velocity and Shear stress distribution in laminar flow in a pipe
r (m) (m/s) (N/m2) Remarks

0 6 0 At center -line 𝝉=0, v=max
0.1 5.76 0.0096
0.2 5.04 0.0192
0.3 3.84 0.0288
0.4 2.16 0.0384
0.5 0 0.0480 At boundary 𝝉=max, v=0
Drag force per km length of pipe,

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0
0
r0
v velocity profile 
Shear stress
profile
Flow
vmax (vc )
r dv r
v+dv dy
v 
y 0 y
0
v r 2 dv dv  0
= 1- ( ) velocity gradient = =- =
vc r0 dy dr r r0
(a) Velocity distribution (b) Shear stress distribution
Fig. 1.8 Laminar flow in a pipe
1.4.3 Surface Tension

At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or two immiscible liquids, a film seems to form on the
liquid owing to attraction of liquid molecules below the surface. The surface tension is then the
stretching force required to form this film. Surface tension is the force per unit length, the SI unit of
is N/m
Capillary attraction is caused by surface tension and by the relative value of adhesion between
liquid and solid to cohesion of the liquid. In Fig. 1.9 (a) water wets the glass because force of adhesion is
greater than force of cohesion that cause capillary rise. In Fig. 1.9 (b) mercury doesn't wet the glass
because force of cohesion is greater than force of adhesion that cause capillary depression.

F
Glass Tube h (Capillary Rise)
(Capillary h
Depression)
Diameter d Water
Mercury
F

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9 Capillary rise and depression

9
For water, see Fig. 1.10, from equilibrium
F  F
w=  V
Fig. 1.10
F cos =w
Equating the right hand sides of Eq. 1.15 and Eq. 1.16 yields
If the tube is clean, the contact angle for water and for mercury.

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1.4.4 Vapor Pressure

Liquids evaporate because of molecules escaping from the liquid surface. The vapor molecules exert
a partial pressure in the space, known as vapor pressure Pv. The vapor pressure depends upon
temperature and increase with it. When the pressure above a liquid equals the vapor pressure of the
liquid boiling occurs, in this condition, Pv is called saturation vapor pressure SVP. Boiling of water, for
example may occur at room temperature if the pressure is reduced sufficiently, see Fig. 1.11. Pv has the
dimensions of pressure ( [Pv]= F/L2, SI unit is Pa or N/m2 ).
P=101.3 kPa P=101.3 kPa P=4.3 kPa

o o o
Water 30 C Water 100 C Water 30 C
Pv =4.3 kPa Pv =101.3 kPa Pv =4.3 kPa
(a) (b) (c)

Pv<P Boiling doesn’t occurs Pv=P Boiling occurs Pv=P Boiling occurs
Fig. 1.11 Boiling of water
1.5 Compressibility
The compressibility is the capability of a substance of being reduced in volume by application of
pressure. Compressibility of a fluid is expressed by means of its bulk modulus of elasticity K.
At normal temperature and pressure condition Kwater= 2.07 × 106 kpa and Kair= 101.3 kpa, that
means, air (a gas) is 20,000 times more compressible than water (a liquid). For this reason, the density of
liquids can be assumed to be constant without any serious loss in accuracy. On the other hand, gases are
very compressible.
Example 1-6
Find the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid if its volume is decreased by 15% when the applied
pressure is increased from 700 N/cm2 to 1300 N/cm2.
Solution

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( )
PROPLEMS
1-1 A right circular cone of diameter 15 cm and hight 25 cm. When filled with a liquid, it weighs 20 N.
When empty, it weighs 8 N. Estimate the relative density of this liquid.
(Ans. S=0.83)
1-2 A liquid of kinematic viscosity of 1000 cS, and relative density of 0.92. Find (i) kinematic viscosity
in m2/s, (ii) viscosity in N.s/m2 and in Poise.
(Ans. ν=10-3 m2/s, 𝝁=0.92 N.s/m2, 𝝁=9.2 Poise)
1-3 A vertical gap of 25 mm of infinite extent contains oil of F=? V = 0.1 m/s
viscosity 2.5 N.s/m2. A square metal plate of 1.5 m side and
1.5 mm thick weighing 50 N is to be lifted through the gap Metal oil
and at a constant speed of 0.1 m/s. Find the force and the Plate
 = 25 poise
power required to lift the plate. 
(Ans. F = 145.7 N, P = 14.57 W)
1.5 mm
25 mm
W = 50 N
1-4 A shaft 59 mm Dia. rotates inside a cylinder 60 mm Dia. Both

the shaft and the cylinder are 80 mm long. Find the number of Cylinder 60mm 
revolutions per minute (rpm) of the shaft if the space between
the cylinder and shaft is filled with oil of viscosity of 3 Poise
r oil
and a torque of 1.5 N.m is applied. What is the power required
  = 3 poise
to rotate the shaft?.
Hints: Torque T = F.r, Power P= T.ω, v= ω.r
(Ans. N=1850 rpm, P= 290.6 W) Shaft 59mm 
1-5 Derive an expression to find the capillary depression h, for

mercury, shown in the figure. If the tube is 5mm diameter, Diameter d
determine h using θ=40o, σ =0.51N/m and S=13.56
(Ans. h=4σ cos θ/(γd), h= 2.3mm)
h
Mercury
F


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1-6 Estimate the pressure difference in

(i) 1 cm diameter soap bubble in air, use σ =0.037 N/m.
(ii) 1 mm diameter air bubble in water, use σ =0.073 N/m.
(iii) 5 mm diameter rain droplet in air, use σ =0.073 N/m.
(Ans. (i) 29.6 Pa, (ii) 292 Pa, (iii) 58.4 Pa)
1-7 If K = 2.2 GPa is the bulk modulus of elasticity for water, what pressure is required to reduce a volume
by 0.6%?
(Ans. 13.2 MPa)

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CHAPTER TWO
FLUID STATICS
2.1 PRESSURE AT A POINT IN A STATIC FLUID

Consider an element of fluid as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let p is the pressure at the center. The forces
acting on the element are the force of gravity, w, and the surrounding fluid at right angles to the sides
of the element.
z p z
(p + z 2 )  x  y
p y
(p - y 2 ) x z
y
p x p x
(p - ) y  z (p + ) y  z
x 2 x 2
p
z
x
p z
p y
(p + y 2 )  x  z
(p - z 2 )  x y
w =  ( x y  z)
x
Fig. 2.1 Forces acting on an element of static fluid
Applying the equations of statics,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

14
( ) ( )
From Eq.(2.1), (2.2), and (2.3),
Hence in a static fluid the pressure, p, is the same at every point in the horizontal plane, and
decreases as z increases.
For an incompressible fluid ( =constant), Fig. 2.2, let the pressure at point 1, h meters below the
free surface be p1. From Eq. (2.6)
∫ ∫
At the free surface p2=0 (atmospheric pressure) and z2-z1=h, hence
Point 1 and 3 are in the same horizontal plane, from Eq. (2.4) and (2.5),
p is the pressure and h is known as the head.
Free Surface
2 Atm. pressure (p=0)
h Liquid (  )
z2 1 3
z1
Datum
Fig. 2.2 Pressure at a point in a static fluid (incompressible)

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2.2 PASCAL’S LAW
Consider a wedge shaped element at a point in a
p(dl dy)
static fluid with thickness (perpendicular to the plane of
paper) dy, Fig. 2.3. Since no tangential stresses can
 px (dy dz)
dl dz
exist in a fluid at rest, let p be the pressure on a plane at
angle  to the horizontal, and px, pz are the pressures on  dx
horizontal and vertical planes. Then resolving
pz (dx dy) w =  ( 12 dx dy dz)
Fig. 2.3 Pressure on a fluid

element at rest
Neglecting the third term, and
Hence, at any point in a fluid at rest, the intensity of pressure is exerted equally in all directions,
which is called Pascal’s law.
Example 2-1
Determine the pressure at A, B, C, and D. Air D
100 cm
Solution Air Water
B
30 cm 1
60 cm
C 4
130 cm
100 cm
2 A 3
Water
Fig. 2.4 Ex. 2-1

16
, "Ignoring "
Example 2-2
For the vessel containing glycerin (S=1.25) under pressure as
shown in Fig. 2.5, Determine the pressure at the bottom of the 50 kPa
vessel.
Solution Glycerin 2m
Fig. 2.5 Ex. 2-2
Example 2-3
In the closed tank shown in Fig. 2.6, the pressure at point A A B
is 98 kPa, what is the pressure at point B? What percent
Air Air 3m
error results from neglecting the specific weight of the air?
5m
( ) 3
1 2
Solution
i- Considering 5m
3m
Water
Fig. 2.6 Ex. 2-3
ii- Neglecting
Error = (78.405 – 78.38) / 78.405 = 0.00031, or 0.031%.

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2.3 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENTS
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's
gravity. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the
pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather. The average atmospheric
pressure at sea level is called standard atmospheric pressure. The local atmospheric pressure may be
lower or higher than the standard atmospheric pressure; lower if the place under question is higher than
sea level and higher if the place is lower than sea level.
(+)ve
gauge pressure
Standard atmospheric pressure (at sea level)
Local atmospheric pressure
(-)ve
Absolute gauge pressure
1 atm Pressure
101.325 kPa Local
760 mm Hg barometer
10.34 m water reading Absolute
1 bar (100 kPa) Pressure
Absolute zero (perfect vacuum)
Fig. 2.7 Absolute and gauge pressure
Pressure measured above the perfect vacuum (absolute zero) is called absolute pressure, Fig. 2.7.
The perfect vacuum is the lowest possible pressure, therefore, an absolute pressure is always positive.
Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the
difference in pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and that of the surrounding air. Hence the
gauge pressure may be positive or negative (vacuum pressure).
Absolute pressure = Local atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Pressure can be recorded by:

1- Barometer (for local atmospheric Pressure)
2- Bourdon gauge (pressure at a point)
3- Piezometer (pressure at a point)
4- Manometer (pressure at a point)
5- Differential manometer (pressure difference between two points)
6- Inclined manometer (for measurement of pressure to a great sensitivity)
7- Micro manometer (for measurement of pressure to a great sensitivity)

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2.3.1 Barometer
The mercury barometer is used to measure the local pv 0
atmosheric pressure, It consists of a glass tube closed at one (complete vacuum)
end, filled with mercury, inverted and submerged in mercury,
Fig. 2.8
Mercury is used because it has relatinely big relative R

density (S=13.6), also the vapour pressure, pv, is very small, so
it can be neglicted. patm M
Mercury
Fig. 2.8 Barometer

Where R is the hight of mercury, or simply it is the reading of
the barometer.
Example 2-4
Determine the gage and the absolute pressure at A and B, if Air
the barometer reading is 755 mm Hg. (SHg = 13.6)
Oil S=0.8 0.9 m
A
Solution
Water 2m
B
Fig. 2.9 Ex. 2-4
Example 2-5
At a base of a mountain, a mercury barometer reads Rb=740 mm,
R
whereas at the top it reads Rt=595 mm. If the density of air is h air,t
3 (compl
1.23 kg/m and is assumed constant, find the pheight of
atm
M the
mountain.
Mercury
h air,b
Solution
H
Oil
S = 0.85
Fig. 2.10 Ex. 2-5

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At the top:
At the base:
From Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) substitute in Eq. (1)
2.3.2 Bourdon Gauge

Pressure at a point in fluid is commonly measured by Bourdon gauge, Fig 2.11. In this gauge a
curved hollow matal tube, open to the fluid, of elleptical cross-section changes its curvature according to
the pressure. Bourdon gauge records pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since it
measures the difference in pressure of the fluid to which it is connected and that of the surrounding air.
A pressure and vacuum gauge can be combined into one called the compound gauge.
a
a
deformed state Section a-a
flexible metal
tube
(original state)
Fluid under
pressure
Fig. 2.11 Bourdon gauge
Example 2-6
The Bouron gauge shown in Fig. 2.12 reads 34.5 kPa (gauge). Air
What is the absolute air pressure in the tank? Assuming
standard atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa. 30 cm G Water
2
Solution 15 cm 1
(gauge)
Fig. 2.12 Ex. 2-6
(gauge)

20
(abs)
Example 2-7
Bourdon gauge A inside a pressure tank reads 80 kPa. Another B
Bourdon gage B outside the pressure tank and connected with it b
reads 120 kPa, and an aneroid barometer reads 750 mm Hg. What A
are the absolute pressures measured by gauge A and gauge B. a
Solution Fig. 2.13 Ex. 2-7
(gauge), (gauge)
A
80 kPa
(gauge) B
200 kPa
120 kPa
Local Atm. Pr.
(abs) 300 kPa 220 kPa 100 kPa
Absolute 0
(abs)
Fig. 2.14 Ex. 2-7
2.3.3 Piezometer
A piezometer is used to measure moderate
positive pressure. It is a simple device consists of
Piezometers
a glass tube one end being connected to the point
of pressure measurement and the other end open
pA
to atmosphere, Fig. 2.15. h h= 
A
pressure pipe
Fig. 2.15 Piezometer
Example 2-8
Liquid A will simply rise in piezometer a to the same elevation as liquid A in the tank (i.e., to elevation
2m). Determine the pressure at the bottom of the tank (El 0), and determine the elevation to which

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liquid B will rise in piezometer b. a b
El 2m
Solution
Liquid A
(S=0.72)
El=?
El 0.3m
Liquid B
(S=2.36)
El 0
Elevation of liquid B in piezometer b =0.819 m
Fig. 2.16 Ex. 2-8
2.3.4 Manometer
A manomete is a pressure measurement device uses the relationship between pressure change and
elevation change in a static liquid. It is used to measure high pressures using a manometric fluid
immiscible with the fluid in A and B. Basically there are two types of manometers; open manometer and
differential manometer, Fig 2.17. Open manometer measures pressures at a point, while differential
manometer measures difference in pressure between two point.
A A
Manometer
Liquid
(a) Open manometer (b) Differential manometer
Fig. 2.17 Manometers
The following steps are followed to solve manometers problems:

1- Start with one end or surface and write the pressure.
2- Add or subtract the change in pressure from the end or surface in step (1) to the next surface (add
if the next surface is lower, and subtract if it is higher).
3- Continue in the procedure in step (2) till reaching the other end or surface then write equal sign
and the pressure at this end or surface.

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Example 2-9 S1
A
In the open manometer shown in Fig. 2.18; S1=1,
S2=13.6, h1=300 mm, h2=200 mm. Find pA.
h1
h2
Solution
S2
Fig. 2.18 Ex. 2-9
Example 2-10
S1 S3 B
In the differential manometer shown in Fig. 2.19, A
S1=S3=0.83, S2=13.6, h1=150mm, h2=70mm, and
h3=120 mm. h3
(a) Find the difference (pA - pB). h1
(b) Find pA if pB = 70 kPa (gage) h2
(c) For pA = 140 kPa (abs) and a barometer reading of
720 mm, find pB in kPa (gage). S2
Fig. 2.19 Ex. 2-10
Solution
Substitute in Eq. (3)
Note that, Dividing Eq. (1) by , Eq. (1) becomes
where hA and hB are the pressure heads in meter of water.

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Example 2-11
In the differential manometer shown in Fig. 2.20, find the S 2 = 0.96
difference in pressure between A and B in meters of water. S1 = 1.6
A
Solution
y 0.3 m
0.4 m
Dividing by yields
S1 = 1.6
B
Fig. 2.20 Ex. 2-11
Example 2-12
In the differential manometer shown in Fig. 2.21, S=0.8
find the difference in pressure between A and B.
Solution B X+0.7-1.5=(X-0.8)m
0.7m
Water Water 1.5m

X
Fig. 2.21 Ex. 2-12
Example 2-13
Find the difference in the mercury levels in the Vacuum Gauge Gauge
U-tube manometer, reading h, as shown in Fig. 2.22. -76 mm Hg 20 kPa
Air
Solution Air
Water
For the vacuum gauge, 2m
Oil S = 0.8 1m
1m
Starting from the vacuum gage as follows
h=?
Hg (S = 13.6)
Fig. 2.22 Ex. 2-13

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Example 2-14
In Fig. 2.23, A contains water. When the left meniscus is at zero on A
the scale, as shown in the figure, hA = 90 mm H2O. Find the reading
of the right meniscus for pA = 8 kPa with no adjustment of the U tube
or scale. 600 mm
h1
Solution
0 0
First determine the reading h1 for hA=90 mm (Fig. 2.23)
S = 2.94
Fig. 2.23 Ex. 2-14
Now determine the reading h2 for pA=8 kPa (Fig. 2.24) A

h
600 mm
h1 h 2
0 0
h
Fig. 2.24 Ex. 2-14
Example 2-15
In Fig. 2.25, Find the gauge readings G1 and G2, if G1 =?
the barometric pressure of the place is 750 mm
1 Closed
mercury. Air
Solution
Hg
1.5m Oil S=0.8 vapor
(a) to find G1
0.6m
c
1.8m Water
G2 =?
Hg S=13.6
Gauge G1 reads the difference in pressure between
point 1 and the outside atmosphere
Fig. 2.25 Ex. 2-15
or

25
(b) to find G2
2.4 FORCES ON PLANE AREAS

The resultant force F due to fluid pressure acting on a plane immersed area A is given by ∫
and acts on a point on the area A normal to the surface, this point is called the center of pressure C.P,
Fig. 2.26. To develop an expression for F and C.P, consider the plane of the immersed area making an
angle  with the free surface, X axis is a line where the plane of the area intersects the free surface.
F.S
 X
h
h cp h
F
ycp
y
0
y
x' dA
C.P G
y'
x
xcp
Fig. 2.26 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface
On an element area dA
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

26
It is known that from the centroid of an area
∫ ∫
From Eq. (2.19) substitute in Eq. (2.18)
To determine the center of pressure C.P. take the moment about X axis
∫ ∫ ∫
From the parallel axes theorem

̅
substituting in Eq. (2.24) yields
̅
Similarly to determine xcp take the moment about Y axis with an element area dA parallel to Y axis that
yields
̅
Summary for an inclined surface:
Notes:
- is the vertical distance from the centroid of area, G to the free surface (real or imaginary).
- F is the resultant force, perpendicular to the surface.
- ̅ is the second moment of area about the centroidal axis x'.
- ̅ is the product of inertia. Note that, if either of the centroidal axes x' and y' is an axis of
symmetry, then ̅ , also ̅ may be either (+)ve or (-)ve.
27
For a vertical area (=90o, Fig. 2.27), X
F.S
y cp y
h
h cp
x' G
With the same formulae and notes in the
F
inclined surface summary. C.P x
y'
x cp
Fig. 2.27 Hydrostatic force on

a vertical surface
For a Horizontal area, Fig. 2.28, the resultant F.S

force is perpendicular to the area and acts on the
centroid G, i.e. G coincides with C.P.
F h=h cp=h
x
C.P.
where G
is the vertical distance from the centroid of y
area, G to the free surface (real or imaginary).
Fig. 2.27 Hydrostatic force on

a horizontal surface
Note that, the resultant static fluid forces are perpendicular to the plane surfaces (inclined, vertical, and
horizontal).

28
Fig. 2.28 shows the second moment of area for some common shapes about the cetroidal axes
y' y'
y'
y'
d d G x' G x'
G x'
G x' 4r
r r
d/3 
b b
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Fig. 2.28 The second moment of area of some common shapes
The pressure prism

In some cases, it is easy to calculate the hydrostatic force using the idea of the pressure prism. In
Fig. 2.29 the acting force on an element area dA is , where dV is an element volume
of area dA and height h, hence force F can be written as
where F is the resultant hydrostatic force and is the volume of the pressure prism. The line of action
of F passes through the centroid of the pressure prism.
F.S
X
h2 h h1
F h1
Pressure prism
0
h2
dA
C.P
Fig. 2.29 Pressure prism

29
Example 2-16
A cubic tank has a side of 2 m contains water as shown in
Fig. 2.30, find the hydrostatic forces acting on the sides.
Water 1.5 m
2m
Fig. 2.30 Ex. 2-16

Solution
i- Using the formulae (Fig. 2.31)
2m
F.S
X
̅ ⁄ y
hcp h ycp
x' G 1.5 m
F C.P.
̅ because y' is an axis of symmetry x cp
y'
̅
Y
Fig. 2.31 Ex. 2-16
ii- Using the pressure prism (Fig. 2.32)
F acts at the center of gravity of the pressure prism
2m
1m Pressure prism
1m
1m
h=1.5m F
C.P.
F F 0.5m
h
3 =0.5m
h h
Fig. 2.32 Ex. 2-16

30
Example 2-17
For the cubic tank Example 2-16, Fig. 2.30, find
the hydrostatic force acting on the bottom. F.S
Solution F
1.5 m
i- Using the formulae (Fig. 2.33)
F acts at the centroid of the area.

Y
1m
C.P.
2m
G
1m
X
2m
Fig. 2.33 Ex. 2-17
ii- Using the pressure prism (Fig. 2.34)
F acts at the center of gravity of the pressure prism
Pressure prism
1m
F
1m C.P.
2m
h
2m
1m
Fig. 2.34 Ex. 2-17

31
Example 2-18
Determine the moment required to hold the gate as
F.S
shown in Fig. 2.35.
Water A M X
3m
2m
Gate 1.3m wide
Fig. 2.35 Ex. 2-18

Solution
̅ X
⁄
1m h= y
A M
ycp
d
x' G
F C.P.
y'
Y
1.3m
Fig. 2.36 Ex. 2-18
Check using the pressure prism (Fig.2.37):

F.S
1
a a
To determine the centroid of the prism, take the first
moments of area about a-a axis yields d
( )( ) F
3
Fig. 2.37 Ex. 2-18

32
Example 2-19
Gate AB in Fig. 2.38 is 1.2 m wide, hinged at A. Find the -15 kPa
force P, applied at B, for equilibrium of gate AB.
Solution Water
For oil: 3.7m
⁄
A
̅ ⁄ Oil
S=0.75 1.8m
B P
For water:
To determine the imaginary free surface (I.F.S.), we will Fig. 2.38 Ex. 2-19
locate a surface at which the pressure = 0 as follows:
1.53m
̅ ⁄ I.F.S.
2.17 w
2.17m
3.16m
d 1.2m
Fw Fo
P
Check using the pressure prism: 3.97 w 1.8 o 0.6m
Fig. 2.39 Ex. 2-19

acts at (h/3)=(1.8/3)=0.6m from the bottom.
Fw acts at the prism centroid, taking yields
⁄ ⁄
⁄

33
Example 2-20
Gate AB in Fig. 2.40 is semi-circular and
hinged at B. Find the force P, applied at A, for
equilibrium of gate AB. Oil
S=0.8
7.5m
A P
Water
4m Gate
side view
B
Fig. 2.40 Ex. 2-20

Solution
Convert the pressure head of oil to equivalent
pressure head of water as follows:
X
Water
6m
h y
ycp
4m x' G
̅ F
C.P.
Y
4r
=1.698m y'

Fig. 2.41 Ex. 2-20

34
Example 2-21
Determine the minimum reading of the gauge,
G, for which the square gate shown in Fig.
2.42 will be closed. Water
Solution
4m G=?
For water: hinge
=γ h
Gas 1m
1m
Fig. 2.42 Ex. 2-21

y h
̅
⁄
Water
For Gas: ycp
3 p
acts through the centroid of the gate. d 0.5m

FG
Moment about the hinge is equal to zero. Fw
4 p
Fig. 2.43 Ex. 2-21

35
Example 2-22
An inclined circular gate shown in Fig. 2.44.
Determine the magnitude and the location of 60°
the acting force
Water 1.5m
r = 0.5m
Fig. 2.44 Ex. 2-22

Solution
X
60°
⁄ h cp
h
y
̅ F
x' ycp
⁄ G
C.P.
y'
Fig. 2.45 Ex. 2-22

36
Example 2-23
Isosceles triangle gate shown in Fig.2.46 is
hinged at AC and weighs 1500 N. 1m C
Determine the horizontal force P required 3m
Oil A
for equilibrium. S=0.83
A
Solution B
2m
50°
P
̅ B
Fig. 2.46 Ex. 2-23
̅ ̅
̅
2.611
=0.87m
1m 3
3.916 G
̅
̅
̅
2.611m
Fig. 2.47 Ex. 2-23
x
y ycp
h
G
h cp
x'
A C.P
y
F P
0.87 cos50=0.559m
1500 N
Fig. 2.48 Ex. 2-23

37
Example 2-24
Rectangular gate AB in shown in Fig. 2.49 is 4 m wide. Air with pressure p
Determine the hydrostatic force acting on the gate if
a- p is atmospheric pressure.
b- p=26 kPa gage.
Water 4m
B
30°
2m
Fig. 2.49 Ex. 2-24

Solution
a- p=p0 (Fig. 2.50)
X 30°
h
hcp
y F B
ycp x'
G
C.P.
y'
4m
Fig. 2.50 Ex. 2-24
̅ ̅⁄

I.F.S. 38
̅ ⁄
̅ ̅ 2.65m
6.65m
7.16m
4m
b- p=26 kPa (Fig. 2.51)
To determine the imaginary

free surface (I.F.S.), we will
locate a surface at which the
pressure = 0 as follows:
F
⁄ ⁄
̅
Fig. 2.51 Ex. 2-24
̅
̅ ̅⁄
4m
5m
0.963m
Check using the pressure prism: 
Case a (Fig. 2.52):
F 
F acts at the prism centroid, taking about lower edge.
Fig. 2.52 Ex. 2-24
⁄ ⁄
⁄
Case b (Fig. 2.53): 6.65m

7.65m
0.98m
F acts at the prism centroid, taking about lower edge.

⁄ ⁄
⁄
F 
Fig. 2.53 Ex. 2-24

39
Example 2-25
What is the depth of water required to tip the
rectangular flash board in Fig. 2.54? Determine the
hydrostatic force acting on the board. (Consider 1m Water
width). L
h=?
Solution
Hinge
AS the depth of water increases, the resultant 1m
hydrostatic force, F, moves upwards, and just before
50°
tipping, F acts at the hinge.
From Fig. 2.53 Fig. 2.54 Ex. 2-25
̅
̅
̅
⁄
⁄
Substitute from Eq. (2) in Eq. (1)
X
50°
hcp
̅ ⁄
h
̅ ̅ F
h y
̅
x' ycp
G
1m
C.P
y'
1m
Fig. 2.55 Ex. 2-25

40
2.5 FORCES ON CURVED SURFACES
Consider a curved surface AB immersed in a liquid, Fig. 2.56. The resultant hydrostatic force, F,
acting on a curved surface has two components, the horizontal component, FH, has the same magnitude
and line of action as the force computed on the projection of this surface on a vertical plane (A' B').
D E F.S
h C.G
h cp FV
A' C A
AP

G
FH F
B' B
Fig. 2.56 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface
The vertical component, Fv, is equal to weight of the liquid extending above the area to the free surface
(real or imaginary) and acts through the center of gravity, C.G, of this volume of liquid
where V is the volume EABCD in Fig. 2.56.

The resultant hydrostatic forces
Inclined at an angle to the horizontal given by

41
Example 2-26
Determine the magnitude, direction, and location of 20 kPa
the resultant hydrostatic force exerted by water on the
curved surface AB which is a quarter of a circular
cylinder, Fig. 2.57, the tank is 4 m long ( the paper).
1.5m
Water
Solution
A
Determine the position of the imaginary free surface
(I. F. S), i.e., a surface at which the gage pressure=0. r=3m
⁄
B
⁄
Fig. 2.57 Ex. 2-26
I. F. S
[ ⁄ ] 2.04m
h
h cp C.G
1.5m
F
√ A
 FV
3m
√
FH FH
M
( ) B
Fig. 2.58 Ex. 2-26

( )
3.54 w
A
F
6.54 w
M
B
Fig. 2.59 Ex. 2-26

42
Example 2-27
Determine the magnitude, direction, and location of
the resultant hydrostatic force exerted by water on the F.S
r=
gate shown in Fig. 2.60. Consider 1 m length ( the 6m
paper). Water
80 ° O
Solution
̅
Fig. 2.60 Ex. 2-27

V1: volume (A C C' A)
V2: volume (A B C C' A)

FV1
: volume (A B C A), "Sector – Triangle"
C' A
( )
h 3.857
40°
C O
40°
FH
√ 3.857
B
( ) FV2 4.596
Fig. 2.61 Ex. 2-27
O O
FH 
F F
 FV
7.714 w
Fig. 2.62 Ex. 2-27 Fig. 2.63 Ex. 2-27

43
Example 2-28
A cylindrical barrier holds water as shown in Fig. 2.64.
Consider 1 m length ( the paper), determine Water 2m
(a)- the gravity force of the barrier.
(b)- the force exerted by water against the smooth wall
(horizontal force only).
Solution
Fig. 2.64 Ex. 2-28
̅
FV1
I. F. S
W 2 w
( )
FH1
FH2
4 w 4 w
( ) FV2
Fig. 2.65 Ex. 2-28
2 w 2 w
4 w
Fig. 2.66 Ex. 2-28

44
Example 2-29
Determine the magnitude, direction, and location of
the resultant hydrostatic force exerted by water on Water
the curved surface which is a quarter of a circular 1m
cylinder, Fig. 2.67, consider 1 m long ( the paper).
Solution
0.5m
Fig. 2.67 Ex. 2-29
[ ⁄ ]
I. F. S
w
√

FH
( )
1.5 w
F
FV
( )
Fig. 2.68 Ex. 2-29
w
1.5 w
F
Fig. 2.69 Ex. 2-29

45
Example 2-30
A cylinder of radius 1.2 m and 1m length plugs a
rectangular hole in a tank as shown in Fig. 2.70.
With what force is the cylinder pressed against the
bottom of the tank?
Water
3m
Solution
2m
1.
30°
Fig. 2.70 Ex. 2-30
[ ⁄ ]
[ ]
2.4m
Fd
3m
x2 x1
y
F u1 F u2
Fig. 2.71 Ex. 2-30

46
2.6 BUOYANCY FORCE
A buoyancy force is defined as the net force exerted from fluid pressure on the surface of an object
that is either completely or partially submerged in a fluid at rest. The buoyancy force and its line of
action can be found by the principles just introduced for the calculation of forces on curved surfaces.
Consider a body immersed in a liquid , Fig. 2.72. The horizontal components balance each other, the
vertical components are , and , thus the forces acting on the body in vertical direction are:
i- the weight W of the body

ii- the net vertical component of the fluid pressure
E F F.S
( )
FV1
A G C
FH V FH
W
D
FV2
Fig. 2.72 Forces acting on submerged body
, ( is the volume EABCF), acts through C.G of volume EABCF.
, ( is the volume EADCF), acts through C.G of volume EADCF.
, ( is the volume ABCD, which is the volume of the body)
is known as the buoyancy force FB.
= the weight of the liquid displaced.
A submerged body or floating body is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body and is called the force of buoyancy, FB, and acts through the center of gravity of
the displaced volume and is called the center of buoyancy, B. If the fluid is homogeneous and the body
is homogeneous, then the center of gravity of the body, G, and the center of gravity of the displaced
fluid, B coincide.

47
When a body (stone or steel ball) is weighed in a liquid its effective weight is . Thus when a
body is immersed in a liquid it suffers an apparent loss of weight equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced, which is called the principle of Archimedes (250 B.C.).
F.S F.S
V
FB =  V
( ) ( )
G
W
V
G B
V is the volume of displaced fluid
(a) Immersed body (b) Floating body
Fig. 2.73 Forces acting on immersed and floating body
If a body is submerged,
i- if W = FB, the body is in equilibrium, which means the densities of the body and fluid are equal.
ii- if W > FB, the body will sink.
iii- if W < FB, the body will rise until the weight of displaced liquid equals the weight of the body
(floating body like a ship).
Example 2-31
A body weighs 2080 N in air. When submerged in water it weighs 1000 N, Fig. 2.74. Determine the
specific gravity of the body.
weight =2080N weight =1000N
Balance
String
Air
Water
V V
Fig. 2.74 Ex. 2-31

48
Solution
T= 2080 N T=1000 N
Air Water
V V
W=mg=2080N
W=mg=2080N
FB = wV
Fig. 2.75 Ex. 2-31
Example 2-32
A cube of timber 40 cm of each side floats in water as
shown in Fig. 2.76. The specific gravity of the timber
is 0.60. Find the submerged depth of the cube. D=?
Water
Solution
40cm
Fig. 2.76 Ex. 2-32

Weight of cube = weight of displaced water
V D
Water W
FB = wV
Fig. 2.77 Ex. 2-32

49
Example 2-33
A body having a volume of 0.20 m3 required a force F.S
of 250 N to keep it immersed in water and 160 N to
( )
keep it immersed in another liquid. Determine the F
weight of the body and the specific gravity of the
body and the liquid.
V
Solution G
In water:
FB =  V
Fig. 2.77 Ex. 2-33
In liquid:

50
Example 2-34
A hydrometer weighing 0.1 N has a stem of 4 mm diameter.
h=?
How much deeper will it float in oil of specific gravity 0.8 4mm
than in another liquid of specific gravity 0.84?
Solution
Let a = the cross-sectional area of the stem
In liquid (S.G=0.84):
Liquid Oil
(0.84) (0.8)
Fig. 2.78 Ex. 2-34

In oil (S.G=0.8):
From Eq. (1) V=1.2135 ×10-5 m3, substitute in Eq. (2)
( )
FB =  V
Fig. 2.79 Ex. 2-34

51
Example 2-35
To what depth will a 1 m diameter log of timber 4 m
long and relative density 0.6 sink when floated in a
river? 
Water
Solution h
W
Weight of log = Weight of displaced water

FB = wV
Fig. 2.80 Ex. 2-35
( ) * ( ) +
Using trigonometry, , and simplifying yields
( )
Using trial and error method to find as follows:
( )
 45 60 70 80 85 81
E + 0.242 + 0.16 + 0.09 + 0.008 -0.035 -0.00064

52
Example 2-36
A block of steel (S=7.85) will float at a mercury-water
interface as shown in the figure . what will be the ratio of Water h
distances a and b for this condition? The block has a
width d perpendicular to the paper. Steel a
block
b
L
Mercury (13.6)
Solution
Fig. 2.81 Ex. 2-36
[ ]
FV1
[ ] w h
[ ] w (h+a)
W
w (h+a) + Hgb
FV2
Fig. 2.82 Ex. 2-36

53
PROBLEMS
2-1 In the Fig., determine the pressure at point Air A

A, B, C, and D in pascals, ignoring air 0.3 m
Air
C
density.
1 0.3 m
(Ans. pA = -5886 Pa, pB = pC = 5886 Pa, Oil
pD = 22661 Pa ) S = 0.9
0.6 m
3 2 B
1m
Water D
2-2 In the differential manometer shown in the figure Air

h1=330mm, h2=480mm, and h3=230 mm, Find the B
difference (pA - pB). h3

(Ans. pA – pB = 82.5 kPa) 45°
Water
A
h2
h1
Hg (S=13.6)
Oil (S=0.83)
2-3 For the inverted manometer shown in the figure, if
(pB – pA)=97 kPa, what must the height h be in cm?
(Ans. h = 22.5 cm)
18 cm
Water
35 cm
Hg (S=13.6)

54
2-4 Find the gauge readings G1 and G2, if the
G1 =?
barometric pressure of the place is 750 mm
mercury. 1 Open
Air
(Ans. G1=80.05 kPa, G2=109.48 kPa)
1.5m Oil S=0.8
0.6m
c
1.8m Water
G2 =?
Hg S=13.6
2-5 Circular gate ABC shown in the figure is 4m in

diameter and hinged at B. Compute the force P Water
just sufficient to keep the gate from the opening.
(Ans. P = 61.64 kN )
8m
B 2m
C P
2-6 A dam retains 8 m of water, as shown in

the figure. Find the total resultant force
acting on the dam and the location of the
center of pressure (Consider 1m width). Water h cp
(Ans. F = 362.48 kN, hcp = 5.333 m)
F
8m
60 °

55
2-7 A dam retains water, as shown in the figure.

A strut is erected every 6 m to maintain the dam Water
2m
in the shown position. Determine the
compressive force in the strut. Neglect the mass
of the dam.  6m
5m
(Ans. 602.51 kN) hinge Strut
4m
B
2-8 The submerged sector gate AB shown in the figure
has a radius of 6m. The length of the gate is 10 m. Water
Determine the amount and location of the
horizontal and vertical components of the total
resultant force acting on the gate, also determine the
amount and location of the total resultant force.
60°
(Ans. , A
o
) r = 6m
2-9 The cylindrical gate shown in the figure has a

radius of 1m, length of 1.5 m, and weight 200 kN.
Determine the reactions at A and B, neglecting
friction, also determine the resultant hydrostatic
Oil 1m
force acting on the gate. (S=0.8) A
(Ans. W
)
B
2-10 A cylindrical barrier holds water as shown in Fig.

2.64. Consider 1 m length ( the paper), determine Oil S=0.85
2m
(a)- the gravity force of the barrier.
(b)- the force exerted by water against the smooth Water
wall (horizontal force only).
(Ans.

56
2-11 The dome (hemisphere) is located below the water

Water
surface as shown. Determine the force components 1m
needed to hold the dome in place.
(Ans. , )
1m
2-12 Determine the force components acting on the
dome (hemisphere) shown in the figure. Oil S=0.8
(Ans. , ) 1.5m
Water
2m
0.
5m
2-13 A body weighs 1000 N when immersed in water and when immersed in oil (S=0.85) it weighs
1150 N. Determine the volume, specific gravity and weight of the body in air.
(Ans. , , )
weight =1150N weight =1000N
Balance
String
Oil S=0.85 Water
V V

57
2-14 The cylindrical can in the figure floats in the

position shown. What is its weight?
(Ans. W = 5 N)
Water
8cm
D=9cm
2-15 To what depth d will this rectangular

block (with density 0.8 times that of
water) float in the two-liquid
reservoir? Consider 1 unit length L S 1 =1.0
perpendicular to the paper. 3L
d=?
(Ans. d = 2.167 L )
y
S 2 =1.2
6L
2 pulleys
2-16 A 3.5-cm-radius solid aluminum ball (Sp.
Gravity, SA= 2.7) and a solid brass ball (Sp.
Gravity, Sb=8.5) balance when submerged in
water, as shown in the figure. What is the
radius of the brass ball?
(Ans. r = 2.13 cm ) Water
?
cm r=
3.5 Brass
Aluminum

58
CHAPTER THREE
BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The foundational axioms of fluid flow are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of
mass, conservation of energy (also known as first law of thermodynamics), and conservation of linear
momentum (also known as Newton’s second law of motion).
i. Conservation of Mass
States that matter can be neither created nor destroyed. In fluid mechanics the rate of change of
fluid mass inside a control volume must be equal to the net rate of fluid flow into the volume.
ii. Conservation of Energy

States that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, although it can be changed from one form
into another. In an isolated system the sum of all forms of energy therefore remains constant.
iii. Conservation of Linear Momentum

States the fact that a body or system of bodies in motion retains its total momentum unless an
external force is applied to it.
The fundamental equations in fluid mechanics which are mathematical formulations of these
conservation laws are:
1. Continuity Equation
Implies to the law of conservation of mass.
2. Energy Equation and Bernoulli Equation

Implies to the law of conservation of energy.
3. Momentum Equation
Implies to the law of conservation of linear momentum.
3.2 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW

If the velocity (or any other variable) at a point remains constant with respect to time, the flow is
said to be steady, otherwise unsteady (also called transient).
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow
59
3.3 UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW

If the velocity (or any other variable) at a point remains constant with respect to distance along a
stream line, the flow is said to be uniform, otherwise non-uniform.
Steadiness refers to 'no change with time' and uniformity refers to 'no change with distance'
therefore the flow can be steady or unsteady quite independent of its being uniform or non-uniform.
Hence there can be four flow classifications as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Time (s)
10 m Constant
1
4 v 4
i. Steady uniform
2
4 v 4 s1 s2
Constant
1
ii. Steady non-uniform 4 v 6
2
4 v 6
Variable
1
iii. Unsteady uniform 4 v 4
2
6 v 6
Variable
1
iv. Unsteady non-uniform 4 v 6
2
6 v 8
Fig. 3.1 Steadiness and uniformity
60
3.4 COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

All fluids are compressible to some extent, that is, changes in pressure or temperature cause changes
in density. However, in many situations the changes in pressure and temperature are sufficiently small
that the changes in density are negligible, in this case the flow can be considered as an incompressible
flow. Otherwise the more general compressible flow equations must be used.
3.5 STREAM LINE, STREAM TUBE, STREAK LINE, AND PATH LINE
A stream line is an imaginary line within the flow for which the tangent at any point gives the
velocity vector at that point and at that instant. Fig. 3.2(a) A stream line cannot intersect itself nor two
stream lines can cross. Stream lines show the mean direction of a number of fluid particles at the same
instant of time. Fig. 3.3(a)
Stream lines
Stream line
(a) Stream line (b) Stream tube
Fig. 3.2 Stream line and stream tube
A stream tube is an imaginary tube of fluid bounded by closely spaced stream lines which enclose or
confine the flow. Fig. 3.2(b).
Streak lines are the lines traced by all the fluid particles at a given point at a particular instant.
Fig. 3.3(b).
A path line is the line traced by a single particle during successive instants of time and shows the
directions of velocity (of the same fluid particle) at successive instants of time. A path line can intersect
itself. Fig. 3.3(c).
The stream line pattern remains same when the flow is steady. For unsteady flow, the stream line pattern
changes from instant to instant. Stream lines, path lines and streak lines are all same for steady flow.
61
Dye injected
(a) Stream lines (b) Streak lines (c) Path lines
Fig. 3.3 Stream lines, streak lines and path line
3.6 FLOW RATE

The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through a
cross-sectional area per unit time. The mass flow rate, ̇ , is the mass of fluid passing through a cross-
sectional area per unit time. Fig. 3.4.
[ ⁄ ]
[ ⁄ ] ̇
where v is the mean velocity

A is the cross-sectional area (area perpendicular to the direction of v)
is density of the fluid
v
A
Fig. 3.4 Definition of flow rate
3.7 CONTROL VOLUME

A control volume is a volume located in space through which matter can pass. The selection of the
control volume position and shape is problem-dependent. The control volume, CV, is enclosed by the
control surface, CS, as shown in Fig. 3.5. Fluid mass enters and leaves the control volume through the
control surface. The control volume can deform with time as well as move and rotate in space and the
mass in the control volume can change with time.
The control surface are represented by a vector, ⃗ , oriented outward from the control volume and with
magnitude equal to the cross-sectional area.
62
A1 v1 Control Control
volume surface v2
A2
Fig. 3.5 Definition of control volume
3.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION

The law of conservation of mass, as mentioned before, states that the rate of change of fluid mass
inside a control volume must be equal to the net rate of fluid flow into the volume.
The general form of the continuity equation is as follows:
∫ ∫ ⃗ ⃗
The first term represents the rate of decreasing of the mass inside the control volume. The second term
represents the net mass outflow rate leaving the control volume (outflow – inflow).
If the control volume has only a number of one-dimensional inlets and outlets, that is the velocities are
uniform over the cross section, we can write
∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
In case of steady state the first term in Eq. 3.5 equals to zero, hence we can write
∫ ⃗ ⃗
If the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional, we have for steady flow
∑ ⃗ ⃗
In case of incompressible flow ( is constant) the first term in Eq. 3.5 equals to zero, hence Eq. 3.5
becomes
∫ ⃗ ⃗
or
63
∫ ⃗ ⃗
If the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional, we have for steady flow
∑⃗ ⃗
Consider the one dimensional flow in the stream tube shown in Fig. 3.5, we can write
̇ ̇
For incompressible flow
Because section 1 and 2 are arbitraries, therefore
̇
For incompressible flow
For incompressible fluids Eq. 3.15 is valid for steady and unsteady flow.
In Fig. 3.5 if the velocities are uniform over the cross section, the net volume outflow rate can be written
as
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Generally
∑⃗ ⃗
The net mass outflow rate can be written as
̇ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Generally
̇ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
64
Example 3-1
Water flows steadily through the nozzle in Fig. 3.6.
Considering incompressible flow, compute Q1, Q2, v1, and
Water
̇. 1 2
Solution D1 = 300 mm D 2 = 450 mm

V1 = ? V2 = 5 m/s
⁄ ⁄
Fig. 3.6 Ex. 3-1
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
̇ ⁄
Example 3-2
Water flows through the wye fitting shown in Fig. D 2 = 0.8 m
3.7. If Q2 = Q1/3 and the flow is steady and V2 = ?
incompressible, compute Q1, v2, and D3.
1
2
Water
Solution
3
D1 = 1.5 m
⁄ ⁄ V1 = 1.92 m/s
D3= ?
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
V3 = 2.5 m/s
Fig. 3.7 Ex. 3-2

⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
∑⃗ ⃗
65
Or simply: V2
A2
cs
A1 V1
⁄
V3
A3
⁄ ⁄
Fig. 3.8 Ex. 3-2 (Control Volume, CV)
⁄
Example 3-3 D 2 = 20 cm
V2 = ?
Water flows through the tee fitting shown in Fig. 3.9. If
the flow is steady and incompressible, compute the 2
volume flow rate and the mean velocity in section 2 and
1
show its direction.
Water
Solution
Assume ⃗ direction as shown in Fig. 3.10 D1 = 25 cm
V1 = 4 m/s
3
⁄ ⁄
D 3 = 20 cm
Fig. 3.9 Ex. 3-3 V3 = 10 m/s
⁄ ⁄
V2 A2
∑⃗ ⃗
cs
A1 V1
Or simply
V3 A3
⁄ Fig. 3.10 Ex. 3-3
66
The negative sign of Q2 means that the direction of ⃗ is opposite.
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Example 3-4
Water enters mixing device shown in Fig. 3.11 at a rate of Water, Q 1 = 100 L/s
100 L/s through pipe 1, while alcohol with specific
gravity 0.8 enters at 300 L/s If the flow is steady and
Water-Alcohol
incompressible, compute the volume flow rate and the Mix
density of the mixture.
Q3
3
Solution
For incompressible flow (Fig. 3.12):
Alcohol (S=0.8), Q 2 = 300 L/s
∑⃗ ⃗
Fig. 3.11 Ex. 3-4
Or simply
A1
v1
⁄ ⁄
v3
∑ ⃗ ⃗ cs
A3
v2
Or simply A2
Fig. 3.12 Ex. 3-4
67
Example 3-5
A sprinkler shown in Fig. 3.13 has 25 nozzles, the 25 24 23 n 3 2 1
Q
velocity of water discharged from any nozzle is
given by the relation
v25 v24 v23 vn v3 v2 v1
⁄
Fig. 3.13 Ex. 3-5

Where n is the number of the nozzle. If the cross-
sectional area of each nozzle is 1 cm2, find the
volume outflow rate from the sprinkler.
Solution
( )
∑⃗ ⃗
( ) ⁄
Example 3-6
Water is being added to the tank shown in Fig. 3.14 with a Q 1 = 30 L/s
constant rate Q1= 30 L/s and drained with a constant rate Q2.
Describe the following cases:
i- Q2 = 40 L/s
ii- Q2 = 10 L/s
Water
iii- Q2 = 30 L/s Q2
Fig. 3.14 Ex. 3-6

Solution
∑⃗ ⃗
68
Q 1 = 30 L/s
A1
Outflow > Inflow that means tank draining
v1 cs
Outflow < Inflow that means tank filling

Water
Q2 CV
v2
A2
Outflow = Inflow that means steady state
Fig. 3.15 Ex. 3-6
Example 3-7
Water is being added to the open tank with surface area
dh dt
AT = 100 m2 with a constant rate Q1= 80 m3/min and Q1
drained with a constant rate Q2 = 50 m3/min. Determine
Water
the rate of rising of water level, dh/dt. Fig. 3.16. h
Q2
Fig. 3.16 Ex. 3-7

Solution
∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
dh dt
A1 v1
cs CV
v2
A2
Fig. 3.17 Ex. 3-7

⁄
69
Example 3-8
The pipe flow in Fig. 3.18 fills a cylindrical surge tank as
shown. At time t = 0, the water depth in the tank is 30 cm.
D=75 cm
Estimate the time required to fill the remainder of the
1m
tank.
30 cm
Solution
v1 = 2.5 m/s Dia.= 12 cm v 2 = 1.9 m/s

∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
Fig. 3.18 Ex. 3-8
( ) ( )
CV
∫ ∫ cs
dh dt
[] [ ]
v2
A1 v1
A2
Fig. 3.19 Ex. 3-8
Example 3-9
A 10 cm jet of water issues from a 1 m diameter tank as shown in D =1 m
Fig. 3.20. Assume that the velocity in the jet is √ m/s,
how long will it take for the water surface in the tank to drop from
Water
h0= 2 m to hf= 0.50 m?
h
Dia.=10cm
Fig. 3.20 Ex. 3-9
70
Solution
∫ ∑ ⃗ ⃗
√ ( ) dh dt
⁄
CV h
cs
∫ ∫
Fig. 3.21 Ex. 3-9
[] [ |
( )
3.9 BERNOULLI EQUATION

Euler’s equation along a stream line in a flow of an ideal fluid is
( )
v s
2
1 ds
dA p dA
)
(p + s
line
Stream p dA Fluid element
g dm (element weight)
Fig. 3.22 Forces acting on an ideal fluid element
in the steady flow Euler’s equation becomes
71
( )
if the fluid is incompressible ( is constant), integrating Eq. (3.24) yields
Applying Eq. (3.25) in two points (1) and (2), Fig. 3.24, along the stream line yields
Eq. (3.26) is called the Bernoulli equation (Daniel Bernoulli, 1738). Fig. 3.23.
3.9.1 Restrictions on Bernoulli Equation

Bernoulli equation is applied along a stream line and valid only for:
i. Steady flow
ii. Inviscid (frictionless) fluid
iii. Incompressible fluid
Piezometer Pitot tube
Total energy line (TEL)

v22
2 2g
v1
)
2g de li ne (HGL v12
lic gr a
Hydrau 2g
p2

Constant
Bernoulli p1
p1
head 

2
Flow
z2
1
z1
z1
Arbitrary datum (z=0)
Fig. 3.23 Frictionless flow in a duct (Bernoulli equation)
72
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
( ) [ ]
[ ]
The law of conservation of energy, as mentioned before, states that energy can be neither created
nor destroyed, although it can be changed from one form into another. In an isolated system the sum of
all forms of energy remains constant. Therefore Bernoulli equation can be written as
where E is the energy per unit weight of the fluid. E has the dimension [L].
For an element has a mass m, it possess the following forms of energy:
i. Potential energy (EP): Due to its elevation
ii. Kinetic energy(EK): Due to its velocity
iii. Flow energy(EF): Amount of work necessary to move the element distance L across a certain
section against the pressure p.
Derivation of EF: To move the element (of volume V and weight W) distance L,
73
3.10 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI EQUATION
3.10.1 Venturi Meter

The smoothly necked-down system shown in Fig.
TEL
3.24 is called a venturi meter, it is used to
2
determine the flow rate in a pipe. v1
v22
2g HGL
2g
p1
p2


Flow
1 2
z2
z1
Datum
Fig. 3.24 Flow through a venturi meter
Example 3-10
A venturi meter with a throat 10 cm diameter is installed in Oil S=0.85
a pipe of 20 cm diameter as shown in Fig. 3.25. Determine
the flow rate, Q, if the discharge coefficient Cd=0.98
2
Solution D=10cm
30cm
i- Continuity Equation
1
D=20cm y
20cm
S=13.6
Fig. 3.25 Ex. 3-10

ii- Bernoulli Equation
74
Take point 1 as the datum and substitute from Eq. (1)

in Bernoulli Eq.
( )
( )
iii- From the manometer:
substituting from Eq. (3) in Eq. (2) yields
( )
( )
The theoretical flow rate Qth is
The actual flow rate Qa is
The fluid is assumed to be ideal in Bernoulli Eq. that means ignoring the shear stress and the velocity is
distributed uniformly in the cross-sectional area, thus there will be a difference in the flow rate
computed by (Qth=Av) and the actual flow rate Qa, This difference is considered using the correction
factor Cd (discharge coefficient).
75
3.10.2 Flow through Small Orifices
Consider the small orifice in the wall of the tank shown
in Fig. 3.26. It is required to determine the velocity and
the flow rate through the orifice. 1
applying Bernoulli Eq. (point 2 is the datum)

Stream line
h
Orifice
diaeter = d
2
Fig. 3.26 Flow through a small orifice
The theoretical velocity at 2, v2th , is
The actual velocity at 2, v2a , is √ , where Cv is the velocity coefficient.
Fig. 3.27 shows the stream lines in two different openings. Cc is the contraction coefficient
Stream line
Stream line
A th Aa A th Aa
2
2
(a) Sharp edge orifice (b) Nozzle
Fig. 3.27 Flow through different openings
76
Summary:
Orifices and nozzles can be used to determine the flow rate in a pipe like a venturi meter. Fig. 3.28
Pipe of diameter d Orifice
1 2
d
d0
y
h
Diff. Manometer
(a) Sharp edge orifice
Pipe of diameter d Nozzle
1 2
d
d0
y
h
Diff. Manometer
(b) Nozzle
Fig. 3.28 Use of orifices and nozzles to determine the flow rate
77
Example 3-11
Water flows from water tank through an orifice in the 1
wall of the tank to air tank as shown in Fig. 3.29.
Determine the actual velocity and the discharge through Water
the 5 cm diameter orifice if G
h
a- G = 30 kPa
b- G=-30 kPa Air
Assume a contraction coefficient Cc = 0.70 and a velocity 65 cm 2

50 cm
coefficient Cv = 0.90
Hg (13.6)
Solution
Fig. 3.29 Ex. 3-11
i- From the manometer:
ii- Bernoulli Eq. (point1,2 datum point 2):
a- G=30 kPa:
The theoretical velocity at 2, v2th = 10.18 m/s
The theoretical discharge Qth is
The actual velocity at 2, v2a , is
The actual discharge Qa is
78
b- G=-30 kPa:
The theoretical velocity at 2, v2th = m/s
The theoretical discharge Qth is
The actual velocity at 2, v2a , is
The actual discharge Qa is
Example 3-12
A nozzle is installed in a pipe as shown in Fig. 3.28 (b). Derive an expression to find the actual discharge Q a as a
function of the relative density S of the flowing fluid, relative density S o of the manometer fluid, Cd, d, d0, and
h.
Solution
iii- Continuity Equation
iv- Bernoulli Equation
substitute from Eq. (1) in Bernoulli Eq.
79
( )
( )
v- From the manometer:
( )
( )
substituting from Eq. (3) in Eq. (2) yields
( )
( ) ( )
[ ( ) ]
( )
[ ( ) ]
3.10.3 Flow through Large Orifices

In small orifices the opening was small such that the can be considered constant, also the head h
was constant. If the diameter or depth of the orifice is more as compared to the head h, neither the head
nor the velocity is constant.
For the large rectangular orifice shown in Fig. 3.30, consider an element strip (b dh) under a head h
Area of the element:
Velocity through the element: √
Flow through the element: √
Flow through orifice: ∫

80
⁄
∫ √ √ ∫
⁄ ⁄
√ ( )
⁄ ⁄
√ ( )
h H1 h
H2
d
dh
Fig. 3.30 Flow through large rectangular orifice
Example 3-13
For the large isosceles triangular orifice shown in Fig. 3.31, derive an expression to find the actual discharge
Qa. Compute Qa if H1=60cm, H2= 120cm, b=90cm, Cd=0.7.
H1
H2
 
Fig. 3.31 Ex. 3-14
81
Solution
Area of the element:

H1
x h
h-H1
Velocity through the element: √
  dh
b
Fig. 3.32 Ex. 3-13
⁄
∫ √ √ ∫
⁄ ⁄
√ [ |
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
√ [( ) ( )]
Substituting by H1=60cm, H2= 120cm, b=90cm yields ⁄
3.10.4 Flow through Notches and Weirs

Notches are plates with sharp edged openings, they could be rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal,
etc. used for flow measurements. Weirs are similar to notches usually provided in tanks and dams
(spillway) to dispose off the flood waters (surplus works).
In the rectangular notch (or weir) shown in Fig. 3.33, consider an element strip (b dh) under a head h
⁄
∫√ √ ∫
82
h
H
dh
Sharp-crested
weir
Fig. 3.33 Flow through rectangular weir
⁄
√
⁄
√
In the V – notch (or triangular notch) shown in Fig. 3.34, its left to the student to deduce that
⁄
√
H 
V- notch
(or triangular notch)
Fig. 3.34 Flow through V – notch (or triangular notch)
83
Example 3-14
For triangular notch shown in Fig. 3.34, compute Qa if H=20cm, = 90o, sand Cd=0.613.
Solution
⁄
√
⁄
( )√ ( ) ( ) ⁄
3.10.5 Cavitation
In an enclosed flow system, Fig. 3.35, if the pressure at any point falls below the vapor pressure of
the liquid, the liquid flashes into vapor and bubbles begin to form and travel along the flow till they
reach a high pressure zone where they suddenly collapse. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. If
the bubbles collapse on metallic surfaces, like impellers or blades of pumps or turbines, they cause
damage called 'pitting'. Therefore cavitation must be avoided in the design of enclosed flow systems.
Fig. 3.36 shows the condition of the negative pressure causing cavitation.
TEL
v12
2g HGL
p1
(+ve)
 v22
2g
1 2 Flow
p2

(-ve)
z1 z2
Datum
Fig. 3.35 Flow through a pipe of changing cross-sectional area (cavitation)
84
Local Atm. pressure
p2
p2
p0 p0
pv pv
Absolute zero
(a) | | (b) | |
Boiling occurs then cavitation No boiling, no cavitation
Fig. 3.36 Condition of negative pressure causing cavitation
Example 3-15
A certain liquid has a relative density S=0.86 and vapor
7 N/cm2
2
pressure pv=2.7 N/cm . This liquid flows through the pipe
shown in Fig. 3.37 with a discharge rate of 250 L/s. If the
Flow
barometer reading is 758 mm Hg (SHg = 13.6),
determine the minimum value of D2 at which no 1 2
cavitation will occur. D1 = 50 cm D2 = ?
Fig. 3.37 Ex. 3-15

Solution
⁄ ( )⁄( )
The maximum absolute value of p2 at which no cavitation will occur is
| |
(this value p2 is corresponding to the minimum value of D2)
85
⁄ ( )⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
3.10.6 Pitot Tube

If a stream of uniform velocity flows around a body, the stream lines take a pattern as shown in
Fig. 3.38. The stream line in the center is called dividing stream line, it goes to the tip of the body and
stops because at this point, s, the velocity equals to zero. This point is known as a stagnation point.
Dividing
stream line
s
Uniform flow
Fig. 3.38 Streamlines around a body
Piezometer and Pitot tube, shown in Fig. 3.39, are used to determine the velocity of the flowing fluid in
the horizontal pipe using the idea of the stagnation point. Applying Bernoulli Eq. between point 1 and
the stagnation point s yields
86
Piezometer Pitot tube
ps
p1 

1 s
Flow
Fig. 3.39 Piezometer and Pitot tube installation in a pipe
Point 1 is located at the uniform flow, hence v1=v and p1=p
From Fig. 3.39
The theoretical velocity of the fluid, vth , is
The actual velocity of the fluid, va , is
√
From Eq. 3-35
87
Example 3-16
Water flows through the pipe shown in Fig. Dia. = 30 cm
Dia. = 20 cm
3.40 with a discharge rate of 300 L/s. Q=300 L/s
1 s 2
Determine the manometer reading h.
y
Solution
h
i- Bernoulli Eq. (1 and s)
SHg=13.6
Fig. 3.40 Ex. 3-16
ii- Manometer relation
Substitute from (1) in (2) for ps
iii- Bernoulli Eq. (1 and 2)
From (3) and (4)
88
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Substitute in (5) yields
3.10.7 Siphon
The word siphon is used to refer to that involve the flow

of liquids through tubes in an inverted 'U' shape, which
causes a liquid to flow upward, above the surface of a
reservoir, with no pump, but powered by the fall of the liquid
Reservoir U-tube
as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity, then
discharging at a level lower than the surface of the reservoir
it came from. Fig. 3.41.
Fig. 3.41 Siphon
Example 3-17
Water is siphoned through a 150 mm rubber tube as C
shown in . Fig. 3.42. 1.5m
1 B
1m
i- If the depth of the outlet h=5m, determine the A
discharge through the siphon and the minimum h
Water
pressure in the siphon tube. What is the pressure at
B (inside the tube)? D
ii- What is the depth of the outlet, h, at which no
Fig. 3.42 Ex. 3-17
discharge will occur?
iii- If the minimum pressure in the siphon should not fall 7.5 m of water below atmospheric pressure, what is the
maximum possible depth of the outlet, h, below the water surface?
Solution
i- Bernoulli Eq. (1 and D, datum D):
89
√ ⁄
Continuity Equation:
Since the area of the tube is constant, then ⁄
The minimum pressure in the siphon is at the summit C.
Bernoulli Eq. (1 and C, datum 1):
Bernoulli Eq. (1 and B):
ii- Bernoulli Eq. (1 and D, datum D):
No discharge will occur, that means Q=0 and v=0
iii- Minimum pressure in the siphon ⁄ :
Bernoulli Eq. (C and D, datum D):
90
3.11 MOMENTUM EQUATION

The law of conservation of linear momentum, as mentioned before, states that a body or system of
bodies in motion retains its total momentum unless an external force is applied to it.
The momentum, ⃗⃗⃗ , for any moving body of mass m is a vector
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
Newton's II law is
Force in any direction = Rate of change of momentum in that direction
For steady flow, if the inlets and outlets of the control volume are one-dimensional, that is the velocities
are uniform over the cross section, the momentum equation can be written as
̇ ⃗ ⃗
Since ̇ , for incompressible flow equation 3.39 can be written as
⃗ ⃗
Example 3-18
The reducing pipe bend shown in Fig. 3.43 is in a p2
horizontal plane. Water enters at section 1 with a p1 =150 kPa

3
flow of 0.05 m /s and pressure p1=150 kPa.
Section 2
Determine the force exerted by water on the bend.
100-mm Dia.
 =30°
Section 1
Solution 150-mm Dia.
Fig. 3.43 Ex. 3-18
91
Horizontal pipe that means Z1=Z2
p2 A 2
v2
iii- Momentum Equation CV

p1 A 1 v1 FX
a- in x-direction
⃗ ⃗ Fy
Fig. 3.44 Ex. 3-18
( ) ( )
b- in y-direction
⃗ ⃗
FX

( )
F
Fy
( )
F : is the force exerted by surface on water.
F : is the force exerted by water on surface, same magnitude and opposite direction.
92
Example 3-19
Fig. 3.45 depicts a horizontal wye-pipe. Water enters at section 1 Q 2 , D2
Q 3 , D3
with a flow Q1 = 60 L/s and pressure p1 = 35 kPa. If D1 = D2 3
2
=15 cm, D3 = 7.5 cm, and Q2 = 40 L/s, determine the force
exerted by water on the pipe.
Solution 30°
1 p1 = 35 kPa
Q1 , D1
Fig. 3.45 Ex. 3-19
Horizontal pipe that means z1 = z2 = z3
- Between 1 and 2
p2 A 2
p3 A 3
v2 v3
FX
CV
Fy
- Between 1 and 3
v1
p1 A 1
Fig. 3.46 Ex. 3-19
93
iii- Momentum Equation

a- in x-direction
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
( )
b- in y-direction
( ⃗ ⃗ ) ( ⃗ )
( ) ( ) ( )
√
F
Fy
( )

FX
F : is the force exerted by surface on water.
F : is the force exerted by water on surface, same magnitude and opposite direction.
94
Example 3-20
For the flow of water over the spillway
shown in Fig. 3.47 determine the thrust of
water per meter length of the spillway.
Solution
16 m
For the control volume bounded by 1, A
Water
and 2, B and L =1m, Fig. 3.48
Spillway
1m
ii- Bernoulli Equation Fig. 3.47 Ex. 3-20

Two points 1 and 2 are on the free surface
both of them are on the same streamline.
v1
16 m
CV F
F1
v2
Spillway 2
F2 1m
 w A B  w
Fig. 3.48 Ex. 3-21
95
Solving (1) and (2) yields v1 = 1.074 m/s, v2 = 17.19 m/s
⃗ ⃗
, (force exerted by water on the spillway)
Example 3-21
A vertical sluice gate spans a rectangular
channel. When the gate is raised by 0.3 m
above the floor, the upstream depth is 3m,
Water
Cc=0.6. Determine the horizontal force Sluice gate
exerted by water per meter length of the
sluice gate. Fig. 3.49. 3m
0.3 m
Fig. 3.49 Ex. 3-21

Solution
For the control volume bounded by 1, A and 2, B and L =1m, Fig.3.50
Assume Cd = Cc = 0.6 (Cv=1)
96
v1
2
2g TEL
1
Sluice gate
Water
v22
v1 F 2g
y1 = 3 m
F1 CV
v2
0.3 m 2
F2 y2
 w A B y 2 w
Fig. 3.50 Ex. 3-21

1 and 2 are two points on the free surface both of them are on the same streamline.
Solving (1) and (2) yields
v2 = 7.452 m/s, v1 = 0.447 m/s
⁄
FWater F gate
⃗ ⃗
Pressure distribution
on sluice gate
(Fgate)
(force exerted by water on the spillway, Fwater)

97
PROBLEMS D 3 = 6 cm
3-1 Three pipes steadily deliver water to a large exit pipe

shown in the figure. The velocity v2 = 5 m/s, and the D 4 = 9 cm
exit flow rate Q4 = 33.33 L/s. Find (a) v1, (b) v3, and
(c) v4 if it is known that increasing Q3 by 20 percent D 2 = 5 cm
would increase Q4 by 10 percent. (Ans. v1 =5.45 m/s,
v3=5.9 m/s, v4=5.24 m/s)
D1 = 4 cm
3-2 The nozzle shown in the figure is conical. Find a Dia.=8 cm

Dia.=3 cm
relation between the velocity along the nozzle axis
Q = 10 L/s
with the distance x.
(Ans. ⁄( ) ⁄ )
x
3-3 A jet of water discharges into an open tank at a rate Q 1 = 17.5 L/s
of 17.5 L/s, and water leaves the tank through an dh

orifice in the bottom at a rate of 3 L/s. At what rate is dt
water accumulating in the tank? If the tank surface

area AT = 9 m2, compute the rate of rising of water Water
level.
(Ans. Qo =14.5 L/s, dh/dt = 1.6 mm/s)
Q 2 = 3 L/s
3-4 A river discharges into a reservoir at a

constant rate of 7000 m3/s. The outflow River
rate from the reservoir through the flow
passages in the dam is 11000 m3/s. If the Dam
reservoir surface area is 100 km2, what Reservoir

is the rate of fall of water level in the Flow
passage
reservoir?
(Ans. dh/dt = - 3.456 m/day)
98
3-5 A venturi meter with a throat 15 cm

diameter is installed in a pipe of 30 cm
diameter as shown in the figure. y1 20 cm
Determine the flow rate, Q, if the
1
discharge coefficient Cd=0.98
z1 -z 2 y2
(Ans. Qa = 0.0355 m3/s)
2
Water
3-6 The Figure shows an orifice in the wall of the tank.

62 kPa Air 1
Determine the discharge through the orifice. Assume a
contraction coefficient Cc = 1 and a velocity coefficient
Cv = 0.98 2m
Water
(Ans. Qa = 15.7 L/s) Nozzle
4cm Dia.
2
3-7 Water is discharged from a dam through 10 cm diameter pipe, as shown in the figure. Determine the
discharge through the pipe and the pressure at A in the pipe
a- with the nozzle
b- without the nozzle.
What is the power available from the jet in the two cases?
(Ans. (a) Q = 32.5 L/s, pA = 69.9 kPa, P = 4461 W )
Water
8m Dam Pipe 10 cm Dia.
6m Nozzle 5 cm
v
2
99
3-8 Determine the discharge of water through the Dia. = 15 cm Dia. = 7.5 cm
nozzle shown in the figure.
2 s
(Ans. Q = 241 L/s) 1
75 cm
SHg=13.6
3-9 Determine the horizontal force required to fix

Dia. = 20 cm Dia. = 10 cm
the nozzle as shown in the figure.
(Ans. Fx = 7.07 kN) 2
1 s
20 cm Oil
(S=0.85)
20 cm
SHg=13.6
100
CHAPTER FOUR
VISCOUS FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A conduit is any pipe, tube, or duct that is completely filled with a flowing fluid. Examples include
a pipeline transporting water or liquefied natural gas, and a duct transporting air for heating of a
building. A pipe that is partially filled with a flowing fluid, for example a drainage pipe, is classified as
an open-channel flow and will be analyzed separately.
In ideal fluid flow there is no energy loss because shear stress is not considered. In reality there is
no existence of ideal (or inviscid) fluid. In real (or technically viscous or viscid) fluid flow energy loss
takes place because shear stress is considered. The main goal of this chapter is to describe how to predict
head loss
4.2 ENERGY EQUATION

The law of conservation of energy, as presented in chapter three, states that energy can be neither
created nor destroyed, although it can be changed from one form into another. In an isolated system the
sum of all forms of energy therefore remains constant. The general energy equation in the direction of
flow in a pipe (Fig. 4.1) can be written as,
Energy at Sec.1 + Energy added - Energy deleted = Energy at Sec.2 + Energy lost
The above energy equation can be written as,
( ) ( )
Where
Hp is the head added by pump (energy added per unit weight), [L]
Ht is the head deleted by turbine or fluid motors (energy deleted per unit weight), [L]
hL is the head losses (the summation of hf, major losses due to friction, and hm, minor losses due to
fittings fixed on conduits, inlets, outlets, and valves), [L]
the other terms were predefined in section 3.9
CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 4: Viscous Flow in Closed Conduits
101
Where
f: friction factor
D: internal diameter of pipe
L: length of pipe
K: minor loss coefficient
Total en hL
ergy line
(TEL)
2 v22
v 1
2g
2g )
e line (HGL
yd r a ulic grad
H
p2

p1

2
Flow
z2
z1 1
Arbitrary datum (z=0)
Fig. 4.1 Viscous flow in a duct (E1 = E2 + hL)
Example 4-1
A pipe 200 m long shown in Fig. 4.2 carries 100 L/s of oil (S=0.85). Determine the velocities at the two ends and
the pressure at end 2 assuming head losses hL=1 m.
Solution
⁄ ⁄
102
50 kPa
200 m long
G=?
Q=100 L/s
D 1 = 80 cm
z1 = 1 m
D 2 = 40 cm
z 2= 0
Fig. 4.2 Ex. 4-1
iv- Continuity Equation
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
v- Energy Equation
Note:
p2 > p1 indicates that flow can take place from a section of lower pressure head to a section of higher
pressure head. It is the total energy E which governs the flow direction, i.e. E1> E2 for flow from 1 to 2.
2
v1 2g =0.002 m TEL h L =1m
2
v2 2g =0.032 m
HGL
p1
 =5.996 m
p2
50 kPa
 =6.966 m
58.09 kPa
z 1 =2 m Q=100 L/s
z 2 =0
Fig. 4.3 Ex. 4-1
103
Example 4-2
Water has to be conveyed at a rate Q=220 L/s from tank A to tank B through the pipe line as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Assume constant friction factor f=0.012, determine the required power of the pump having an efficiency of 80%.
Level = 249 m
B
K=0.35 K=0.5
Tank B
Level = 220 m
A
Valve Q=220 L/s

Tank A K=0.2 Pump
K=0.3 K=0.35
L1=500m, D1=40cm L 2 =1000m, D 2 =30cm
Fig. 4.4 Ex. 4-2
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point 1 and 2, point 1 is the datum
104
Substituting in (1) yields
TEL
h f 2 +h m 2 elbows
HGL
2
v2 2g Exit loss
Hp
Entrance loss
h f 1 +h mvalve
2
v1 2g
suction pipe discharge pipe

Pump
Fig. 4.5 Ex. 4-2 (TEL and HGL)
105
Example 4-3
What power can be developed by the turbine shown in Fig. 4.6 if the turbine efficiency is 85%? Assume that f
=0.015 for the two pipes and neglect the minor losses.
Elev. 93 m
A
Reservoir
Dam Elev. 50 m
B
L1=50m, D1=30cm L 2 =20m, D 2 =60cm
water
3
Q=0.28 m /s
Turbine
Fig. 4.6 Ex. 4-3
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point A and B, point B is the datum
Substituting in (1) yields
106
TEL h f1
2
v1 2g HGL
Ht
Reservoir h f2
v22 2g
water
suction pipe discharge pipe
Turbine
Fig. 4.7 Ex. 4-3 (TEL and HGL)
4.3 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Flow in a conduit is classified as being either laminar or turbulent, depending on the magnitude of
the Reynolds number. The original research involved visualizing flow in a glass tube as shown in Fig.
4.7a. Reynolds in the 1880s injected dye into the center of the tube and observed the following:
- When the velocity was low, the streak of dye (a streakline) will remain as a well-defined line as it
flows along.
- If velocity was increased, the dye streak fluctuates and intermittent bursts of irregular behavior
appear along the streak.
- If velocity was increased, the dye streak almost immediately becomes blurred and spreads across
the entire pipe in a random fashion.
These three characteristics, denotes as laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow, respectively, are
illustrated in Fig. 4.8b.
Dye
Laminar
Q = vA Transitional
water
D
Turbulent
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.8 Reynolds’ experiments
107
Based on Reynolds’ experiments, engineers use guidelines to establish whether or not flow in a conduit
will be laminar or turbulent. The guidelines used in this text are as follows:
Re < 2000 laminar flow

2000 ≤ Re ≤ 4000 transitional flow (4.5)
Re > 4000 turbulent flow
Where D is the pipe diameter, are the density, dynamic viscosity, and velocity of the fluid,
respectively
4.4 HEAD LOSSES

4.4.1 Head Loss Due to Friction
The Darcy-Weisbach equation (Eq. 4.3) is the most general equation in the pipe flow application. It was
obtained experimentally.
The friction relation depends on the state of flow, which is classified according to the Renolds number.
For laminar flow (Re <2000), the friction factor is a function of the Renolds number only.
In the critical region of Re between 2000 and 4000 (transitional flow) the flow alternates between
laminar and turbulent flow. Any friction factor relation cannot be applied with certainty in this region.
In turbulent regime, the friction factor is a function of the Renolds number as well as the relative
roughness of the pipe surface. During 1932 and 1933, Nikuradse published the results of now
famous experiments on smooth (uncoated) and rough pipes coated with sand grains of uniform size. In
contrast to the Nikuradse sand roughness, the roughness of the commercial pipe is not uniform, it is
given in equivalent sand roughness. Table 4.1indicates equivalent roughness, , for pipe of different
material.
Prandtl and von Karaman established the following equations for smooth and fully rough pipes of. For
smooth pipe in a turbulent regime:
( )
√ √
108
For fully rough pipes in a turbulent regime:
⁄
( )
√
In 1939, Colebrook and White established the following equation which covers the entire turbulent
regime:
⁄
( )
√ √
In 1976, Jain has suggested the following explicit equation for the entire turbulent regime, which gives
results within 1% of the Colebrook - White equation:
⁄
( )
√
From the implicit relations of Prandtl and von Karaman and Colebrook – White, Moody (1944) prepared
a diagram between the friction factor versus the Renolds number and the relative roughness as shown in
Fig. 4.9.
Table 4.1 Roughness Values for Pipes

Pipe Material Equivalent Roughness, Hazen-Williams Coefficient,
(mm) C
Brass, copper, aluminum Smooth 140
PVC, plastic Smooth 150
Cast iron
new 0.24 130
old - 100
Galvanized iron 0.15 120
Asphalted iron 0.12 -
Wrought iron 0.046 -
Commercial iron and welded 0.046 120
steel
Riveted steel 1.83 110
Concrete 1.22 130
Wood stave 0.61 120
Ram S. Gupta, hydrology and hydraulic systems
109
Fig. 4.9 Moody diagram
110
The turbulent flow is classified in three categories as follows:
i- Flow in smooth pipe, where the relative roughness is very small. Curve in Fig. 4.10a.
ii- Flow in fully rough pipe. Zone illustrated in Fig. 4.10b.
iii- Flow in partially rough pipe where both the relative roughness and viscosity are significant. It is
transitional zone from smooth to rough pipes. Zone illustrated in Fig. 4.10c.
Transitional zone Rough turbulent zone

from smooth to rough
smooth pipes
4000 4000 4000
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.10 Categories of turbulent flow
Summary:
a- Friction factor for laminar can be found from Eq. 4.7 or from Moody diagram.
b- Friction factor for turbulent flow can be found in three ways:
i- Graphical solution: Moody Diagram, Fig. 4.9.
ii- Implicit equation : Colebrook-White formula, Eq. 4.10.
iii- Explicit equation: Jain formula, Eq. 4.11.
4.4.2 Types of Single Pipes Problems

There are three types of single pipes problems:
a. Type I, given: Q, L, D, required: hf
b. Type II, given: hf , L, D, required: Q
c. Type III, given: hf , Q, L, required: D
Example 4-4
Determine the head loss due to friction for water flowing at 20oC at a rate of 2.8 L/s in a new cast iron
pipe of diameter 5cm and length 10m.
Solution
(Type I problem)
⁄ ⁄
111
⁄
⁄
At 20oC, kinematic viscosity, ⁄
f = 0.032 /D=0.0048
Re=7.125 10 4
Since R>4000, turbulent flow. From table, = 0.24 mm
relative roughness ⁄ ⁄
from Moody diagram f = 0.032
Alternative Solution: From Jain equation (4.11)
⁄
( )
√
( )
√
Alternative Solution: From Colebrook and White equation (4.10)
⁄
( )
√ √
( )
√ √
An iterative procedure to obtain f can be done as follows. We assume a value of ( f =0.02, for example),
substitute in the right- hand side of Eq. (1) and calculate a new f from the left- hand side of Eq. (1)
( f = 0.0316 in this case). Since the two value do not agree, the assumed value is not the solution. Hence,
we try again. This time we assume f = 0.0316 (the last value calculated) and calculate a new value as
f =0.0313. One more iteration shows that the assumed and the calculated values converge to the solution:
f =0.0313.
112
Example 4-5
Water flows at a rate 0.020 m3/s from reservoir A to reservoir B through a smooth pipe (PVC) as shown
in Fig. 4.11. Find the difference in water surfaces elevation in the reservoirs, H, neglecting minor losses.
Assume ⁄ .
Reservoir
A H
PVC
p ipe, L
=500 b
0m, 3
00 m
m Di
a.
Reservoir
B
Fig. 4.11 Ex. 4-5
Solution
smooth pipe
f = 0.0185
Re=8.49 10 4
Using Moody diagram, from smooth pipes curve f = 0.0185

Alternatively, using Jain equation with ⁄ for smooth pipe as follows
( )
√
( )
√ TEL 2
v1 2g
HGL
Applying the energy Eq. between point a and b, point b is the datum
113
Example 4-6
Solve example 4-5 with flow rate Q=0.4 L/s
Solution
Q=0.0004 m3/s
Using Moody diagram, f = 0.038

Laminar flow
Alternatively, using the equation for laminar flow as follows
f = 0.038
Re=1698
Example 4-7
A swimming pool of 8 m length, 4 m width, and 2.5 m depth is to be filled from a garden hose (smooth
interior) of length 30 m and diameter 2 cm diameter, Fig. 4.13. If the pressure at the faucet is 1 bar, how
long will it take to fill the pool? Water exits the hose as a free jet at the same elevation of the faucet.
Assume ⁄ .
1 Dia. 2
, 2cm
L=30m
swimming pool
8 4 2.5m
Fig. 4.13 Ex. 4-7
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point 1 and 2
114
v1 = v2 = v, z1 = z2 = 0, p2 = 0
hf , L, and D are known, Q is required (Type II problem)
using Jain equation with ⁄ for smooth pipe as follows:
( )
√
Using trial and error method to solve Eqs. (1) and (2) as follows:
-Assume f =.02, from Eq. (1) v = 2.557 m/s, from Eq. (2) Re = 51147, from Eq. (3)
-Assume f =.0206, from Eq. (1) v = 2.518 m/s, from Eq. (2) Re = 50351, from Eq. (3)
from Eq. (1) v = 2.514 m/s, ⁄ ⁄
V = Q t, where t = filling time, and V = pool volume.
⁄ ⁄
Note that, alternatively, f can be determined using trial and error method using Moody diagram from
smooth pipes curve as follows:
-Assume f =.02, from (1) v = 2.557 m/s, from (2) Re = 51147, from Moody diagram
115
-Assume f =.0206, from (1) v = 2.518 m/s, from (2) Re = 50351, from Moody diagram
Example 4-8
Water flows at a rate 1.0 m3/s from reservoir A to reservoir B through a rough concrete pipe ( =3mm)
as shown in Fig. 4.14. Determine the pipe diameter if the difference in water surfaces elevation in the
reservoirs is 10 m and the pipe length is 1000 m. Neglect minor losses. Assume ⁄ .
Reservoir
A 10 m
=3m
m, L
=100 2
0m,
D=
?
Reservoir
B
Fig. 4.14 Ex. 4-8
Solution
Applying the energy Eq. between point 1 and 2
hf , L, and Q are known, D is required (Type III problem)
( )
116
using Jain equation:
⁄
( )
√
( )
√
Using trial and error method to solve Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) as follows:
-Assume f =0.02, from Eq. (1) D = 0.698 m, from Eq. (2) Re = 1.63×106, from Eq. (3)
-Assume f =.029, from Eq. (1) D = 0.752 m, from Eq. (2) Re = 1.51×106, from Eq. (3)
-Assume f =.0285, from Eq. (1) D = 0.749 m, from Eq. (2) Re =1.518×106, from Eq. (3)
, and D = 0.749 m
from Eq. (1) v = 2.514 m/s, ⁄ ⁄
V = Q t, where t = filling time, and V = pool volume.
⁄ ⁄
Note that, alternatively, f can be determined using trial and error method using Moody diagram.
4.5 Noncircular Conduits

Many round pipe results can be carried over, with slight modification, to flow in conduits of other
shapes. Practical, easy-to-use results can be obtained by introducing the hydraulic diameter.
where
Dh = hydraulic diameter
A = cross-sectional flow area
P = wetted perimeter
The hydraulic diameter is used in the definition of the friction factor,

117
the Renolds number,
and the relative roughness, ⁄
Example 4-9
Air at a temperature of 45oC ⁄ flows
from a furnace through an 20-cm-diameter pipe with an average
velocity of 3 m/s. It then passes through a transition section and 20 cm a
into a square duct whose side of length a. The pipe and duct
surfaces are smooth ( =0). Determine the duct size, a, if the head
loss per meter is to be the same for the pipe and the duct. (1) (2)
Fig. 4.15 Ex. 4-9
Solution
For circular pipe:
⁄
( )
√
( )
√
For the square duct:
118
From continuity
⁄
⁄
vs is the velocity in the square duct. Combining Eqs. 1 and 2 we obtain
using Jain equation:

( )
√
(Type III problem). We have three unknowns (a, f, and Re) and three equations (3), (4), and (5). Using
trial and error method to solve these equations as follows:
-Assume f =0.023, from Eq. (3) a = 0.181 m, from Eq. (4) Re = 29845, from Eq. (5)
, and a = 0.181 m
119
4.6 Hazen=Williams Equation for Fiction Head Loss
Another common formula for head loss in pipes that has found almost exclusive usage on water supply
engineering is the Hazen-Williams equation:
where
v = mean velocity of flow, (m/s)

A = Hazen-Williams coefficient of roughness given in table (4.1)
R = hydraulic radius, (m)
S = slope of energy gradient
where
A = cross-sectional flow area
P = wetted perimeter
hf = friction head loss
L = length of conduit
Hazen-Williams equation can be written as
( )
Note that for circular pipe ⁄ ⁄ , Eq. (4.15) can be rearranged for circular pipe
as follows:
Two sources of error in the Hazen-Williams equation formula are: (1)the multiplying factor 0.849
should change for different R and S, and (2) the Hazen-Williams coefficient C is considered to be
related to the pipe material only, whereas it must also depend on pipe diameter, velocity, and viscosity
similar to the friction factor of Darcy-Weisbach.
120
Example 4-10
Solve Example 4-4 using Hazen-Williams equation.
Solution
From table 4.1 C=130
( )
( ) ( )
or

Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1: An Introduction

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University of Benghazi

Mr. Khalid Fadel

1.2 SCOPE OF FLUID MECHANICS

1.3 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Quantity Dimension Unit

1.4 FLUID PROPERTIES

where m is the mass of the fluid and V its volume.

where w is the weight of the fluid.

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

(iii) Relative Density

1.4.2 Viscosity (µ)

Fig. 1.1 Definition of viscosity

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

This relation (Eq. 1.10) is known as Newton’s law of

Fig. 1.2 General case for velocity profile

The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of viscosity to density

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

Velocity Gradient, dv/dy

Fig. 1.3 Relation between shear stress and velocity gradient

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 1.5 EX 1-3

Fig. 1.6 EX 1-3

Fig. 1.7 EX 1-4

at the boundary y=0: [ ]

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

Velocity profile is given by

Shear stress profile is given by

r (m) (m/s) (N/m2) Remarks

Drag force per km length of pipe,

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

(a) Velocity distribution (b) Shear stress distribution

Fig. 1.8 Laminar flow in a pipe

1.4.3 Surface Tension

Glass Tube h (Capillary Rise)

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

For water, see Fig. 1.10, from equilibrium

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

1.4.4 Vapor Pressure

P=101.3 kPa P=101.3 kPa P=4.3 kPa

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.11 Boiling of water

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

1-4 A shaft 59 mm Dia. rotates inside a cylinder 60 mm Dia. Both

1-5 Derive an expression to find the capillary depression h, for

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

1-6 Estimate the pressure difference in

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 1: Introduction

2.1 PRESSURE AT A POINT IN A STATIC FLUID

Fig. 2.1 Forces acting on an element of static fluid

Applying the equations of statics,

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

From Eq.(2.1), (2.2), and (2.3),

At the free surface p2=0 (atmospheric pressure) and z2-z1=h, hence

p is the pressure and h is known as the head.

Fig. 2.2 Pressure at a point in a static fluid (incompressible)

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Fig. 2.3 Pressure on a fluid

Neglecting the third term, and

Fig. 2.4 Ex. 2-1

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Fig. 2.5 Ex. 2-2

Error = (78.405 – 78.38) / 78.405 = 0.00031, or 0.031%.

CE325 Fluid Mechanics, Mr. Khalid Fadel Chapter 2: Fluid Statics