CE- 6021 REPAIR AND REHABILITATION STRUCTURES

UNIT-I

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR STRAGEDIES

Syllabus:
Maintenance- repair and rehabilitation- facets of maintenance- importance of
maintenance various aspects of inspection- assessment procedure for evaluating a
damage structure- causes of deterioration.

Maintenance:
 The act of keeping something in good condition by checking or repairing it regularly.

Repair:
 Repair is the process of restoring something that is damaged or broken, to good condition.

Rehabilitation:
 The process of returning a building or an area to its previous good conditions.

Facets of maintenance:
The two facets of maintenance are,

 Prevention.  Repair.

Necessity of maintenance:

 Preventions of damages.
 Decay due to natural agencies, wear and tear.
 To keep them in good appearance and working condition.
 To reduce the causes against building.
 Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strength them.
 It will increase the life of building.
 It will reduce the risk for occupants.
 It will reduce the outgoing expanses.
 It will maintain the value of building.
 It will save the building at all weathering actions.
 Adequate maintenance is important one because repair, and re-habitation of
structure cost is huge.
 It will protect the whole structure.
Causes Which Necessity to the Maintenance:
 The Causes which necessity to the maintenance affects the service and durability of
the structure.
1. Atmospheric agencies.
a. Rain, b. Wind, c. Temperature.
2. Normal wear and tear.
3. Failure of structure.

1. Atmospheric agencies:
Rain (a):

It is the important source of water which affects the structure in the Following
ways.
i. Physical:
Dissolving and carrying way minerals as it is universal solvent. ii.

Expansion and Contraction:

The material is subjected to reputation expansion and contraction while they becomes wet and
dry and develops the stresses. iii. Erosion:
Transportation and attrition and abrasion of the materials is quite evident effect of the
water.

iv. Chemicals:
The water available in nature contains acid and alkali and other compound in dissolved
form alts over the material to give rise which is known as chemical weathering.

v. Expansion of water:
The variation of temperature causes the expansion and contraction of absorbed water and
affects the micro structures of the materials.

Wind (b):

 It is the agent which transportation the abrasive material and assist the physical
weathering.
 Its action is aggravated during rains.
 When it is moving with high speed if may contain some acidic gases like co2 fumes.
 Which may act over the material and penetrates quite display in the material and
structure.
Temperature(c):
  The seasonal and annual variation of the temperature.
 The surface of material Cause expansion and contraction.
The movement of material bund and adhesion between them is when it is repeat eel. 
The development of cracks and the rock may breaker away into smaller units.
 The temperature variation may also cause change in the structures and chemical
composition of the material.

2. Normal wear and tear:

 During the use of structure it is subjected to abrasion and thereby it losses appearance and
serviceability.

3. Failure of structure: (causes)

 Improper design due to incorrect.

 Insufficient data regarding use.
 Loading and environmental conditions.
 Selection of material and poor detailing.
 Defective construction.
 Poor materials and poor workmanship.
 Lack of quality control and supervision.
 Improper uses of structure-over loading.
 Impurities from industrial fuel burning.
 Deteriorating environment.
 Sea water minerals, chemicals.
 Storage of chemicals for which they are not designed.
 Lack of maintenance, lack of up keep.
 Lack of proper protection. Precautions and preventions.

Pre-monsoon period:

 Two months before rainy season.

 Pre monsoon inspection are made do decide the maintenance programme to be done
before monsoon such us,  Cleaning of drains.
 Checking of root leakage.
 Collection of material and equipment required during monsoon repairs.
 Bridges and other structures which are not easily approachable during the monsoon are
inspected fully and repaired if necessary. Post monsoon inspection:

 It is made to repair the damage caused by water.

 All replacement renewal and rehabilitation work carried out.
 Canal or dam breach.
 Collapse of root.
 Failure of walls.
 They must have a vigilant eye over the structure.

The inspection should be made on the following points:

 Condition of wall and wall paint.

 Condition of paint on wood work.
 Condition of flooring.
 Roof leakage, leakage if any.
 Dampness in wall or floor.
 Condition of services fittings.
 Drainage from terrace or pitched roof.
 Growth of vegetation if any.
 Structural defects like cracks, settlement, and deflection (sagging).

PHYSICAL INSPECTION OF DAMAGED STRUCTURE:

 nature of distress, type of distress, extent damage and its classification etc,
 preparing and documenting the damages, collecting the Samples for laboratory testing
and analysis,
 Information on the loads acting on the existing structure.

1. Describe the steps in the assessment procedure for evaluate damages in a structure.

The following steps may be necessary,

 Physical Inspection of damaged structure.

 Preparation and documenting the damages.
 Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in laboratory.
 Studying the documents including structural aspects.
 Estimation of loads acting on the structure
 Estimation of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.
 Diagnosis
 Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage
 Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed
 Assessment of structural adequacy
 Estimation on future use
 Remedial measures necessary to strength and repairing the structure.
 Post repair evaluation through tests
 Load test to study the behavior
 Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.

Causes of deterioration: (loss of strength or quality)

 Structural failure
 Non-structural failure Structural failure:

 Design failure
 Constructional failure Design failure:

 Failure due to improper reinforcement.

 Improper mix proportion.
 Design mix.
 Misconception of structural action.
 Reinforcement detail.
 Diffusion of concentrated loading.
 Restrained shrinkage and temperature failure.
 Standard for live load and wind loading.
 Frequency of live loading. (Floor load, impact and inertia load, crane and lift load,
hydrostatic or earth pressure.)
 Other loadings/design allowance for other loading.
 Design provisions for wind loading.
 Reinforcement grade and type.
 Cover specified.
 Design of life structure.
 Shrinkage of concrete and relative movement between concrete and other materials.

Constructional failure: (varies from design)

 Concrete- changes of concrete strength.

 Accidental changes of concrete strength.
 Use of admixtures not initially specified.
 Reinforcement- substation.
 Inaccurate spacing/placing.
 Displacement.
 Splices not as designed/joints.
 Wrong reinforcement.
 Omission.
 Constructional joints- expansion and contraction joint.
 Changes from specified procedure
 Transportation, placing, compaction, finishing.
 Stripping time (removal of covering)
 Formwork removal
 Re shoring
 Pre-stressing sequences.
 Supervision –amount of supervision.
 Status of supervisor.
  Person reasonable for supervisions.
 Availability of construction records.

Non-structural failure:

 Flood, fire, chemical attack.

 Defective workmanship.
 Temperature variation (hot & cold)
 Design allowance for other loading
- Construction loading
- Differential shrinkage
- Differential temperature
- Foundation settlement
- Difference vertical movement for creep - Blast, flood,
earthquake, sever wind. - Swelling soils.

Type of inspection:

 Failure based inspection.

 Periodic based inspection.
 Use based inspection.
 Load based inspection.
 Condition based inspection.

Condition based:

 Location of structure.
 Type of construction.
 Design rick level.
 Exposure condition.
 Foundation condition. Failure based inspection:

 Construction error and non-clear supervision.

 Improperly inspection construction joints.
 Poor constructional material used and materials are not in standards.
 Monitoring the important component of structure such as beam, column ,roofs, stairs,
etc.,

Periodic based inspection:

 It is the time based inspection.
 Lift and escalators are periodically inspected or services.
 Sanitary and plumbing works.
 Record works are maintained periodically.
  Removal of vegetation’s.
 Drainage and sewer lines are checked.

Use based inspection:

 Type of structure.
 Purpose of structure.
 Appropriate use.
 Periodic maintenance for structure will used.
 Serviceability and function ability based inspection.

Load based inspection:

 Load depends upon the structure.

 Durability of structure.
 Over loading (ex: stairs, landing, passage, exit)  Appropriate loads on structure.

Classification of Maintenance:

1. Preventive maintenance.
2. Remedial maintenance.
3. Routine maintenance.
4. Special maintenance.

Preventive Maintenance:

 The maintenance work done before the defect occurred or damage developed in the
structure called preventive maintenance.
 In section.
 Planning the programme of maintenance.
 Execution.
 Specification, Condition and Use of Structure.

Remedial Maintenance:

 It is the maintenance done after the defect or damage occurs in the structure.
Finding the deterioration.
Determining the causes.
Evaluation the strength of the existing structures.
Evaluating the need of the structure.
Selecting and implementing the repair procedure.

Routine Maintenance:

 It is the service of maintenance attended to the structure periodically.

  The nature of work done and interval of the time.
 It is done (work) depends upon specifications and materials of structure, intensity and
condition of use.
 It is done by the fund provided annually for the purpose. (Total cost of construction 1%)
 This is rendered to must day to day problem of normal nature.
 It includes inspection, planning the programme and executing the sum.
 It includes white washing, patch repair to plaster, replacement of fitting and fixtures
blinding of road surface, touch up and finishing etc.

Special Maintenance:

 It is the work not covered in routine programmes.

 The annual repair and is done under special condition.
 It requires sanction and performed to rectify damage.
 It may be done for strengthening and updating of the structure to meet.
 The new condition of usage or to increase is serviceability.
 It may include particular or complete renewal occurring at long interval. Such as renewal
of floor, roofs etc.,

Causes for deterioration of concrete structures.

Some of the causes of deterioration of concrete structures are discussed in of the Chapters
devoted for this purpose. A few details are presented here.

 Design and construction flaws:

Design of concrete structures governs the performance of concrete structures. Well Designed
and detailed concrete structure will show less deterioration in comparison with poorly designed
and detailed concrete, in the similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly prone to
defective concrete, if detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate
concrete cover may lead to carbonation depth reaching up to the reinforcement, it was
increasing the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement.

 Environmental effects:
Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the sources of ingress of moistures
atmospheric carbon di-oxide into the concrete which attack reinforcement and with
various ingredients of concrete. In aggressive environment concrete structure will be
severely reduces.

 Poor quality material used:

Quality of materials, to be used in construction, should be ensured by means various
Tests as specified in the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attack
results In early deterioration. Clayey materials in the fine aggregates weaken the
mortar Aggregate bond and reduce the strength. Salinity causes corrosion of
reinforcing bars as well as deterioration of concrete.
  Quality of supervision:
Construction work should be carried out as per the laid down specification. Adherence
to specified water-cement ratio controls strength, permeability durability of
concrete. Insufficient vibration may result in porous and honey combined concrete,
whereas excess vibration may cause segregation.

 Deterioration due to corrosion:

Spalling of concrete cover
Cracks parallel to the reinforcement
Spelling at edges
Swelling of concrete
Dislocation
Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel reinforcement.

Prevention aspect of maintenance:

Only two considerations – prevention & repair, prevention is more important. During construction
the defects that may seem minor, will have serious consequences. The design engineer is
responsible for the selection of proper materials suitable for the Exposure conditions of site,
detailing of the structure in a manner to prevent serious Deterioration at least for the assumed
service life and through the inspection staff must Consists on proper construction.
 What is improper at a site or construction?
Proper materials, proper details, and proper construction.
But these are some general considerations that should be taken into account for both the
construction of new concrete structures and the repair of deteriorated structures. They
are as follows,

 Match the materials to the environment:

Durability becomes an issue when a material’s resistance to deterioration is less than that
required to withstand the aggressiveness of the environment in which it is to function.
For e.g.:- Steel will not corrode in a dry and salt free environment, but it will do so in the
presence of moisture and chloride ions.
To ensure the choice of an appropriate material, the environmental conditions to which
the material will be exposed must be known so that its behavior under these
conditions can be predicted and addressed in the design.
When a designer contemplates using a new material, problems may arise if there has
not been sufficient experience with the material to adequately understand it’s
behavior or to allow for the development of standards.
In the absence of standards, several factors should be critically evaluated, among them
the relevance of the test data provided in product literature, and the limitations &
requirements associated with the environmental conditions of the project.
The following factors should be considered by the designer at the construction site.
 Minimum and maximum temperatures
 temperature cycles
 exposure to ultra violet radiation
 amount of moisture
 wet/dry cycles
 presence of aggressive chemicals
 Combine only materials with similar properties:
Concrete is a solidified mixture of diverse materials.
When these materials are Incompatible with one another, the concrete cracks &
spalls, resulting in unsightly surfaces and the need of expensive rehabilitation work.
Materials are considered to be incompatible when the differences in their physical or
chemical properties exact a state of instability.
For e.g.:- Galvanic corrosion is promoted when two metals with different electrochemical
Properties are combined in a building assembly.

The use of materials with different thermal coefficients or different modulus of

Elasticity should also be avoided.
Since they expand and contract at different rates, and their deformation characterizes
are significantly different.
In both instances, the incompatibility of the selected materials will lead to deterioration
of the concrete.
When the load perpendicular to the bond line, the difference in modulus does not
cause.
Problems, however, when it is parallel to the bond line, deformation of the material
with the lower modulus transfers load to the material with the higher modulus, which
may then fracture.

 Assess the limitations of a particular material in its functional context.

The selection of materials, particularly those used in repairs, must based on knowledge
of their functions & of the environment in which the materials have to function.
Their physical & chemical properties as well as their limitations with respect to
installation & performance must also be considered.
In particular, the designer should anticipate the degree of abrasion or wear to which a
surface will be subjected. For eg:-
Parking garages should be designed to resist more abrasion by using special cast
Concrete and on applied polymeric coating impregnated with an abrasion – resistant
Material such as corundum.
In choosing a material the designer should be aware not only of the properties that
seem to address the intended function but also the auxiliary properties that did not
Constitute the basis for selecting the material.
For eg:- Air entrainment is used to provide durability with respect to freeze & thaw cycles
but it also enhances workability.
  Protect materials from general deterioration:
Most concrete deterioration can be attributed to water penetration.
Source concrete absorbs moisture until it become, saturated, prevent entry water
from collecting on surfaces is of prime importance.
Moisture fosters deterioration not only become it carries dissolved chemicals that can
react with steel, time, and other components in the concrete, it also plays a major role
in concrete deterioration through freeze) thaw cycles.
By providing sufficient slopes and effective drainages, it is possible to prevent water
from ponding & thus being absorbed. Concrete design should accentuate water
shedding characteristics for vertical elements.
For eg:- proper window
Should prevent the wall from wetting. Sealing the surface with a penetrating concrete
Sealing & the use of 50 mm thick reinforcement corer to protect steel are other means of
protection.

 Design level Factors:

Concrete structures are an assembly of operating systems that experience temperature, air
pressure and vapour pressure, gradients.
Seasonal and diurnal fluctuations on outdoor conditions provide variability and direction of
the gradients.
These operating conditions can accelerate premature failure of the components in a
repair.
The relative severity of these factors will vary depending on the use and location of the
structure and the types of repair material used and so on.
Predicting these fluctuations and accommodating them at a design stage is important.

 Allow for change in use in design:

During the service life of a structure, its environment and occupancy may
change. The structure will have to withstand stresses different from those for which
it was originally intended. For e.g.:-
Addition of roof garden to parking lot requires additional protection against ponding of
water on the roof of parking lot.
 UNIT-2

SERVICEABILITY AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Syllabus:

Quality assurance for concrete construction concrete properties - strength, permeability, thermal
properties and cracking. – Effects due to climate, temperature, chemicals, corrosion – design
and constructional errors – Effects of cover thickness and cracking.

Quality management system: (QMS)

 Quality assurance
 Quality control
  Quality audit
Quality management system: (QMS)

Planning, Engineering, Procurement, construction, Inspection.

Planning:

Owner formulates Quality assurance policy and develops QA plan.

Engineering:

The consultant developed his own design QA programmer and that of prospective
contractors.

Procurement:

Suppliers developed and submit the own QA programmer and QC method.

Construction:

Contractors developed and submit the quality assurance programmer and QC methods.

Inspection:

The testing agency developed the QA programmer.

The QA programmer must be addressed fully following aspects:

 Organics action setup.

 Responsibility and authorities of various personal.
 Identification of coordinating personal.
 Quality control measures in design including field changes.
 Establishment of controlled norms acceptance and rejection criteria for material.
 Inspection programmer for verification of contractual compliance including
acceptance and rejection.
 Sampling testing documentation and material qualification.
 Preparation submission and maintenance of records at all stages.
 Quality assurance activity as to start, planning and design stage.
 It is review of the project including its design drawing and specification by an
independent.

QUALITY CONTROL:
  It implements the quality plan by those actions necessary for conformance to
established requirements.
 It is the system of procedure and standard by which a contractor. Product
manufacturer material process or are the like monitor the properties of finished work.
 QC is the responsibility of the contracting organization.
 The contracting organization is also responsible for a QC activities related to its sub
contractor.
 The control system to be used by it performing design, purchasing, fabrication,
production of concrete and other construction activities for the contractual
responsibilities.
 Identification of agencies and personal responsible for implementing, managing and
documenting the QC programmer. QUALITY AUDIT: (INSPECTION CHECK)

 This is a system of tracking and documentation of quality assurance and QC

programs.
 Quality audit covers both the design as per as the construction phase.
The concept of quality management encompasses the total project and element of the
project.
 The system on methodology of implementing concept of quality management
depends on available materials and construction technology.
 An integrated systematic implementation of QMS is extremely beneficial.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE:

 Strength of concrete.
 Permeability of concrete.
 Durability of concrete.
 Thermal property of concrete.
 Micro cracking of concrete.
 Stress and strain characteristic of concrete.
 Shrinkage and temperature effects.
 Creep of concrete.
 Acid attack fire resistance, efflorescence.

FLEXURE STRENGTH:

 Determination of flexural tensile strength is essential of estimate the load at which the
concrete members may crack.
  It is difficult to determine the tensile the tensile strength of concrete by conducting a
direct tension test.
 The flexural tensile strength at failure or the rupture is thus determine and used when
necessary the modulus of rupture is determined by testing standard test
(150X150X150).
 The results are affected by the size of the specimen casting curing and moisture
condition.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE:

Direct method:

 To determine the tensile strength of concrete can be broadly classified as direct and
indirect method.
The direct method suffers from a number of difficulty related to holding the
specimen properly in the testing machine without (inducing) introducing
stress concentration and to the application of uniaxial tensile load which is
free from eccentricity to the specimen.
 Very small eccentricity of load will induce bending and axial force condition and the
concrete fails at apparent tensile stress other then the tensile strength because of
difficulties involved in conducting the direct tension test.

Indirect method: (splitting test)

 The number of IM has been developed to determine the tensile strength.

 The splitting test are very known indirect test used for determining the strength of
concrete.

Advantages of splitting test:

 The test is simple to perform and given more uniform results then other tension test.
 The strength determines is closer to the actual tensile strength of the concrete than
given by the modulus of rupture test.
 The same mould can be used for casing specimen for both compression tension tests.
Factors influencing the strength of concrete:
Factors depending on testing method:

 Size of test specimen.

 Size of specimen in relation to the size of aggregate.
 Support condition of specimen.
 Moisture condition of specimen.  Type of loading adopted.  Rate of loading of
the specimen.  Type of test machine.

Factors independent of type of test:

Type of cement, aggregate and admixture.

 Degree of compaction.
 Concrete mix proportion.
 Concrete mix proportion.
 Type of curing and temperature of curing.
 Nature of loading to which the specimen is subjected.

Permeability of concrete:

 The penetration by materials in solution may affect the durability of concrete, the
aggressing liquid attack the concrete.
 In case of reinforce concrete increase of moisture air will result in corrosion of steel
which leads to an increase in the volume of steel and to cracking and spalling of
concrete cover.
 The moisture penetration depends on permeability and if the concrete can be comes
saturated with water IF a more frost action.
 The permeability is also of interest in connection with water tightness of liquid
retaining structures and the problem of hydrostatic pressure in the interior of the
dams.
 The flow of water through concrete is similar to flow through any porous body.
 The pores in cement paste consist of gel pores and capillary pores.
 The pores in concrete as a result of in incomplete compaction are voids of larger size
which gives a honey comb structures. Leading to concrete of low strength.
 The permeability of cement paste also varies with the age of concrete.
 A durable concrete should be relatively impervious.
 The permeability can be measured by a simple test by measuring the quantity of water
flowing through a given thickness of concrete in given time.

Thermal properties of concrete:

  Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of the concrete. To conduct heat and
it measure.
Thermal conductivity depends upon the composition of concrete.
 The structural concrete containing norm aggregate, conduct heat more readily then
light weight concrete.
 Lower the water content of the mix the higher conductivity of e harden concrete.
 The density of the cornet does not appreciable affects the conductivity of the ordinary
concrete.

Thermal diffusivity:

 Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the rate at which temperature change within the
mass take place.


D= Diffusivity, d=Density, s=Specific head, k=Thermal conductivity  The
range of diffusivity of concrete is between 0.002 to 0.006 m3/h.
 Specific heat
 The specific heat gives the heat capacity of concrete.  It increases with the moisture
content of concrete.

Co-efficient of Thermal expansion:

 The co-efficient of thermal expansion of concrete depends on the composition of mix

and on the value of the co-efficient of expansion of cement pasted and aggregate.
 The value of co-efficient of thermal expansion varies from of 9X10-6 /c0.
 Thermal properties of aggregate affect the performance of concrete.
 The co-efficient of expansion of aggregate leads to higher co-efficient of expansion
for the concrete.
 The properties of concrete which have bearing on expansion and contraction on
heating and cooling.

Cracking:

Before hardening

After hardening

Before hardening:

Drying:

Plastic shrink age, Settlement shrinkage, Bleeding, Delayed caring.

Constructional:

Formwork movement, Excess vibration, sub grade settlement, Finishing.

Early frost damage:

After Hardening:

Unsound materials:

Cement, aggregate, excess silt, Mud and Dust Thermal:

Heat of hydration, External temperature, Joints in concrete, elevated temperature,

Freezing, Moisture moments, Transition zone, Biological process, structural design deficiency.

Chemicals:

Sulphate attack, Alkali aggregate attack.

Acid attack, Sea water, Carbonation, Fluorides attack corrosion of reinforcement.

Pre Hardening:

Constructional movement

1) Sub grade. 5) Formwork.

2) Settlement sub grade. 6) Movement of formation.
3) Moisture changes in subgrade.7) Swelling of wood.
4) Control of sub grading. 8) Construction of adequate forms.

Settlement Shrinkage:

 Reinforcement
Settlement of concrete during setting
Settlement of around obstructions mix to fluid
 Dense mixers with low water content
 Adequate compaction of low lift Setting shrinkage:

 Plastic shrinkage
 Chemical reaction
 Cracks occurs soon after placing and under moist condition Drying shrinkage:
 Drying shrinkage
 Rapid drying while setting occurs
 Cracking of exposed surface due to high wind, low humidity
 Temperature differences
  Proper protection After hardening:
Drying shrinkage:

 Loss of water
 Cracking of buildings slabs and walls
 Dense mixes with low cement and water content adequate curing Chemical action:
 Concrete and steel
 Expansion of internal mass resulting in cracking of external skin
 Reactive aggregate
 Corrosion of reinforcement
 How alkali cement and non-reactive aggregate
 Thick and dense layer at productive concrete

Temperature:

Internal:

 Differential expansion and contraction

 Heat of hydration of cement
Aggregate of abnormal thermal expansion Low heat
cement and control of temperature rise  Aggregates of normal
thermal expansion External:

 Climate changes, frost action

 Large slabs (or) walls without adequate joints
 Spalling of surface
 Adequate expansion, contraction joints
 Air entrainment and sound concrete Structural failure:

 Excessive tensile stress due to load

 Building settlement, excessive load , vibration earthquakes and insufficient reinforcement
Effects of temperature:

 Fire resistance
 Freezing and thawing
 Effects of salts
  Moisture movement Fire resistance:
 Concrete though not a refractory material is in combustible and as good fire resistance.
 The heating of reinforcement aggravates the expansion of both laterally and longitudinally
of the reinforcement bars, resulting in loss of strength of reinforcement.
 The effect of increase in temperature on the strength of concrete is not much up to a
temperature of about 250 c0 but above 300c0 loss of strength take place.
 The hardened concrete contains calcium hydroxide, If this calcium oxides gets wetted, the
calcium by droxideallombired by an expansion is volume.
 Portland blast furnace slack cement is found to be more resistance to the fire in this
regard.
 In mortar and concrete and aggregate undergo a progressive expansion on heating.
 This expansion as a disruptive action on the stability of concrete.
 The best fire resistance aggregates among the igneous rocks are the basalts and dolomites.
Limestone expander sturdily until temperature of about 900 C0
It has been found that dense limestone is considered as a good fire resistance aggregates.
 Broken bricks also form a good aggregate in respect of fire resistance.
Freezing and Thawing:

 The lack of durability of concrete on account of freezing and thawing action of frost is not
of great importance to Indian conditions.
 Frost action is one of the most powerful weathering actions on the durability of concrete.
 The durability of concrete is affected by alternative wetting and drying, heating and
cooling.
 Freezing is one of the very important factors affecting the durability of concrete in the
cold countries.
 It is very well known that fresh concrete should not be subjected to freezing temperature.
 Fresh concrete contains considerable quantity of free water.
 The fully harden concrete is also damaged particularly to the effect of alternate cycle of
freezing and thawing.
 A freezing starts at a surface in the largest cavities and gradually extend to smaller
cavities.
 The resistance of concrete to frost action depends on the strength of the paste, water
cement ratio, type of aggregate, age of concrete, duration and extend to which the
concrete is subjected to freezing action.
 The fine air bubbles entrained in the body of the concrete will act as a better to relive the
pressure created by freezing.

Effect of salts:
  Chemicals used for snow and Ice clearance can cause and aggravate surface in scaling.
 The formation of salt crystals in concrete may contribute to concrete scaling and
deterioration layer by layer.
 In cold region in the winter, sodium chloride or calcium chloride is used for de-icing
snow clearance on concrete road.
The use of air entrainment makes the concrete road more resistance to surface scaling on
account of frost action.

Moisture (moment) movement:

 The concrete member is outdoor condition such as pavement, bridge decks, transmission
poles; water tank, swimming pool etc. are subjected to alternative wetting a drying
condition, under goes expansion and shrinkage.
 The exposure of concrete to repetitive expansion and shrinkage or repetitive stress and
tensile stress which may cause fatigue in concrete and affect the durability of concrete.

Effects of chemical action:

Sulphate attack:

 Most soil contains some sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, magnesium and
ammonium sulphate.
 Sulphate attack is a common occurrence in natural industrial situation.
 In calcium sulpho-aluminate forming within the frame work of hydrated cements paste.

Methods of controlling sulphate attack:

 Use of sulphate resisting cement.

 Quality concrete.
 Use air entrainment.
 Use of pozzolona cement.
 High pressure steam curing.  High alumina cement.

Alkali aggregate reaction:

 Hydroxyl ions in the pore water within concrete.

 Alkali silica reaction in the aggregate.
 Alkalis come from sand containing sodium.
Chlorides, admixtures, mixing of water, sea water penetration, fly ash, blast furnace
slag.
Acid attack:
  Concrete is not fully resistance to acids.
 Portland cement concrete depending upon the oxalic acid and phosphoric acid.
 With the sulphuric acid, calcium sulphate, calcium aluminates, calcium sulpho-aluminate
which on crystallization can cause expansion and disruption of concrete.

Concrete in sea water:

 Off-structure.
 The sea waters subjected to chloride.
 Corrosion of steel.
 Salt weathering.
 Abrasion by sand.
 Sea water contains some amount of co2.
 Calcium hydroxide and calcium sulphates soluble in sea water.  The rate of chemicals
attack is increased in temperature zone.

Carbonation:

 Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon-dioxide from the air penetrates into
concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide. To form calcium carbonation.
 Carbonic acid which attack the concrete.
 The carbonation of concrete is one of the main reasons for corrosion of reinforcement.
Rate of carbonation:

 Level of pore water.

 Grade of concrete.
 Permeability of concrete.
 A concrete is protector or not.
 Deep of cover.
 Protecting coat is required for long span bridge girder, fly over, Industrial structures and
chimneys.
 Depth of cover plays an important role in protecting the steel from carbonation.
Effects of corrosion:

 Strength will reduce.

 Structures will failure.
 Eccentricity.
 Cracks, spalling of concrete.
 The cross section of reinforcement progressively reduces.  Determination of cover.
To control the corrosion of steel reinforcement:

 Metallurgical ecological method.

 Corrosion inhibitors.
 Coating to reinforcement.
 De-rusting, Phosphating, Coating to concrete.
 Cement coating, Sealing, Fusion bond, Epoxy coating.  Galvanized reinforcement,
cathodic protection.

Metallurgical method:

 Steel can be made more corrosion resistance by altering its structure through metallurgical
process.
 There are many situation were stainless steel reinforcement are used for long tern
durability of concrete structure.

Corrosion inhibitors:

 Corrosion can be prevented by chemical methods by using certain corrosion inhibiting

chemicals such as Nitrates, Phosphate, Benzoates, etc.,
 A most widely used admixture is based on calcium Nitrates. It is added to the concrete
during mixing of concrete.
 The steel is protected by a layer of ferric oxide on the surface of the steel.
Coating to reinforcement:

 The object of coating to steel bar is to provide a durable barrier to aggressive material
such as chlorides.
 The coating should be robust to with stand fabrication of reinforcement cage and pouring
of concrete and compaction by vibration needle.

De – rusting:

 The reinforcement is cleaned with a de-rusting solution.

 This is followed without delay by cleaning the rods with wet waste cloths and cleaning
powder.
 The rods are then rinsed in running water and air dried.
Phosphate

Phosphate is applied to the surface And in inhibitors solution is then brushed over the
phosphate surface. Cement coating
  Slurry is made by mixing the inhibitor solution with water and cement and applied on the
bar.
 The sealing solution is brushed after the rods are air cured.
 The sealing solution as an inside curing effect.
 The second coat of slurry is then applied and the bars are air dried.
Sealing: (solution)

Two coats of sealing solution are applied to the bars in order to seal the micro pores of the
cement coat and to make it impermeable to corrosive salt.

Epoxy coating:

 It is one of the effective method of coating the debars.

 The epoxy coating is specialized sob carrying out in a factory and not at site of work.
 The plant are designed to coat the straight bars is a continuous process.
 The epoxy powder particles are deposited evenly on the surface of the bars.
 The epoxy coated bars have an excellent protection to corrosion in aggressive
environment.
 After treatment, cutting and bending may injure the steel.
 The coating may get damaged during vibration of concrete.
Galvanized reinforcement:

 Galvanized reinforcement consists of dipping of steel bar in molten zinc.

 The coating of zinc bonded to the surface of steel.
 The zinc surface reacts with the calcium hydroxide in the concrete to form a passive layer
and prevent corrosion.

Cathodic protection:

 Cathodic protection is one of the effective, well known and extensively used methods for
preventing of corrosion in concrete method.
 It is high case and long term monitoring required for this method.
 The catholic protection comprises of application current to an elected laid on the concrete
above steel reinforcement.

Coating to concrete: (purpose)

 Environmental pollution.
 Industrial fumes and contamination of ground.
 The reduction in depth of carbonation of the protected concrete.
Design and cover thickness and cracking:
  The structural designer should take all precaution in designing and detailing with respect
to spacing between reinforcement.
 To facilitate vibration of concrete.
 To given proper cover to the steel reinforcement.
 To restrict the crack width etc.
 The first object is achieved the stipulated minimum strength and durability.  The
second object is making the concrete in the most economical manner.
 A permeability of concrete is governed by the quality and continuity of the waste.
 Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material property and properties
of concrete in plastic condition.

Mix proportion:

 Water cement ration.

 Cement content.
 Cement aggregate ratio.
 Gradation of aggregate.  Consistency.

Cover thickness:

 The nominal cover is applicable to all steel reinforcement including links.

 The longitudinal reinforcement bars in a column, nominal cover in any case not less than
40mm or less than the diameter of bar.
 In the column of min dimension of 200mm, whose reinforcing bar do not exceed 12mm, a
nominal cover of 25mm may be used.
 The nominal concrete cover in mm not less than mild steel 20mm, moderate steel 30mm,
severe steel 45mm, very sever 50m, extreme 75mm.

Errors in construction:

 Poor workman ship. Vibrator is not applicable.

 Laying and patching, curing. Poor formwork.  Delay processing work
Mix proportion (ratio)  Improper mix design of concrete.
 UNIT-3 MATERIALS FOR

REPAIR

Syllabus:

Special concretes and mortar- concrete chemicals- special elements for accelerated strength
gain- Expansive cement-polymer concrete-sulphur infiltrated concrete-Ferro cement-Fibre
reinforced concrete.

SPECIAL CONCRETES AND MORTAR:

 Cold weather concreting

 Hot weather concreting Effects of cold weather concrete:
 Delay in setting and hardening
 Freezing of concrete at early age
 Freezing and thawing
Following conditions may be discussed:

 Low temperature but 0◦c at the time of concreting and later during hardening
period.
 Low temperature at the time of concreting but below 0◦c during the hardening
period.
 Temperature below 0◦c at the time of concreting and during hardening period.
 Hardened concrete subjected to alternate freezing and thawing.

Low temperature but above 0◦c:

 If the temperature is only low but always above the freezing point.
 There is no other bad effect on the fresh concrete or hardening concrete.

Low temperature at the time of concreting but below 0◦c after concreting:
  Temperature falling below 0◦c when the concrete is still green. 
Temperature prevailing below 0◦c when the concrete is sufficiently hardened.
 The formation of cement gels the capacity cavities also will have been very much
reduced.

Concreting methods at sub-zero temperature (precautions to be taken)

 Utilisation of the heat developed by the hydration of cement and practical

methods of insulation.
 Selection of suitable type of cement.
 Economical heating of materials of concrete.
 Admixtures of anti-freezing materials.
 Electrical heating of concrete mass.  Use of air-entraining agents.

Hot weather concreting (above 40◦c)-(special problems are usually encountered):

 Rapid rate of hydration of cement, quick setting and early stiffening.

 Rapid evaporation of mixing water.
 Greater plastic shrinkage.
 Less time for finishing.
 Reduced relative humidity.
 Absorption of water from the true concrete by the sub-grade and formwork.
 Difficulty in continuous and uninterrupted curing.
 Difficulty in incorporation of air entrainment.  Ready mixed concrete.

Production and delivery:

 Temperature of aggregates water and cement shall be maintained at the lowest

practical level temperature of concrete is below 40◦c at the time of placement.
 Reinforcement, formwork and subgrades should be sprinkled with cooled water
just prior to placing the concrete.
 More number of masons is required to be employed. (hard, setting time)
 Concrete is placed in comparatively thin layer.
 Prevent loss of moisture from the concrete.

Grouting methods: (packed concrete)

 Grout mixture is poured on the packed aggregate and allowed to penetrate

downwards.
  This method is normally adopted for thin concrete member such as pavement,
slab and floor slabs.

Concrete chemicals:

Admixtures:

 Plasticizers (water reducers)

 Super Plasticizers (high range water reducers)
 Retraders and Retrading Plasticizers (RMC)
 Accelerators and accelerating Plasticizers (early strength)
 Air-entraining admixtures (plastic concrete)
 Pozzolanic or mineral admixtures (arch, bridge, aqueducts).
 Damp-proofing and water proofing admixtures (powder, paste).
 Gas forming admixtures (aluminium powder).
 Air-detraining admixtures.
 Alkali-aggregate Expansion inhibiting admixtures.
 Workability admixtures.
 Grouting admixtures.
 Corrosion inhabiting admixtures.
 Bonding admixtures.
 Fungicidal, insecticidal admixtures.  Colouring admixtures.

Constructional chemicals:

 Concrete curing compounds.

 Polymer bonding agents.
 Polymer modified mortar for repair and maintenance.
 Mould releasing agents.
 Protective and decorative agents.
 Installation acids.
 Floor hardeners and dust-proofers.
 Non-shrink high strength grout.
 Surface retarders.
 Bond-air for plastering.
 Ready to use plaster.
 Guniting aid.
 Construction chemicals for water proofing.
a) Integral water-proofing compounds.
b) Membrane forming coatings.
 c) Polymer modified mineral slurry coatings.
d) Protective and decorative coatings.
e) Chemical OPC.
f) Silicon based water-repellent materials.
g) Water proofing adhesive for tiles, marble and granite.
h) Inject grout for cracks.
i) Joint sealants.

Expansive cement:

 Concrete made with opc shrinks while setting due to loss of free water.
 Concrete also shrinks continuously for long time. This is known as dry shrinkage.
 The cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundation.
 The cement used in grouting the pre-stressed concrete duck  Type of cement
which will not shrink while hardening.
 A slight expansion with time will through to advantages for grouting purpose.
 This type of cement which suffers known over all change in volume on drying is
known as expansive cement.
 This type of cement as been developed by using an expanding agent and a
stabiliser very carefully.
 8-20 part of the sulpho-aluminate clinker are mixed with 100 parts of the Portland
cement and 15part of the stabiliser.
 Expansion takes place only so long as concrete is moist, curing must be
controlled.
 The use of expanding cement requires skilled and experiences.
 One type of expanding cement is known as shrinkage compensating cement.

Sulphur In Filtrated concrete:

Sulphur having strength impregnation as shown great improvement in strength.

 Physical properties have been found to improve by several 100% and large
improvement in water impermeability.
 Resistance to corrosion have also been achieved.
 Some attempts sulphur as a binding material instead of cement.
 Sulphur is heated to bring it into molten condition to which coarse and fine
aggregate are poured and mixed together.
  This mixture give fairly good strength, acid resistance and other chemical
resistance.
 It proved to be costlier than ordinary cement concrete.
 The quantity of sulphur used is also comparatively less and the process is made
economical.
 Its compressive strength of about 100mpa could be achieved in about 2 day time.
 Commercial sulphur of purity 99.9% are used.
 A large number of trial mix are mode to determine the best mix proportion.
 The water cement ration of 0.7 or over as been adopted in all the trial.
 After 24 hours of moist curing the specimen is dried in heating cabin ate for 24
hours in 1210c.
 Then the dried specimen are placed in a container of molten sulphur at 1210c for
3 hours.
 The sulphur infiltrations can be employed in the precast industries.
 This method of achieving high strength can be used in the manufacture of precast
roofing element, fencing post, sewer pipes and railway sleeper.
 Sulphur infiltrated concrete should find considerable use in industrial situation.
 High corrosion resistant concrete is required.
 This method cannot be conveniently applied to cast in place concrete.
 Sulphur infiltrated precast concrete unit is cheaper than commercial concrete.
 The techniques are simple effective and in expansive.

Fibre reinforced concrete:

 The plain concrete possesses a very low tensile strength limited ductility and little
resistance to cracking.
 Internal micro cracks are present in the concrete its poor tensile strength is due to
propagations of such micro cracks.
 Impart improvement in tensile property of concrete members by using reinforced
steel bar by restraining technique.
 This method provide tensile strength to the concrete member.
 In plain concrete and similar brittle material structural cracks develop even before
loading.
 The width of the initial crack exceed few micron.
 The structural cracks proceed slowly or by tiny jumps because they are retorted
by various obstaves.
 The development of such micro cracks is the main cause of in elastic deformation
is concrete.
  It has been recognised that the addition of small closely spaced and uniformly
dispersed fibres to concrete would act as crack arrested and would substantially
improve its static and dynamics properties.

This type of concrete is known as “fibre Reinforced concrete”

 The fibre reinforced concrete can be defined as composite material consisting of

mixture of cement mortar or concrete and discontinuous.
Described uniformly dispersed suitable fibbers, continuous mesh.
Fibres used:

 Every type of fibre has been tried out in cement and concrete. Not all of them can
be effectively and economically used.
 The fibres that could be used are steel fibre, poly propylene, nylon, Asbestos,
Glass and carbon.
 Fibre is a small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristic
properties.
 Steel fibre is one of the most commonly used fibre generally round fibre are used
the dia varies from 0.25 to 0.75mm.
 The steel fibre is likely to get rusted and lose of its strength.
Use of steel fibre makes significant improvement in flexural, impact and fatigue
strength of concrete.
 It has been extensively used in various types of structure particularly for over lay
of roads air field pavements, bridges.
 Thin shells and plates have also been constructed using steel fibres.
 Polypropylene and nylon fibres are found to be suitable to increase the impact
strength.
 Asbestos is a mineral fibre and has proved to be most successful of all fibres as it
can be mixed with Portland cement.
 Glass fibre is a recent introduction in making fibre concrete. It has very high
tensile strength 1020-4080 N/mm2.
 The alkali resistance fibre reinforced concrete shows considerable improvement
in durability.
 Carbon fibre posse’s very high tensile strength 2110-2815 N/mm2.
 Carbon fibre as reinforcement will have high modulus of elasticity and flexural
strength.
 The uses of carbon fibres for structures like panels and shells will have promising
future.
Factors affecting fibre reinforced concrete:

 Transfer of stress between matrix and fibre.

  Types of fibres.
 Fibre geometry.
 Fibre content.
 Distribution of fibre mixing.  Compaction technique.  Size and shape of
aggregate.

Polymer concrete:

 Continuous research by concrete technologist to understand, improve and develop

the properties of the concrete as resulted in a new type of concrete is known as
“polymer concrete”.
 The porosity is due to air voids, water voids due to porosity of gel structure itself.
 The strength of the concrete is naturally reduced.
 It is concaved by many research workers that reduction of porosity results in
increase of strength of concrete.
The process like vibration, pressure application spinning etc., has been practiced
mainly to reduce porosity.
 Polymerisation is the latest technique adopts to reduce the porosity of the
concrete.
 To improve the strength and other properties of the concrete. The development of
concrete polymer composite material is directed at producing the new material by
combining the ancient technology of cement with the Morden technology of
polymer chemistry.

Types of polymer concrete:

 Polymer impregnated concrete(PIC)

 Polymer cement concrete (PCC)
 Polymer concrete (PC)
 Partially impregnated and surface coated polymer concrete Polymer

impregnated concrete (PIC):

 PIC is one of the widely used polymer composite. types of monomer used
Methyl-metha-cry late
Styreme, acrylo nitrate, T-butyl styrene
Other thermo plastic monomer
 The amount of monomer that can be loaded into a concrete specimen is limited
by the amount of water & air that as occupied the total voids space.
 The concrete by vacuum or thermal drying the later being more practicable for
water removable because of its rapidity.
  The specimen prior to soaking in monomer the application of the pressure is
another technique to reduce monomer loading time. Polymer cement concrete:

 PCC is made by mixing cement, aggregate, water and monomer such plastic
mixture is cast in mould, cured, dried and polymerised.
 Monomer used (polyester styrene, epoxy styrene, furnus, vinylidene chloride)
 It have shown relatively modest improvement of strength and durability.
Pcc+furly alcohol and aniline hydro chloride in the wet mix to have high
corrosion resistance to vibration.

Polymer concrete:

 PC is an aggregate bond with a polymer binder instead of Portland cement.

 The main technique is producing PC is to minimum voids volume in aggregate.
 To reduce the quantity of polymer needed for binding the aggregate.
 Properly grading and mixing the aggregate attain the maximum density and min
voids volume.
 A silence coupling agent is added to the monomer to improve the bond strength
between polymer and aggregate.
 Polymer can be made compact with min voids and resistance to chemical attack.
 The strength obtained PC can be as high 140Mpa with a short curing period.
 PC tends to the brittle and it is reported that dispersion of fibre reinforcement
would improve the toughness and tensile strength of the material.
 The polymer concrete may relax duration long term loading.

Partially impregnated and surface coated polymer concrete:

 The specimen is liquid monomer like methyl cry late minimise loss due to
evaporation.
 The depth of monomer penetration is dependent upon
I. Pore structure of harden and dried concrete

II. The duration of soaking

III. The viscosity of the monomer.

 The potential application of polymer impregnated concrete surface treatment is in
improving the durability of concrete bridge deck.
It gives increases in the tensile & compressive strength, modulus of elasticity
and resistance to acid attack have been achieved.
Surface treatment in the field:

 The surface is dried for several days with electrical heating blanket.
 Remove the heating blanket and cover the slab with 0.64 𝑚3 oven dried light
weight aggregate per 100 𝑚2.
 Apply initially 2000-3000 ml of monomer system per square meter.
 Cover the surface with polyethylene to retired evaporation.
 Add periodically additional monomer to keep the aggregate moist for minimum
soak time of 8 hrs.

Promising Monomer System:

1. Methyl methacrylate + 1% Benzoyl Peroxide + 10% Trimethylopropane.

2. Isodiayl methacrylate + 1% Benzoyl Perxide + 10% Trimethylopropane.
3. Isobutyl Methacrylate + 1%Benzoyl Perxide + 10% Trimethylopropane.
Durability:

1. Freezing and thawing resistance.

2. Resistance to sulphate attack.
3. Acid resistance.
4. Water absorption.
5. Coefficient of thermal expansion.
6. Resistance to abrasion.
7. Wear and skid resistance.
Application of PIC:

1. Prefabricated structural element.

2. Pre stressed concrete.
3. Main work.
4. Desalination plant.
5. Nuclear Power plant.
6. Sewage works.
7. Ferro cement products.
8. Water proofing of structure.
9. Industrial application.
Ferro Cement: (skeleton steel and wire mesh)

 In the present form Ferro cement may be considered as a type of this reinforced concrete
construction.
 Cement mortar matrix is reinforced with many layers of continuous and relatively small
diameter wire mesh.
 The wire mesh imparts tensile strength and ductility to the material.
 The many other engineering properties such as toughness, fatigue resistance,
Impermeable etc., are considerably improved.
 The Ferro cement composite is arch cement water matrix of 10-60mm thick.
 In form of one or more layer of very this wire mesh.
 Portland cement and fine aggregate matrix is used in Ferro cement.
 The choice of cement depends on the service condition to maintain the quality of cement,
in should be fresh of uniform consistency and free lumps.
 Cement should be stored under dry condition and as for as short duration as possible.
 Plasticizer and other admixture may also be added for achieving increase in strength,
reduction in permeability, water proofing, increasing durability prevent galvanic
corrosion of galvanised steel.
 The reinforcement used in Ferro cement is of two types’ skeleton steel and wire mesh.
 Welded wire fabric of 3 to 4mm dia wire welded 80 – 100m c/c.
 The reinforcement should be free from dust loose rust coating of paint oil or similar
undesirable substance.
 Reinforcing bars may be used in combination with wire messes for relatively thick Ferro
cement element.

Advantages:

 Ferro cement structures are thin and light.

 Considerable reduction in the self-weight of structure.
 Precast unit which can be easily transported.
 Does not require skilled labour.
 Partially or complete elimination of form work in possible.
 Ferro cement construction is easily amenable to repair in case of local damage due to
abnormal load.
 UNIT-4
TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND DEMOLIATION
Mortar and dry pack:
 Dry pack is suitable for filling holes whose depth is at least equal to the smallest surface
dimension of the repair area.
 The holes should be at least 25mm deep.
 Dry pack is not suitable for shallow depressions.
 The holes that go right through concrete section where the filling cannot be properly
rammed.
 Dry pack mortar is usually a mix of one part of Portland cement to 2.5 part of fine sand.
 The proper amount of water will produce a mortar which is at the point of becoming
rubbery when it is solidly packed.
 Any less water will not make a sound pack as it cannot be properly rammed.
 Any more water lead to shrinkage and a loose repair.
 The holes should prepare so that they are sharp and square at the surface edge.
 The internal surface should be roughed and if possible under cut slightly.
  All repairs and defective concrete must be removed and the surface of the hole left clean.
 Dry should be packed in layer which has a compacted thickness of about 10mm.
 The compacting efforts should be directed at a slight angle towards the sides of the hole.
 The holes should not be overfilled and can be finished by hammering on a piece of
hardwood laid on the surface.
 The most repairs have only a small volume of filling material and moisture is likely to be
in old concrete.
 Holes are vertical or overhead surface or not likely to be repaired successfully by this
method and epoxy mortar is probably needed.
 The area to be repaired should be cleaned and roughened and kept wet for several hours.
 The repair mortar should be mixed to a plastic consistency.
 A small quantity of cement mortar should be scrubbed into the dam surface with a wire
brush.
 The repair mortar compacted thoroughly should be tight filling around the edges of holes.
 Curing should be applied as soon as possible and kept in place for at least 7days.
 There should be good bond between old concrete and repair.
 The expansive cement or admixtures have been advocated for replacement mortar repair.
 Any admixture used should not be relies on the corrosion of iron fillings.
 Expansive admixtures used to grouting purpose.
 Epoxy method is used for repair jobs but its properties and performance are very much
dependent on the skill of crews.
 Types of equipment used and the conditions under which placing is carried out.
 It is more cost, availability of equipment and crews and on operation features.
 Possible admixture is an effective material for replacing defective concrete.
 The durability is highly dependent on the preparation of the bonding surface and skill of
nozzle man.

Air entraining admixture with dry mix shot Crete in the hope that will provide
additional insurance of durability.
 Two major modifications shot Crete have are introduced in the addition of fibres and
more recently the addition of silica fume.
The addition of silica fume to shot Crete has produce extraordinary benefits in the
properties of the plastic and the hardened materials.
 Dry mix silica fume shot Crete commonly has a 28days compressive strength of up to
60Mpa.
 The addition of silica fume to fibre shot Creteproduce more flexural strength.

Necessary of demolition:
 The building is very old and that cannot be put in use for further period.
 Structural changes whenever required.
 Due to modernisation, old building may require demolition for new construction.
  Development of city were horizontal explain not possible they adopt for multi-story flat
construction.
 Structural failures of building were repair works may not be possible.  Expansion or
extension of buildings over existing building.

Precautionary Measures:
 Whenever possible windows, doors etc. should be taken out to avoid damage being
caused by broken glass.
 Window frame should be left in to help to maintain the strength of walls.
 Windows and doors opening should be broad up.
 Internal entrance to lift shaft should be barriguards.
 The approaches to all area where flooring has been removed barricade.
 To indicate the need for special care and the possibility of danger.
 Balconies and cantilever, masonry projection should be cut down and the debris removed
before the main demolition commence.
 Many metal staircase or ladder should be inspected before use and access to them should
be closely controlled.
 Neither stone nor concrete staircase should be used once they have been disturbed as in
many case Bering areas are very small and even a small movement can lead to collapse.
 Stair case should be kept free rom debris.
 Any timber removed from the building being demolished should be carefully stacked and
projecting nails and screws should be removed.
 The condition of any adjacent property which may affected by the demolition and the
relation of these two buildings being demolished should be pointed out operatives.
 Operatives should not be allowed to stand on the brick work which they are demolishing
or any member supported by that brick work.
 On completion of each day work, the building being worked on should be left in stable
condition without any overhanging brickwork or timber.

Sequence of demolition:
 The first task to be carried out on site is to be ensure that service have been disconnected
and made safe over the whole old site to be cleared.
 Demolition proceed reverse order of construction.
 The primarystripping out process such as roof covering, fittings, pipework and generally
all non-structural parts of the building have been removed.

 Roof trusses and timber should be lifted down and as for as possible only steel, concrete
or between should remain.
 All rubble and debris should be lowered ground and constantly. Cleared so as to avoid
builders
Methods of types of demolition:
1. Demolition by hand.
 2. Pulling down by rope.
3. Mechanical demolition
a. demolition ball
b. Pusher harm machinery
4. Deliberate collapse (some part to be demolished) 5. Explosives.

Demolition by hand:
 This method is usually used for highest and most inaccessible section.
 The work period breaking down by machinery for complete buildings were access may
not possible for machinery.
 Operatives use tools of the portable variety long chisel, hammer, crower bar, pneumatic
drills, hand saw, power saw etc.
a. This method is suitable
for small buildings.
b. This method not required
skilled supervisor.
c. This method is very
difficult to remove concrete structure like column, beam, roof
etc., Pilling down by wire rope:
 This method of demolition is probably widely used for masonry structures. If it is all
possible all timbers, pipes, beams and lintel should be removed prior to the pulling down
operation.
 In no case should this method be used were long member are present in the buildings.
 A wire bond is set around a portion of the brickwork and is them dragged vehicle.  As a
result it cut into brickwork causing into collapse. Mechanical demolition: Demolition
ball
 This method is used in the main for fairly large brick structure and reinforced concrete
buildings.
 As well as for breaking up mass concrete and reinforced concrete slab and floors.
 The ball which initially weight of half – ton is dropped vertically on to the structure to be
broken.
 Sideways motion is important to it by swelling the jip of the crane so the ball hits the side
of the structure
 This method requires a higher standards of site supervisor.
 The crane operator has to work at some distance from the structure being demolished.
 Considerable stresses are important to the crane jip and the supervisor maintenance
standard must be high.
 The structure being demolished should be detached from any other buildings.  If
necessary by partially hand demolished before this method is used.

Pusher arm machinery:

 It involves the use of an extended arms and steel pad fitted to a tracked vehicle in place
of the excavated bucket.
 It is considered that this type of machine is more controllable and in some ways more
versatile then the other machinery mentioned above.
 The pusher arm is placed on the top most section of the brickwall and forward motion is
applied either by the hydraulic thrust mechanism or by driving the excavator forward.

Deliberate collapse:
 This method is used in some case where removal of certain key structure member will
causes collapse of the old or part of the building being demolished.
Very special attention must be paid.
To ensure that every one on site is conversant with procedure being used.  It is
removed to a safe distance when they collapse is imminent.

Explosives:
 The use of explosive is consider by many exposure.
 This method is most economic and quickest method of demolition.
 The basic principles is that holes are bored into various supporting section of the
structure and explosive inserted.
 When the charges are exploded the structure collapse, breaking up on impact with the
ground.

Gunite of shotCrete:
 Gunite can be defined as mortar conveyed through a hose pneumatically protect at a high
velocity on to a surface.
 The method as ben further developed by the introducing of small size coarse aggregate
into mix.
 This process economical by reducing the cement content.
 The force of jet impacting on the surface compact the material.
 Use of accelerator to assist over kneadhacking ispracticed.
 The newly developed ready set cement can also be used for shortening process.
 The process is mostly used for application of mortar of less thickness.
 Similar principle of Guniting for achieving greater thickness with small coarse aggregate.

Dry mix Process;

 Cement and sand are thoroughly mixed. The cement and sane mixer is feed into special
air pressurised mechanical feeded as ‘gun’
 The mixer is melted into delivery hose by a distributor within the gun.
 This material is carried by compressed air through the delivery hose to a special nozzle.
 The water is spayed under pressure and intimately mixed with sand cement jet.
  The wet is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity on to the surface to be gunited.

Wet mix Process:

 To produce a high nozzle velocity about 90-120m/s. This result in exceptional good
compaction.
 The lower velocity gunite is produced using large diameter hose for large output.  The
compaction will not be very high.

Use of Shortcrete:
 The high cost to shotCrete limits is application to certain special circumstance.
 It does not have to be asstronger as the shuttering for policed concrete.
 The saving in shuttering cost makes it particularly applicable for this section.
 It will bond extremely well to the existing concrete to masonry and to exposed rock.
 Suitably prepared steel surface also can be covered with gunited concrete.
 It is difficult to removes rebound materials as it tends.
 Defects of this types can result in porous concrete and also contribute to high
permeability.
It is difficult to obtain a satisfactory surface finish with shorterete.
 The application of the shotCrete process is limited to exception areas.
When good nozzle man having required skill are available.
Admixtures can be used in shotCrete to produce the same effects as in ordinary concrete.
 The drying shrinkage will depend on the water content and may.
 Shrinkage and creep of wet shotCrete is likely to be high.
 The durability or resistance to frost action and other agencies of dry shotCrete is good.
 Stiff, well compacted concrete of the type used in shotCrete is a good structural material.
 A well designed and well executed job makes a satisfactory work.
 One of the strong point of shotCrete is its excellent bond with old concrete, rock (face)
phase, metal sheet.
 The use of shotCrete is frequently adopted for tunnelling operation.
 Generally it should have quick setting properties.
 This properties are usually obtained by the use of powerful accelerator in the mix.
 This accelerator should be compactable with the cement and concrete with respect to
durability and stability.
 Use of fibre reinforced shotCrete is one of the recent innovation.
 Fibre reinforced shotCrete process increase the tensile strength of the shotCrete.
 Another important innovation made is the polymer shotCrete aggregate and monomer are
mixed together.
Vacuum Concrete:
 Removal of excess water and air.
 In concreting this section like slab and voids.
 A fluid mix with water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.65 is required to facilitate placing and
compaction.
 Fluid mix
 Plasticizer (water reducer)
 Super-plasticizer (high range water reducer)
 Low water cement ratio will gives alround improvement in the quality of concrete.
 It requires form work in the form of channels, internal vibrator, and double beam screed
board vibrator for the fall width, bull float, and filter pad. Vacuum pump, disc floater and
power trowel.
 First concrete with relatively higher water cement to facilitate full compaction with
needle vibrator is poured.
 Then the concrete is further compacted double screed vibrator these makes the surface
smooth.
 Filter mat is placed and its pressed on all the four sides and effectively sealed within hour
and 30mins.
 The vacuum pump is started which suck the unwanted water, what could better med as
coater of workability from the concrete.
 Vacuum pump is run for 20 to 30 mints depending upon thickness of concrete floor.
 Vacuum dewater concrete become stiff and workable.
 The top surface may undergo the depression of above 3% with loss to about 20% of
original water.
 This concrete is kin floated and further power trowel finish.
 Often surface hard water used in conjunction with dewatering process.
The vacuum treatment of concrete involving the removal of excess water and air by sing
section can be helpful.
 An arrangement for vacuum treatment of concrete section through a surface mat
connected to a vacuum pump.
 The duration of treatment depends upon the water cement ratio and the quantity of water
to be removed.
 The vacuum treatment is not very effective for water cement ration below 0.4. The
vibration of concrete before vacuum treatment can assist the process. The application of
vibration simultaneously with vacuum treatment after initial vibration is very effective.
 Continue vibration beyond 90sec may damage the structure of concrete and hence the
vibration should be stopped.
 Only vacuum needs to be applied for the remaining duration of the treatment total
shrinkage is reduced.
 Vacuum treated concrete provides good bond with the under lying concrete.
 The vacuum processed concrete has been extensively used for factory production of
precast plain and reinforced concrete unit.
  Vacuum treatment can also be effectively used is the resurfacing and repair of road
pavement.

Foam Concrete (or) Gas Forming Concrete:

 Gas forming agent is used in production of cement grout and light weight concrete.
 Gas forming are also known as foaming agent.
 This concrete also known as gas concrete, cellular concrete, foamed concrete, aerated
concrete, and porous concrete.
 Gas or air bubble or used aggregate in gas concrete air bubbles are different from those
formed in air entrained agent.
 This agents are used to form foam during mixing of concrete (mixing in the truck).
 The proportion of gas forming agent can control the density of concrete.
 The gas in confined spaces in grouting ducts.
 There are variety of gas foaming agents such as aluminium powdered zinc, and hydrogen
peroxide, soaps and resins.
 This admixture are used in amount less than 0.2% by mass of cement.
 When this admixture are used in large quantity this produce gas or cellular concrete.
 Appropriate use of gas forming agent can produce light weigh concrete with unit weight
varies from 4 to 20kn/m3.
 Gas foaming agents are mixed first with cement sometimes certain quantity are
performed foam is added to freshly prepared concrete to achieve desired density.
 Hydrogen peroxide breaks into water and oxygen when added to cement to produce light
weigh concrete of mortar.
 Aluminium of zinc powder is used for production of cellular or gas concrete.
 In hot weather the action of aluminium powder may occur too quickly cold weather, the
action will be slower.
 Aluminium powder is also used as an admixture in the production of light weight
concrete.

Epoxy Injection:
 The injection of a low viscosity epoxy is a possible repair method for cracks.
 The crack between about 0.02mm and 6mm in width.
 It is necessary to choose carefully to match the individual job requirement.
The capability of bonding to moist concrete, shrinkage thermal and elastic properties of
hardened resins and other special needs such a fire resistance high temperature stability.
 The epoxy injection to be effective the crack must be free of dirt grease or other
contaminations.
 It is relatively new work, satisfactory cleaning can often be achieved by vacuum cleaning
a head of the sealing operation.
 Acid have been used but or not recommended.
 Compressed air or blasting with water or air/water mix have been suggested but the
process tends to drive dust and contaminations into the bottom of cracks.
 Repair by injection may the before by difficult or impossible if any of the faces at which the
cracks appears cannot be reached.

Three methods of providing entry ports:

-Drilled holes with fitting inserted and bonded in with the adhesive used for sealing.
-Bonded flush fitting attached by means of the sealing adhesive.
-Interrupted seal using a gasket that covers the unsealed portion.
 Injection should start at the lowest post and be continued until resin appears at the next
higher port.
 The injection nozzle is then removed the port seal and the nozzle moved upto the next
port.
 If the pumping pressure cannot be maintained in a cracks that appears full (resin is
leaking).
 The action to be taken if this happen can only be decide on site.
 Finally when the injected resin as cured the sealing adhesive must be removed by
grinding cutting and at port must be made good with epoxy.
 The width of about 20mm and filling with dry pack or epoxy mortar.
 Very fine crack less than 0.15mm in width the entry ports should be spaced no more than
150mm apart.

Shoring:
 Shoring is the means of providing support to get stability of structure.
 The stability of the structure is endanger due removal of a defective portion of the
structure.

Types of shoring:
- Raking or inclined shoring (10m building)
- Flying or horizontal shoring (space between tow building 9m) -
Bead or vertical shoring.

Mortar for Repair Cracks:

Symptoms of defects:
 Surface and body of concrete.
 Spalling, Rust and dampness stain on the surface.
 Corrosion of reinforcement, porous concrete near surface.  Non-conformation of
surface, shape and size of member.
Repair Materials:
Patching Material:
 Plain cement mortar epoxy resin mortar.
 Polymer modified mortar, polyester resin mortar.
Bonding Aids:
 Cement slurry, polymers, epoxy.
 Polymer modified cement slurry.
Anti-corrosive coating:

Epoxies zinc rich epoxy coating Bitumen.

 Fusion bonded epoxies interpenetrating polymer coating. Grouts:
 Cement grout, cement sand grout, and epoxy grout.
 Cement sand grout with admixtures, polymer modified cement grouts.

Gunite and shotCrete:

Over lays and topping Protective

Coating:

 Convention coating, Zinc rich coating.

 Bitumen coating, Silicon coating.
 Vinyl coating.
 Rubber coating.

Preparation for Repairs:

 Removal of damaged and loose concrete.
 Cleaning of concrete surface with water/air jet.
 Removal of all oil/grease from the surface.
 Cleaning and sealing of cracks.
 Roughening of surface to enhance bonding of repairmaterials.

Crack Repair Methods:

 Epoxy injection grooving and sealing, grouting.
 Flexible sealing, Polyimpregnation, dry packing.  Overlays and surface treatment.
This process of natural crack repair is called auto generous sealing. Healing depends upon
the calcium Hydroxide in cement paste carbon-di-oxide present is the atmosphere presence of
moistures.
Steps involved:
 Preparation of crack, drilling holes, clearing and drying of cracks.
 Sealing of cracks surface, Fixing of injection port in holes.
 Mixing of epoxy resin the injection of mixed epoxy resin.
 Removal of ports and plugging the lopes removal of surface sealing and finishing the
surface.