THE ORIGIN OF

PETROLEUM
Dr.Ir.Sudjati Rachmat,DEA

59 1
How Long Does It Take to
Make Oil?

59 2
 How Does Plate Tectonics
Contribute to the Creation of Oil?
Crust

Mantle

Outer core

Inner core

59 3
 Age of the Ocean Floor

Asia North Asia

America
Mid-Ocean
Africa
Ridge
South
America

Australia

Antarctica

Old Crust 59 Young Crust 4

 Elements of Plate Tectonics
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
Mid-ocean ridge Plate subduction

Sea floor spreading Volcanism Mountain

Lithosphere building
Oceanic
crust Deep-sea trench Continental
crust
Litho
sphe
re
Magma rising

Asthenosphere

Magma forming

• Earthquake centers
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59 7
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59 9
Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy
Triassic period Permian period
Jurassic period
Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period
245 m.y
323 m.y Devonian
146 m.y 208 m.y 290 m.y period
363 m.y
409 m.y
Silurian
439 m.y
65 m.y 1 b.y period
57 m.y 510 m.y 2 b.y
570 m.y Evolution
35 m.y
of cells with
23 m.y nucleus

5 m.y
3 b.y First
0.01 m.y fossil
4.6 billion cells
years ago 4 b.y Oldest rocks
ERA
PERIOD dated on Earth
Holocene epoch EPOCH
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 Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch

Quaternary
period
Quaternary Recent
0 0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago

Phanerozoic Tertiary

Millions of years ago

Pliocene
50 10

Cenozoic Era
1

Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20 Miocene
(Precambrian)

Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene

200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50

4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic

Devonian
400
Silurian

450 Ordovician

500

550 Cambrian

600 59 11
 Origin of Petroleum
• Inorganic theories
– carbides of iron, calcium etc.. When contacted with water
– action of hot water on limestone, CaCO3 and gypsum
• Organic theories
– Animal theories: due to decomposition of marine animals -
fishes, oysters, other microscopic organisms.
– Vegetal theories : due to decomposition of plants - seaweeds
Land plants such as those in swamps coal beds
oil
Microscopic plants – diatoms : Non-fossil organisms
planktons oil
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 Origin of Petroleum
• Likely scenario:
scenario oil = ancient animal + plants
paraffinic base - vegetal origin

asphaltic base - animal origin

Flow
of sedim
ents

SEA/FRESH WATER
Water prevents rapid
oxidation of organic Plants and animals
material
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 Petroleum and Fossil Energy
• primarily derived from the remains of once living organisms

• most deposits formed some 500-200 million years ago

• the three major fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas

• currently consumed at a rate faster than produced

• very likely that fossil fuels will be depleted - the question is when?

• large resources in tar sands and oil shales

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Genesis of Fossil Fuels
• Comprised of the organic (carbon-based) remnants of ancient life
• anaerobic bacteria primarily responsible for breaking broke down
complex organic remains into hydrocarbon molecules - molecules
of carbon and hydrogen
• Pressure and heat applied to the sediment within which organic
remains are buried, and degrade (crack) the hydrocarbons into an
array of molecules of various sizes. that are useful as fuel products

Plant remains + bacteria + pressure + temperature + time =

hydrocarbons
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 Fossil Fuel Types

• Coal: carbonized remains of freshwater plants – swamps

•Kerogen: precursor to oil & gas, oil shale contains kerogen not oil

• Oil: saltwater algae (high in H)

• Gas: mostly methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6)

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 thermal cracking

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The Carbon Cycle

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Marine organic matter is a major precursor for petroleum

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Organic-rich sediments can form wherever life is abundant

algal bloom

nutrients

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 Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely
convergence of certain geologic factors and
geologic events.

These Include:
Seal
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock

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 Generation, Migration, and
Trapping of Hydrocarbons

Seal

Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)

Migration route
Seal
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity

Source rock
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Petroleum System Elements

Anticlinal rTap
Top Seal Rock
(Impermeable)
Reservoir Roc
(Porous/Permeable)
Potential
Migration Route

Source Rock
(Organic Rich

24803

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 Migration of Petroleum
• Source rock – mostly shales
• Final accumulation of oil – sandstones,
limestones, fractured shales

Trapped hydrocarbons

Limestone/sandstone secondary
Regional flow primary
of water
shale

10’s – 100’s km
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 Primary Migration
• Why does the hydrocarbon migrate from the source rock
(shale) to the more porous rocks (sandstone) above?
CAPILLARITY
water oil

Fs Note shape of
Force at the interface, concave
upwards Note shape of
interface
between water interface, concave
and solid due to downwards
surface tension water
Fs oil
Fs α 1 / r
Shales have smaller pore throats than sands.
Water flows readily into
59 shales and oil out of shales
26
 Primary Migration
• Effect of pressure, heat

Volume of liquid expelled

=
Shrinkage - compressibility
of fluid

Folding and chemical action generate heat

fluids expand and move into more porous beds above

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 Secondary migration
• Fluid movement due to capillary forces, pressure,
temperature effects. Migration until cap-rock or seal
encountered.

primary

• Regional water flows

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 Traps
Anticlines

Faults

Stratigraphic 59
Salt domes 29
 Traps

Combination
Anticlinal/fault
traps

Overlap on beds flanking

the basement rock
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 Sedimentary Deposition
Shore
Offshore

Flow
of sedim
SEA LEVEL RECEDING ents
Shoreface
Near shore/Shallow Marine
Offshore/Deep Marine

Coarse grain with Coarse grain sediments

Fine grain sediments
clay

Fine grains with

clay

SEA LEVEL ADVANCING

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 Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Seal Rock

Basin Fill
Elements
of
Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

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Clastic Depositional Systems

Co a
stal
Plai
n

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Modified from Seni and Hentz, 1997
 Fan Deposition

Example
Alluvial sedimentation
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 Barrier Shoreline
Washover fan

Ebb
Tide
Long
Delta
Flood
Tide
shore

Delta Lagoon
D
rift

Wind

Back-barrier
marsh

Sea Ba
rrie
Shoreface r Is
Sands la n
dF
Shelf Silts ac
ie s

59 35 1982)
(modified from Blatt, 1982; after Taverner-Smith,
 Athabasca Delta, Canada
FLUVIAL-DOMINATED DELTA

Distributary

Photo by L. Klatzel-Mudry
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 Carbonate Depositional
Environments and Systems

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 Carbonate Reef System
30 km
S N
Back Reef SL Open Water
(Lagoon)
150 Lime Grainstone
m
Reef
Miliolids Forereef

100 Shelf

Dense lime mudstone

Orbitolina
50 Boundstone Chalky
lime mudstone Globigerina
mudstone

0
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(modified from Wilson, 1975; after Harris et al, 1968)
Geological and Petrophysical Data
Used to Define Flow Units
Core Pore Petrophysical Gamma Ray Flow
Core Lithofacies
Plugs Types Data Log Units
Capillary
φ vs k Pressure

1
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 Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers

SA -97A SA -356 SA -71 SA -344 SA -348 SA -37

SA -251 SA -371 SA -346

3150 3150 3100 3100 3250

3200 3150
3100
3200
3150
3200 3200 3150 3300
3250 3200
3150

3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250

3200

3300 3300 3250

3350 3300

3250

3350 3350
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From Bastian and others
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out
Seal

Unconformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas

Water Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

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(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
 Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries

Rift Related Basin

(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault
Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)

Thrust fault

Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)

Wrench fault
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Structural Features

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 Folded Structures

Anticline Syncline

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 Fold Terminology
N

b
m
Li
Li
m

b
m
b

Li

Anticline

Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)
59 45
Overturned Folds

Anticlinal Axis

l A xis
c lina
Syn

59 Photograph by XXX 46
 Faulting (normal faults)

Example Kabab Canyon, Utah

Photograph by XXX
59 47
 Strike Slip Fault
(Left Lateral)

e
Dip Angle
rik
St

Fault
59
Plane 48
 Methods of Structural Evaluation

Structural Structural Map

Cross Section

A A’
1000

SL A’
-1000 OIL

0
-2000 +

-10
-3000 +
+ +
+

00
-20
+ + +
-30

00
00

OIL/Water O
Contact Wa I L
ter
A
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2000 Depth (ft)
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps - Fault

Oil or Gas A
Sand

Shale

Sand
A
Fault
Water

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Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Oil/Gas Closure
Contact

Oil / Water
Contact
Oil
Fold (Anticlinal) Trap

Seal
Salt
Salt Diapir Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

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 Cross-Cutting Relationships
K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
Dike
Sill
s
e ou
Ign A

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 Types of Unconformities
• Disconformity
– An unconformity in which the beds above and below are
parallel
• Angular Unconformity
– An unconformity in which the older bed intersect the
younger beds at an angle
• Nonconformity
– An unconformity in which younger sedimentary rocks
overlie older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks

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 Faults
Normal Fault Reverse Fault
Strike direction Strike direction
Up Fault scarp
thr
Fa

Upth
ult

ow

Dow
Do

Sc

n
ar p
wn

rown
nthr
thr
ow

own
n

Key bed F.W. Dip

F.W. angle
H.W. H.W.
Dip angle
Fault plane Fault plane

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Classification of reservoir rocks
• Sedimentary rocks:
Source rock: Broken down
sediments
old sedimentary
+ igneous Wind + water
+ organisms +
chemical action
Compaction/ Deltas, shore
face, valley fills
Cementation:
Sandstones

Sandstones: compacted quartz sands – fragments of rock crystals

Limestones: Skeletons of lime-secreting organisms, corals etc..
Diatomaceous shales: Diatoms and other microscopic plants
Gypsum/Anhydrides/Limestones: Chemical dissolution of rocks,
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followed by evaporation and crystallization
 Classification of rocks
• Igneous rocks- Volcanic origin- Some producing gas
fields. Gas found in vesicles formed in basalt due to gas
flows through molten lava. Igneous rocks generally
indicative of proximity to oil/gas reservoir.
• Metamorphic rocks – Both igneous and sedimentary rocks
that undergo further change due to heat.pressure and
chemicals:
Quartz Quartzite Quartz schist
clay shale slate schist
Generally unfavorable for oil and gas accumulations

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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Conglomerates:
Conglomerates Loose aggregate of rounded pebbles –
gravels
when cemented – conglomerates.
Porosity due to differential cementation
Oil fields in Pennsylvania, Texas, Oklahoma
• Sand, Sandstones:
Sandstones Finer sediments – yet noticeable, angular
Sands cemented by calcite – sandstones
silica – quartzite
Porosity due to voids and inter-grain spaces also differential
cementation
Pools in California, Alberta, Gulf Coast, Texas

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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Clays, shales: Fine grained particles – aluminous materials,
trapped water
Deep ocean sediments : Compaction yields shales
Porosity in cracks and fissures
Some pools in Santa Maria Basin, California, Gas in Kentucky

• Limestone: Principally CaCO3, hard and crystalline rock,

Marl, chalk, dolomites – other forms
Porosity due to weathering and solution – vugs
Many pools in mid-continent, Alberta, Middle east, Saudi Arabia
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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Cherts: Chemically pure silica – cryptocrystalline –
crystals visible only under magnification
• Occurrence as small nodules or large masses parallel to
bedding plane
• Porosity due to fractures
• Major pool – Offshore California, Monterey cherts

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