Headquarters

~þ\ Instrument Fly"'ng

Department of the Army
)
FM 1..240
~:::i~:t:~~lbC K;)~lv.,J.and Navigation
15 December 1984 þJYV~~ð-for Army Aviators
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 A New Way

With this printing, FM 1-240 appears for the first time as an

UPDATE publication and the information in
15 December 1984.
it
is up-to-date as of
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..

~QJJ~~~~YtiICHANGE
F!' 1-240
'Instrucent Flyinc
and Navication for Army Aviators
This field
IJnnual GiveE infor~ation on instru~ent flyin" and
navieation for Army aviators.
FL 1-5.
It has been revised to repl~ce
Other r;;ajor cb~r.[;es include--
0
Addition of a neli first cbapter, Illusions in Flight.. Tbis
cbapter should hel~ the aviator understand and cope with thG
various illusions encountered io flicht.
0
Deletion' of tl:e chapters on the Doppler IJavigation Set,
COLH.Je.nd HaviLation Syster;!, and Inertial Navication Set AI'/ASI:-86.
These systeQs aré covered extensively in their respective
operator's nanuals.
0
Addition of cew data to the InstruDent Approacb Procedure
Charts (chap 17). The new data are compiled from nUrJerous
fliCht information publications and shoulc Breatly belp aviators
with instrument approach procedures.
0
Expansion and upd~tin[ of appendix D, Instrument Fli~ht
PI a nni ne.
Addition of a newly devised series of sYLbols for clearance
0

shorthand (a Pi> D). These sy",bcls should aid in copyinr;

cl earance s.

I
I
k
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Chapter 12 Chapter 12
Reporting Equipment Ideas, Reporting Quality Deficiencies,
Problems and Warranty Claims Ideas, Equipment Improvement
Recommendations and Warranty (
12-1. General ,
Claims
This chapter tells you how to make and
submit: 12-1. Generat
a. Warranty Claim Actions (WCAs). This chapter tells you how to make and
b. Equipment Improvement Recom- submit:
mendations (EIRs).
.
a. Quality Deficiency Reports and
c. Quality Deficiency Reports (QDRs). suggest ideas and recommendations for
improving equipment on the SF Form
12-2. Warranty Claim Actions 368.
a. Purpose. DA Form 2407 is used to b. Warranty claim actions (WCA's) for
send in WCAs for items with bad items with bad components, parts, or
components, parts, or assemblies assemblies covered by a factory
covered by a factory warranty. DA Form warranty. Use the DA Form 2407 for
2407 is also used to get payment for WCA's.
labor used replacing the bad items.
b. Identity of end items under warranty 12-2. Reporting Quality Deficiéncles
is shown by a decal plate, data plate,
and Equipment Improvement
and labels. Recommendations
c. All warranty actions, settled or not, a. The SF Form 368 is a multi-use
are reported to the national level on DA form used for reporting:
Form 2407. Report local warranties
settled with DA Form 2407 with the
words "For Information only" written in
block 16a. See Appendix F.

\.
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Preface

It the fundamentals,
This manual is prepared specifically for Army aviators. presents
for attitude instrument flying and air navigation. it also
procedures, and techniQUes
serves as a guide and reference for-
aviator students during their primary and advanced
a. Fixed-wing and rotary-wing
stages of training.

Academic instructors in presenting instructional material.

b.

pilots in reinforcing the students' fundamental knowledge of instrument

c. Instructor
flying and navigation.

in evaluating the students' fundamental knowiedge of instrument

d. Flight evaluators
flying and navigation.

during their instrument instructor pilot or fiight examiner training.

e. Rated aviators
flying and air
This manual is organized into two basic areas: attitude instrument
navigation.

a. Chapters 1 through 5 cover the following:

(1) illusions in fiight.

(2) Flight instruments and their systems.

(3) In-flight forces and sensations.

(4) Instrument maneuvers and interpretation.

(5) Aircraft coordination maneuvers.

b. Chapters
6 through 21 cover the foiiowing:
in
(1) Basic concepts and the use of the implements of air navigation which assist
conducting a flight by means of dead reckoning navigation or pilotage.
pianning and

(2) Radio navigational aids and their empioyment in flight.

(3) Facilities and procedures peculiar to instrument approaches.

(OPSEC) considerations.
This manual has been reviewed for operations security

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

Headquarters *Field Manual 1-240
Department of the Army
Washington, DC
15 December 1984

Instrument Flying and Navigation for Army Aviators

This UPDATE printing publishes a revision By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
which is effective 15 December 1984.
JOHN A. WICKHAM, JR.
Because the structure of the entire revised
General, United States Army
text has been reorganized, no attempt has
Chief of Siaff
been made to highlight changes from FM 1-5,
dated 7 July. 1980. Official:

DONALD J. DELANDRO
Brigadier General, United States Army
The Adjutant General

Applicability. This manual applies to
Army aviators in the Active Army, US
Army Reserve, and the Army National
Guard.
Placement of tables, figures, and
appendixes. Full page tables, figures,
and appendixes (in that order) included
in UPDATE printings are normally located
following the last chapter of the
publication. Less than full page tables
and figures will be placed, when
possible, where first cited in the text.
User information. The proponent
agency of this manual is the US Army
Aviation Center. Submit changes for
improving this publication on DA Form
2028 (Recommended Changes to
Publications and Blank Forms) through
the aviation unit commander to the
Commander, United States Army
Aviation Center and Fort Rucker, ATTN:
ATZQ-TD-P-PM, Fort Rucker, AL
36362-5000.
Distribution. Special distribution of this
issue has been made in accordance with
DA Form 12-11 A requirements fOI field
manuals. The number of copies
distributed to a given subscriber is the
highest single number of copies
requested in blocks 1 through 8
01 the
subscriber's DA Form 12-11 A.

Contents (Listed by paragraph pnd page Section II Section VI

numbers) Gyroscopes The Pitot-Slatic System
Gyroscopic principles' 2-6, 12 Operation' 2-21, 18
Chapter 1 Gyroscopic mountings' 2-7, 12 Impact pressure' 2-22, 19
Illusions in Flight Gyroscopic properties' 2-6, 12 Static pressure' 2-23, 19
General '1-1,5
Gyroscopic instrument power Section VII
Sensory systems for orientation. 1-2, 5
sources' 2-9, 12 Altimeters
Illusions leading to spatial
Vacuum driven gyroscopes '2-10,12 Pressure altimeter' 2-24, 19
disorientation '1-3, 5
Electrically driven gyroscopes' 2-11, 12 Construction' 2-25, 20
Demonstrations of spatial
disorientation' 1-4, 5 Section /1/ Altimeter indications' 2-26, 20
Prevention of spatial Attitude Indicators Effect of nonstandard temperatuns and
disorientation '1-5, 7
Operation' 2-12, 13 pressures' 2-27, 21
Illusions leading to landing Altimeter settings' 2-28, 22
7 Power sources' 2-13, 13
errors. 1-6, Types of altitude' 2-29, 23
Prevention of landing errors from visual Construction. 2-14, 15
Radar altimeter' 2-30, 25
illusions' 1-7, 9 Operation errors' 2-15, 15
Section VIII
Section IV The Airspeed Indicator
Chapter 2
Turn-and-Slip Indicators Construction' 2-31, 26
Flight Instruments and Systems
Operation' 2-16, 16 Operation' 2-32, 26
General'2-1,9
Turn needle '2-17,16 Airspeeds' 2-33, 26
Section I Bali '2-18,16
Magnehsm Seclion IX
Basic magnetism' 2-2, 9 Section V The Vertical Speed Indicator
Earth as a magnet. 2-3, 9 Slaved Gyro Compass Systems. Construction' 2-34, 26
Magnetic compass' 2-4, 10 Operation '2-19,16 Operation' 2-35, 26
Compass errors. . 2-5, 10 Components' 2-20, 16 Instrument lag' 2-36, 26

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION. This publication contains technical or operational information that is for official Government use onlyDistri.
bution is limited to US Government agencies. Requests from outside the US Government for release of this publication under the Freelbm of
Information Act or the Foreign Military Sales Program must be made to HQ TRADOC, Ft Monroe. VA 23651-5000.

*ThiS fIe1d-manual-sup'ersetles FM 1"-5, 7 Ju1y 1'980.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Contents-Continued
Adjustment. 2-37, 27
Instantaneous vertical speed
indicator' 2-38, 27
Chapter 3 Timed lurns . 4--24, 54
Power, Pitch Attitude, and Bank
Control Through Instruments
General' 3-1, 27
Section I
Fundamental Skills
Attitude controi . 3-2, 27
Instrument cross-check' 3-3, 27
Trim. 3-4, 27
Section 1/
Power Control
Lift. 3-5, 27
Power instruments' 3-6, 27
Constant airspeed' 3-7, 29
Con slant allitude . 3-6, 29
Power variation. 3-9, 31
Power setting' 3-1 0, 31
Power inslrument cross-check '3-11,31
Section II/
Pitch Attitude COn trot
Attitude instrumenls . 3-12, 32
Attitude indicalor . 3-13, 33
Altimeter '3-14, 34
Verticai speed indicalor '3-15,35
Airspeed indicator' 3-16, 36
Pitch altitude Irim . 3-17, 36
Pitch altitude instrumenl cross-
check' 3-1 6, 36
Section tV
Bank Attitude Control
Straighl flighl . 3-19, 37
Altitude indicator' 3-20, 37
Heading ic1icalor . 3-21, 37
Turn-and-slip indicalor . 3-22, 32
Bank attitude Irim . 3-23, 39
Bank instrumenls . 3-24, 39
Chapler 4
Basic Instrument Maneuvers
General' 4--1 39
,
Section I
Fixed Wing
Maneuver perlormance .4--2, 39
Inslrument lakeoff . 4-3, 40
Straight-and-Ievel flighl .4--4, 40
Slraighl climbs and descents. 4-5, 40
Level lurns . 4-6, 41
Turns 10 headings' 4--7, 42
Steep lurns . 4-8, 42
Timed turns' 4-9, 43
Climbing and descending
lurns . 4-10, 44
Compass turns' 4--11 45 ,
Unusual atlitudes . 4-12, 45
Section 1/
Aotary Wing
AII-wéalher operalions . 4--13,47
Maneuver performance' 4-14, 47
Instrumenllakeoff 4-15,47
. Aeronautical Charts
Slraighl climb' 4--16, 47
Straight-and-Ievel flighl . 4--17, 49
Straight descenls '4--18,51
lurns
- .
'4~19,52'
2 t5 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Level lurns 4-20, 52 .
Turns headings' 4--21, 54
10
Compass lurns . 4-22, 54
Steep lurns . 4--23, 54
Climbing lurns . 4-25, 55
Descending lurns .
4--26, 57
Unusual attiludes and
recoveries. 4-27, 57
Aulorolations . 4-28, 57
Acceieralions and
decelerations' 4-29, 57
Chapter 5
Coordination Maneuvers
General' 5-1, 59
Verlical Sand S-1
Paltern A .
5-3, 59
Paltern B .
5-4, 61
Chapter 6
Air Navigation
General' 6-1, 62
Section I
Measuring the Earth in Space
Shape' 6-2, 62
Rotation' 6-3, 62
Revolution' 6-4, 62
Inclinalion . 6-5, 62
Section 1/
Measuring Position on the Earth
Coordinates' 6-6, 63
Circles ona sphere' 6-7, 64
Reference circles on the earlh
Equalor . 6-9, 65
Parallels' 6-10, 65
.
Meridians. 5-1.1, 65
Lalitude and longitude' 6-12, 65
Section II/
Measuring Direction on the Earth
Poinls . 6-,13, 65
Compass' 6-14, 65
Course' 6-15, 66
Rhumb line '6-16,66
Measurement. 6-17,68
Greal circle' 6-18, 68
Chapter 7
Navigation Charts
General' 7-1,68
Section I
Chart Projections
Scale' 7-2, 68
Distortion' 7-3, 68
Characlerislics . 7-4, 68
Graticule '7-5, 70
Projection' 7-6, 70
Lamberl conformal projection' 7-7,71
Mercalor projeclion . 7-8, 72
Polar stereographicprojeclion .7-9, 74
Section 1/
Seclional aeronaulical charls . 7-10,74
World aeronautical charls '7-11,75
Photomaps' 7-12,75
Täctiêarp~otage-c11arts '7-"13,75
Operational navigational
charls '7-14,75
Chapter 8
Plotting and Measuring
General. 8-1, 75
Pencils and erasers" 8-2, 75
Dividers' 8-3, 75
Plotters' 8-4, 75
Chapter 9
Instruments Used for Dead Reckoning
Navigation
General' 9-1,77
Magnetic compass' 9-2, 77
Gyro heading indicator' 9-3, 78
.
5-2, 59 Slaved gyro system. 9-4,78
Airspeed indicator' 9-5, 76
Free air temperalure gage' 9-6, 78
Altimeter' 9-7, 76
Clock '9-8, 78
Chapter 10
Wind and Its Effects
General' 10-1, 78
Wind' 10-2, 78
Correction. 10-3, 80
Poinlsto remember' 10-4, 80
Prob1ems . 10-5, 80
Ground speed '10-6, 80
Chapter 11
The Dead Reckoning Computer
General '11-1,81
.
6-8, 65 Section I
Slide Rule Face
Slide rule' 11-2, 81
Distance conversion -11-3,83
Simple proportion' 11-4, 84
Time-distance '11-5,84
Ground speed' 11-6, 84
Time required' 11-7, 84
Dislance determination '11-8, 64
Use of the 36 index' 11-9, 84
Gallons and pounds
conversion. 11-10, 85
Rate of fuel consumption '11-11, 85
Maximum range '11-'12,85
Airspeed compulations . 11-13, 86
Density altitude' 11-14, 86
Altilude computations' 11-15, 86
Off-course correction
(rule of 60) '11-16,86
Drift correction '11-17, 87
Radius of action (fixed base) '11-18, 87
Section 1/
Wind Problems
Disk and correction scales '11-19,88
Reversible grid' 11-20, 88
Wind Iriangle construclion '11-21,89
Wind triangle solulion . 11-22, 90
Wind problems' 11-23, gO
Heading and ground speed
computation '11-24,91
True airspeed computation' 11-25, 91
Wind velocity computation' 11-26, 92
Reported wind correction '11-27,93
Wind 1riangle variations .11 ~28,"94 .
Contents-Contlnued
Chapter 12
Radio Principles
General' 12-1, 94
Wave transmission. 12-2, 95
Direct and alternating current. 12-3, 95
Radio waves' 12-4, 95
Principles of the transmitter. 12-5, 96
Principles of the receiver.
12-6, 97
Classification of frequencies' 12-7, 98
Low frequency radio wave propagation
(nondirectional) . 12-8, 98
Skip distance' 12-9, 99
Effect of all matter on
radiation 012-10, 99
Effect of static upon low and medium
frequency reception' 12-11, 99
General nature of high frequency
propagation (3,000 kilohertz to 30
megahertz) . 12-12, 99
General nature of VHF and UHF
propagation (30 to 3,000
megahertz) . 12-13, 99
Chapter 13
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
System
General' 13-1, 99
Section I
Components and Operation
Static interference' 13-2, 99
Transmitter and receiver
fundamentals' 13-3, 100
VOR receivers
'13-4, 100
VOR course indicators
'13-5, 101
Radio magnetic indicator. 13-5, 103
Section /I
Flight Procedures
Operation' 13-7, 103
VOR positions '13-8, 103
Orientation '13-9, 104
VOR stations' 13-10, 104
Station passage' 13-11, 108
Position checkpoints' 13-12, 110
Course interception '13-13,112
Estimating time and distance to a
station '13-14, 114
Section //I
Receiver Checks
Accuracy '13-15, 115
Radiated test signal' 13-16, 115
Other ground checks '13-17, 115
Airborne check' 13-18, 115
Dual VOR receivers' 13-19, 115
Unpublished receiver check
'13-20, 116
Course deviation indicator sensitivity
check '13-21, 116
Section IV
VOR Station Classification
Classes. 13-22, 116
Classification by reception
capabilities' 13-23, 116
Section V
Area Navigation
Components' 13-24, 116
Operation' 13-25, 117
Waypoints . 13-26, 117-
RNAV routes' 13-27, 117 '
TACAN arcs '15-11, 136
RNAV approaches' 13-28, 118 TACAN holding' 15-12, 143
Chapter 14 Chapter 16
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) and Instrument Approach Procedures
Manual Loop Procedures General '16-1,143
General '14-1, 118
Section I
Section I Instrument Approaches
Characteristics and Components Identification of procedures' 16-2, 143
Receiver spectrum' 14--2, 118 Units of measurement
'16-3, 143
Classification' 14--3, 118 Aircraft categories' 16-4, 143
Receiver components' 14-4, 118 Instrument approach
.
procedure' 16-5, 144
Section /I
Straight-in approaches'
Automatic Direction Finder Flight 16-6, 145
Instrument approach with procedure
Procedures
turn '16-7, 146
Orientation procedure '14--5, 118
Courses to a station' 14-6, 119 Section /I
Station passages. 14-7, 119 Feeder Routes/Standard Terminal Arrival
Courses from a station '14-6, 120 Routes
Identification of fixes. 14--9, 120 Feeder routes '16-8, 147
Interception inbound '14--10,120 Publication. 16-9, 147
Interception outbound '14--11, 122 Execution '16-10, 147
Time and distance from an ADF
Section 11/
station. 14--12, 122
Procedure Turns
Section //I Use of procedure turns '16-11,147
Automatic Direction Finder Flight Typical patterns '16-12,148
Procedures Using Relative Bearings Procedure turn area' 16-13, 149
Relative bearing '14--13, 123 Obstruction clearance-minlmum
Orientation (fixed card) . 14--14, 123 altitude' 16-14, 149
Station passage The 45-degree procedure
(fixed card) . 14--15, 123 turn '16-15, 149
Courses to a station (fixed card) '14--16, Missed approaches '16-16,151
124
Homing '14--17,124 Section IV
Holding Patterns
Courses from station (fixed
a
card) '14-18, 125 Definition '16-17, 153
Positions (fixed card) '14--19, 126 Configuraiion '16-18,153
Interception inbound (fixed Timing '16-19,153
card) '14--20,127 Airspeeds' 16-20, 153
Interception OU1bound (fixed Tums '16-21, 154
card) '14--21,128 Entry' 16-22, 154
Determination of time and distance from Departure' 16-23, 155
a station (fixed card) "14-22, 128 Drift correction' 16-24, 156
Clearances and reports' 16-25, 157
Section IV Stacking' 16-26, 158
Manual (Loop) Operation of the ARN-59 Instrument approach
Operation '14--23, 128 briefing '16-27,158
Orientation. 14--24, 128
Null. 14--25, 129 Chapter 17
Determination of time and distance from Instrument Approach Procedure
a station. 14-26, 129 Charts
Beacon '14--27,129 General '17-1, 159
Legend pages. 17-2, 159
Chapter 15 Concentric rings '17-3, 159
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) Chart format. 17-4, 159
General '15-1, 130 Margin identification .17-5,159
Frequencies and ground Plan views' 17-6, 159
equipment. 15-2, 130 Profile views '17-7, 160
Signal patterns' 15-3, 130 Minimums section
'17-8, 110
Distance measuring Alternate airport. 17-9, 160
equipment. 15-4, 132 Stra1ght-in minimums .
17-H, 161
TACAN characteristics '15-5, 132 Circling minimums' 17-11, 16 1
AN/ARN-103 TACAN '15-6,135 Missed approach '17-12, 111
Navigational procedures
'15-7, 135 Procedural component
Station passage' 15-8, 135 operation '17-13,161
Ground speed checks '15-9, 135 Runway visual range (RVR)
,Intersecti<;>ns . 15-.10, 136 _minimums '17.-14, 1ß1 '
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE 'FM 1-240 ~
Contents-Contlnued

Chapter 18 Departure and arrival control

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) procedures. 20-11, 199
and Nondirectlonal Beacon (NDB) Radar approaches. 21)....12, 199
Approaches Monitoring of nonradar
General. 18-1, 176 approaches. 21)....13, 199
VFR traffic expanded radar
Section I
Typical VOR Approach service. 20-14, 201
VOR approach chart. 18-2, 176 Radar assistance within air defense
VOR station location. 18-3, 177 identification zones. 20-15, 201
Initial contact and arrival . 18-4~ 177
Section /II
Holding. 18-5, 177
Transponders
Descent. 18-6, 179
Approach. 18-7, 179 Capability. 20-16, 201
Landing. 18-8, 180 Phraseology. 20-17,201
Missed approach. 18-9, 180
Section IV
Section /I Ground Weather Radar
Typical NDB Approach Operation .20-16,202
NDB approach chart. 18-10, 180
USAF pilot-to-metro service
Arrivai .18-11, 182
(PMSV) .20-19, 202
Entry to holding. 18-12, 182
Holding .18-13,183 FAA weather radar
Descent .18-14,184 advisories. 20-20, 202
Intermediate and final
approach. 18-15, 184 Chapter 21
Tactical Instrument Flight
Chapter 19 General. 21-1, 203
Instrument Landing System
Section J
.19-1,185
.

General
Tactical Emp/oyment Considerations
Section /
Tactical instrument flight. 21-2,203
Components
Ground components. 19-2, 185 Training. 21'-3,203
Principles of employment. 21-4, 203
Section /I Flight altitudes 021-5,204
Operation
Flight routes. 21-6, 205
Localizer .19-3, 185
Glide slope. 19-4, 187 Section /I
Marker beacons and compass Tactica/lnstrument Flight Pfanning
locators. 19-5, 189 Initial planning. 21-7, 206
Arrival. 19-6, 190 Preflight planning. 21-8, 206
Front course approach.18-7, 192
Localizer only approach. 19-8, 192 The course line. 21-9, 206
Localizer back course Minimum enroute altitude. 21-10, 207
approach. 18-9,192 Takeoff planning.21-11, 211
Runway visual range 019-10,192 Approach procedures.21-12, 214
The visual approach slope indicator Holding procedures. 21-13,218
(VASI) .19-11, 194
Simplified directional facility (SDF) and Missed approach procedures. 21-14,
localizer-type directional aid
219 .

(LOA) .19-12, 194 Emergency procedures. 21-15, 219

Section /II
Chapter 20
Aviator Training
Radar
Training programs . 21~16, 221
General. 20-1, 196
Flight training for tactical instrument
Section I flight .21-17, 221
Radar Capabilities, Uses, and Limitations
Operatlon.20-2, 196 Appendixes
Primary radar. 20-3, 197
Secondary radar. 20-4, 197 A. References, 222
Air route surveillance radar. 20-5, 197
223
Airport surveillance radar. 21)....6, 197 B. IFR Flight Planning,
Limitations. 20-7, 197
C. Sample Program of Instruction for
Section /I Tactical Instrument Flight, 225.
Radar Air Traffic Control Procedures
D. ATC Shorthand Symbols. 228
identification.20-8, 198
Transfer of radar control Glossary, 231
(handoff) .20-9, 198
Enroute control procedures.. 20-10,.196
.

Index, 223
4 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Chapter 1
illusions In Flight
1-1. General
An illusion or false impression occurs
when information provided by the
sensory organs is inadequate or
misinterpreted. Many illusions in flight
can be created by complex motions and
visual scenes which aviators encounter
under adverse weather conditions and at
night. Some of these illusions may lead
to spatial disorientation or inability to
determine accurately the altitude or
motion of the aircraft in relation to the
earth's surface. This chapter provides
the basic knowledge aviators need to
understand the various illusions
encountered in flight, to respect their
serious consequences, and to cope with
them effectively.
1-2. Sensory systems for orientation
Three sensory systems are used for
orientation-the visual system, the
motion-sensing system in the inner ear,
and the position-sensing system
involving nerves in the skin, muscles,
and joints.
a. Vision is the major sense for
orientation. Under visual meteorological
conditions (VMG). aircraft altitude is
determined by observing the earth's
surface, which usually provides accurate
and believable visual information.
However, under instrument
meteorological conditions (IMG), aircraft
altitude can be determined accurately
only by observing and interpreting flight
instruments.
b. The .bsence of reliable visual
information causes a person to become
more aware of information provided by
motion-sensing and position-sensing
systems. Unfortunately, the sensations of
motion and position during various flight
maneuvers are often quite misleading;
the tendency is to believe them rather
than information from the flight
instruments,
1-3. illusions leading to spatial
disorientation
a. The most hazardous illusions
leading to spatial disorientation are
created by information received from the
motion-sensing system in each inner ear.
This fluid-filled system consists of three
semicircular tubes connected to a sac.
Sensory organs in the tubes detect
angular acceleration of the pitch, yaw,
and roll axes, whereas a sensory organ
in the sac detects gravity and linear
acceleration. In flight, the motion-sensing
system may be stimulated by aircraft
motion alone or by the combination of
head and body movement with it.
Unfortunately, the system is not capable
of detecting a constant velocity or small
changes in velocity (fig 1-1). Neither is it
capable of distinguishing between
centrifugal forceßig 1-2) and gravity.
The motion-sensing system, though
functioning normaliy in flight, can also
produce faise sensations. For example,
the process of decelerating while turning
in one direction can produce the
sensation of turning in the opposite
direction. This illusion can be corrected
only by using adequate outside visual
references or by properly reading flight
instruments, thus oVPrriding the
sensations from the inner ear.
b. The major illusions leading to
spatial disorientation are described
below.
(1) Leans illusion. A banked altitude to
the left, for example, may be entered too
slowly to activate the fluid in the "roll"
. semicircular tubes. An abrupt correction
of this altitude can set the fluid in motion
and create the illusion of a banked
attitude to the right. The disoriented pilot
may make the error of roliing the aircraft
back into the original left-banked attitude
or, if level flight is maintained, wili feel
compelied to lean to the left until this
illusion subsides.
(2) Coriolis illusion. An abrupt head
movement during a prolonged constant-
rate turn may set the fluid in motion in
more than one semicircular tube. This
creates the strong iliusion of turning or
accelerating in an entirely different axis.
The disoriented pilot may maneuver the
aircraft into a dangerous altitude in an
attempt to correct this illusion.
(3) Graveyard spin illusion. In a
prolonged spin, the fluid in the
semicircular tubes in the axis of the spin
will cease its motion (fig 1-1). The
deceleration that occurs during recovery
to ievel flight will again set this fluid in
motion. This creates an illusion of
spinning in the opposite direction. The
disoriented pilot may return the aircraft to
its original spin.
(4) Graveyard spiral illusion. In a
prolonged, coordinated, constant-rate
turn, the fluid in the semicircular tubes in
the axis of the turn will cease its motion
(fig 1-1). An observed loss of altitude in
the aircraft instruments and the absence
of any, sense of turning may create the
illusion of descending with the wings
level. The disoriented pilot may pull back
on the controls, thus tightening the spiral
and increasing the loss of altitude.
(5) Somatogravic illusion. A rapid
acceleration during takeoff
overstimulates the sensory organs for
gravity and linear acceleration and
creates the illusion of being in a nose-up
attitude. The disoriented pilot may push
the aircraft into a nose-low or dive
attitude. A rapid deceleration by quick
power reduction can have the opposite
effect. The disoriented pilot may pull the
a.ircraft into a nose-up or stall attitude.
(6) Inversion illusion. An abrupt
change from climb to straight-and-Ievel
flight can overstimulate the sensory
organs for gravity and linear acceleration.
This cr(>ates the illusion of tumbling.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
backwards. The disoriented pilot may
push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low
altitude and possibly intensify this
illusion.
(7) Elevator illusion. An abrupt,
upward, vertical acceleration, as can
occur in a helicopter or an updraft, can
shift vision downwards (visual scene
moves upwards). This acceleration
overstimulates the sensory organs for
gravity and linear acceleration and
creates the illusion of being in a climb.
The disoriented pilot may push the
aircraft into a nose-low attitude. An
abrupt, downward, vertical acceleration,
usually in a downdraft, has the opposite
effect. The disoriented pilot may pull the
aircraft into a nose-up attitude.
(8) False horizon illusion. A sloping
cloud formation, an obscured horizon, a
dark scene spread with ground lights and
stars, and certain geometric patterns of
ground lights can create the illusion of a
faise horizon. These provide inaccurate
visual information for aligning the aircraft
correclly with the actual horizon. The
disoriented pilot may place the aircraft in
a dangerous altitude.
(9) Autokinesis illusion. In the dark, a
stationary light will appear to move when
stared at for many seconds. The
disoriented pilot could lose control of the
aircraft in attempting to align it \fIith the
false movements of this light.
(10) Flicker vertigo illusion. A hypnotic
or soporific effect can be induced by
regular flashing of a light, such as an
anticollision or strobe light at nig,t. The
effect can also be induced by ciou ds or
r010r blades interrupting a bright light,
such as the sun. Flicker vertigo s most
pronounced during long flights vith few
attitude or directional changes and can
cause the disoriented pilot to experience
temporary immobilization.
1-4. Demonstrations of spatia
disorientation
a. Spacial disorientation can is
experienced in some controlled aircraft
maneuvers. Each maneuver willnormally
create a specific illusion. Howewr any
~
faJse sensation is an effective
demonstration of disorientation. rhus,
should there be no sensation dUing any
maneuver, the absence of sensrtion is
still an effective demonstration il t hat it
shows inability to detect bank orroll.
(1) Climbing while acceleratin;. While
the student has his eyes closed, th e
instructor pilot maintains approa:h
airspeed in a straight-and.leveillti tude
for several seconds and then
accelerates while maintaining tilt
attitude. The usual illusion crea~d during
this maneuver, without visual reerences,
is that the aircraft is climbing.
(2) Climbing while turning. Whle the
student's eyes remain closed an! the
aircraft is in a straight-and-Ievel'ttitude,
the instructor pilot executes, witi a
relatively slow entry, a well-coojinated
5
 SemicIrcular TuDes

Our motion.sensing system is ~: Enlarged, this system is shaped

about as shown. II contains tluid
and the sensory organs tor
located in each inner ear in the detecting angular acceleration
approximate position shown. and gravity and linear acceleration.

ANGULAR ACCELERATION GRAVIH AND LINEAR ACCELERATION

The semicircular tubes are arranged at appro)(i~ A sensory organ tor detecting gravity and linear
mateJy right angles to each other in the roll, pitch acceleration is located in the bottom and side ot tne
and yaw axes. prO)eCI
sac. It consists of small sensory hairs that
upward into a gelatinous substance containing
chalk -like crystals. The weight borne by these

Q .~+,-1\""0\\-
.~ sensory hairs changes with every head movemenl
/
~ /
~ '. -,/
" with respect to gravity and with every linear accel-
~.
.

,"
: '--,.1; P'''h
-::,;',
eration (up, down, left, right, lorward, backward).
50 causing the sensation of tilting the head or body.
\~. "'$~-~..
~. Yow -
.
.

"
...
-----

A sensory organ, which consists of small sensory .....'" "..-

hairs that project, into a gelatinous substance, is :....-.:;:';'~~-

localed in each lube. When the head starts to turn ~"c,;>'"-
(angular acceleration) or speeds up, slow down. or ~'~o.'
~...
o. co

""',,',.'
,:;.""
010

'.
i

\
stops its turning. the sensory hairs in the tube in the 'ø~P~...~
~,'.
-

axis of turning are temporarily deflected due to the ,.,,,.-.....

o$.~---T'
.

motion of the tluid lagging behind the motion 011hl;'

"<:'~_\~-'.;
lube wall. This causes the sensation of turning. ,
"
,
r

TuDf:
Sensory r,alrs

NO TURNING START OF TURN

-;:'~-
.~
Nn sensation Sensation of turning as
moving ilLJIO deflec1s 't'1alrs

~~(""'.--'~~ ."~,,.
";.~.-_o;'\" ,
Ç> '.
--..,.,,~
~--'\.0\ri::~ ,.,.\-.. .",
, "

\' )
\
",
I"
~'
I:
.........
.
.->-:=
'.........

CONSTANT RATE TURN TURN STOPPED ~~.~ -.-~

!\to sensation aHer 11l~ld Sensation 01 1urnlng In

aCC07lelates W same speed opposl1e dlreC110n a's mo,',
.15 WDe wall Ing fluid deflec1s t'1alr
In opposl1e direction

Figure 1-1. Motion-sensing system

6 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

 ~ (ij)
STRAIGHT lEVEL
~.
,.j
lEVEL SKID
turn of about 1 1;2 positive G, for 90
degrees. The usual illusion created
during this turning maneuver without
visual references and under the effect of
the slight positive G is that the aircraft is
climbing. On sensing the climb, the
student should immediately open his
eyes and see that a slowly established,
coordinated turn produces the same
feeling as a climb.
(3) Diving while turning. This sensation
can be created by repeating the
procedure in (2) above except that the
student's eyes should remain closed until
recovery from the turn is about half
completed. When the eyes are closed,
the usual illusion is that the aircraft is
diving.
(4) Tiltinq to right or left. While the
aircraft is In a straight-and-Ievel attitude
and the student's eyes are closed, the
instructor pilot executes a moderate or
slight skid to the left with the wings or
rotor system level. The usual illusion is
that the body is tilting to the right.
(5) Reversing of motion. This illusion
can be demonstrated in any of the three
pianes of motion. While the aircraft is in
a straight-and-Ievel attitude and the
student's eyes are closed, the instructor
pilot smoothly and positively rolls the
aircraft to about a 45-degree bank
attitude while maintaining heading and
pitch attitude. The usual illusion is a
strong sense ot rotation in the opposite
direction. After this illusion is noted, the
student should open his eyes and
observe that the aircraft is in a banked
attitude.
(6) Diving or rolling beyond the vertical
plane. This maneuver may produce
extreme disorientation. While the aircraft
is in a stralght-and-Ievel attitude, the
student should sit normally with eyes
closed or gaze lowered to the floor. The
instructor pilot starts a positive,
coordinated roll toward a 30-degree or
40-degree angle of bank. As the roll
progresses, the student should tilt his
head forward, look to the right or left,
n
COORDINATED TURN
!hi @ Skid. slip. and imperfect
"
",--.j
FORWARD IMPERFECT
SLIP TURN
Figure 1-2. Sensations from centrifugal force
and immediately return his head to the
upright position. The instructor pilot
should time the maneuver so that the roll
is stopped just as the student returns his
head upright. An intense disorientation is
usually produced by this maneuver, with
the student experiencing the sensation of
falling .downward in the direction of the
roll.
b. The objectives in demonstrating
these various maneuvers are as follows:
(1) Understand the susceptibility of the
human system to spatial disorientation.
(2) Demonstrate that judgments of
aircraft attitude based on bodily
sensations are frequently false.
(3) Lessen the occurrence and degree
of disorientation through a better
understanding of the relationship
between aircraft motion, head
movements, and resulting disorientation.
(4) Instill greater confidence in relying
on flight instruments for assessing true
aircraft attitude.
CAUTION: None of these familiarization
maneuvers should be attempted at low
altitude or without an instructor pilot.
1-5. Prevention of spatial
disorientation
a. Action can be taken to prevent
these illusions and their potentially
disastrous consequences by-
(1 ) Always obtaining preflight weather
briefings.
(2) Not continuing flight into adverse
weather conditions or dusk or darkness
unless proficient in the use of flight
instruments.
(3) Ensuring that when outside visual
references Bre used they are reliable,
fixed points on the earth's surface.
(4) Avoiding sudden head movements,
particularly during takeoffs, turns,
approaches, and landings.
(5) Remembering that illness,
medication, alcohol, fatigue, sleep ioss,
and mild hypoxia are likely to increase
susceptibility to spatial disorienta.tion.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240
lðJ
PUllOUT
turn feel alike. Pilot feels
he is being forced side-
ways in his seat.
(6) Becoming proficient in using flight
instruments and reiying on them.
b. The sensations that lead to illusions
during instrument flight conditions are
normal perceptions experienced by
normal individuals. These undesirable
sensations cannot be completely
prevented, but they can and must be
ignored or sufficiently suppressed. This is
done by developing absolute reliance
upon flight instruments to indicate the
attitude of aircraft.
1-6. illusions leading to landing errors
Of all the senses, vision is the most
important for safe flight. However,
surface features and atmospheric
conditions encountered in landing can
create iilusions of incorrect height above
and distance from the runway threshold.
The major illusions leading to landing
errors are described below.
A narrower
a. Runway width illusions.
than usual runway can create an illusion
that the aircraft is at a higher altitude
than it actually is (fig 1-3). This is
especially true when runway length-to-
width relationships are comparable. The
pilot who does not recognize this illusion
will fly a lower approach, possibly striking
objects along the approach path or
landing short. A wider than usual runway
can have the opposite effect; the pilot
may level out high and land hard or
overshoot the runway,
b. Runway and terrain slope illusions.
An upsloping runway and upsloping
terrain can create an illusion that tha
aircraft is at a higher aititude than it
actually is (fig 1-4), The pilot who does
not recognize this illusion will fly a lower
approach. A downsloping runway and
downsloping approach terrain can have
the opposite effect.
c. Featureless terrain illusions. The
absence of surrounding ground features
can create an illusion that the aircraft Is
at a higher altitude than it actually is.
This happens when the pilot is
approaching over water, darkened areas,
.
7
 A
".rrower than uaual Nnway can create an
lIIus60n Ihllt the aircraft II higher than It actuatly la,
~
teadlng the pilot to fly a lower approach.
~
--- ;---- ----- -

7-------
A
----
wtder thin usual runway can create an lIIus.on
---
that the alrera" Is lower than It actually is. leading
the pilot 10 fly higher approach. .
~ --I

,.,~
----~~--~
---------Þ NORMAL APPROACH .6

Figure 1-3. Runway width illusion

APPROACH DUE TO IllUSION

A.nupaloplng runway can create the illusion

that the aircra" is higher than it actually is, ~ .0

..
.

approach..
.

-
leading the pilot to fly a lower -
~.

-~
-
-
-
-
-

L
-- J
--
Adownsloping runway can create the illusion
that the aircralt is lower than it actually is,
leading the pilot to fly a higher approach.

-
~
.
APPROAC~ DUE TO ILLUSION
4=.' .g .
NORMAL APPROACH

Figure 1-4. Runway and terrain slope illusion

8 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

 or terrain made featureless by snow. The
pilot who does not recognize this illusion
will fly a lower approach.
d. Atmospheric illusions. Rain on the
windscreen can create an illusion of
being at a higher altitude, and
atmospheric haze can create an illusion
of being at a greater distance from a
runway. The pilot who does not
recognize these illusions will fly a lower
approach. Fog penetration can create an
illusion of pitching up. The pilot who
does not recognize this iilusion will
steepen the approach, often quite
abruptly.
e. Ground lighting illusions. Lights
.
along a straight path, such as a road,
and even lights on moving trains can be
mistaken for runway and approach lights.
Bright runway and approach ligþting
systems, especially where few lights
illuminate the surrounding terrain, may
create the iilusion of less distance to the
runway. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion wiil fly a higher
approach.
.
1-7. Prevention 01 landing errors Irom
visual illusions
Action can be taken to prevent these
illusions and their potentially hazardous
consequences by-
a. Anticipating the possibility of visual
illusions during approaches to unfamiliar
airports, particuiarly at night or in
adverse weather conditions.
b. Conducting visual inspection of
.
unfamiliar airports before landing.
c. Using the visual approach slope
indicator (VASI) system for a visual
reference And an electronic glideslope
when they are available.
d. Recognizing that the chance of an
approach accident increases when some
emergency or other activity distracts
from usual procedures.
e. Maintaining optimum proficiency in
landing procedures.
f. Making frequent reference to the
altimeter. This instrument should be a
primary aid during ail approaches-day
or night.
Chapter 2
Flight Instruments and Systems
2-1. General
The efficiency and utility of modern Army
aircraft are largely dependent on their
flight instruments and systems accurately
depicting what the aircraft is doing in
flight and how weli its power plants and
components are functioning. Some of the
most important instruments that are used
for navigation are the magnetic compass,
slaved gyro compass system, heading
indicator, airspeed indicator, and
altimeter. They show information
conceming direction, airspeed, and
. Bltitude. The attitude Jndicatorailows the
aviator to control the aircraft by showing pole is 72 degrees south and 157
him the attitude of the aircraft in relation degrees east.
to the natural horizon. The performance b. Dip angle. The lines of force in the
of an aircraft in a given attitude and with earth's magnetic field are parailel to the
a certain power is indicated by the earth's surface at the magnetic equator.
airspeed indicator, heading indicator, They curve increasingly downward as
altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and they move closer to the magnetic poies.
turn-and-slip indicator. Usuaily, when a magnetic needle is
placed on one of the lines of force (fig
Section I 2-1), it will assume the direction and
position of the actual line of force. The
Magnetism
earth's magnetic field has both horizontal
and vertical components. Only the
2-2. Basic magnetism horizontal component Is used for
A magnet is a piece of metal that has direction finding. If a magnetic needle is
the property of attracting another metal. placed on a horizontal axis so that its
When freely suspended, a bar magnet vertical movement is free, it wiil dip zero
will align in an approximate north and degrees at the magnetic equator and 90
south direction. The force of attraction is degrees at the magnetic poles. The
greatest at a point near the ends of the magnetic compass is reliable until the dip
magnet-the poles. Lines of force flow angle exceeds 84 degrees in polar
out from each pole in all directions,
areas.
eventually bending around and returning
to the other pole. The area through
which these lines of force flow is cailed
the field of the magnet. The end of the
magnet that seeks north is cailed the
North' Pole.
2-3. Earth as a magnet
The earth is comparable to a huge
magnet with the poles iocated severai
hundred miles below the earth's surface.
To use the magnetic compass
effectively, some basic properties of
magnetism and their effect on the
instrument must be understood.
a. Location of magnetic poles. The
magnetic poles do not coincide with the
earth's geographic poles (fig 2-1). The
approximate location of the north
magnetic pole is 71 degrees north and
96 degrees west and the south magnetic
MAGNETIC
NORTH POLE
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT"" \
"'-0'-"", \
".
VERTICAL
COMPONENT
\
f'igure 2-1. Earth's ma9netlc field
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 9

2-4. Magnetic compass
The magnetic compass (fig 2-2) is
simple in construction and has a high
reliability factor. Requiring no external
power source, it uses the earth's
magnetic field to indicate the heading of
the aircraft. The compass card, which is
seen through the glass window of the
compass case, has letters for cardinal
headings (N. S, E, and W) and numbers,
with the last zero omitted, at each 30-
degree interval. Mounted on the float
with the compass card are two
magnetized needies which align
themselves and the compass card with
the magnetic field of the earth. The float
is pivoted on a pedestal attached to the
bottom of the compass case or bowl.
The bowl is filled with kerosene which
provides lubrication, rust prevention, and
a dampening action on the oscillations of
the compass card. A vertical lubber
(reference) line is mounted behind the
glass face of the compass bowl. The
heading of the aircraft is indicated by the
compass card letter or number appearing
behind the lubber line. The compass also
contains a compass compensating
assembly which is used to adjust (or
swing) the compass.
TN MN
VAR WHEN VARIATION IS EAST. IT IS SUBTRACTED
THH:l60DI.VAR(10o E! MH(0500)
150 E
Figure 2-3. Lines of equal magnetic varIation in the United States
10
north is known as magnetic variation.
Lines of equal magnetic variation, or
isogonic lines, are shown on aeronautical
charts in degrees of variation east or
west (fig 2-3). The line on a chart
connecting points of zero-degree
variation is called the agonic line. Lines
of equal magnetic variation are replotted
periodically to compensate for shifting of
the poles or changes in local magnetic
deposits.
b. Deviation.The magnetic compass is
influenced by nearby electrical
equipment and metallic objects which
cause the compass to deviate from its
normal readings. The difference between
the compass readings in a particular
aircraft and those of an unaffected
Figure 2-2. Magnetic compass compass at the same point on'the
earth's surface is called deviation. To
2-5. Compass errors reduce this deviation, the compensating
a. Variation.
In some types of assembly is adjusted I'\S much as
navigation, aeronautical chart possible. A deviation card is then
computations are based on the relation prepared and mounted near the
of a course to the true geographic North compass. Figures from this card are
Pole. During flight, the magnetic applied to the indications of the compass
compass points to the magnetic north so that a desired heading may be flown.
pole which is not the same location as c. Magnetic dip. The tendency of the
the true North Pole. This angular magnetic compass to point down as well
difference between true and magnetic as north in certain latitudes is known as
MN TN
VAR WHEN VARIAtiON IS WEST. IT IS ADDED
.
, oW TH(06OQ).,. VAAOOoW) ':: MHW70o)
100 E
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
magnetic dip. Magnetic dip is responsible
for the northerly and southerly turning
errors and for acceleration and
deceleration errors on headings of east
and west. At the magnetic equator, the
vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field is zero which does not
affect the magnetic compass. When the
aircraft is flying from the magnetic'
equator to higher latitudes, the effect of
the vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field becomes more noticeable.
Oniy errors in the Northern Hemisphere
are discussed below; the exact reverse
of these errors occurs in the Southern
Hemisphere.
(1) Northerly turning error. Vertical dip
tendency is not noticed in straight-and-
level unaccelerated flight. The compass
card is mounted so that its center of
gravity (CG) is below the pivot point and
it is well balanced in the fiuid. When the
aircraft is banked, however, the compass
card also banks because of the
centrifugal force. While the compass
card is in this banked attitude, the
vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field causes the north-seeking
poles of the compass to dip to the low
side of the turn, thus giving an erroneous
turn indication (fig 2-4). This error is
most apparent on headings of north and
south. When the aircraft is turning from a
heading of north, the compass briefly
gives an indication of a turn in the
opposite direction and lags behind.
When the aircraft is turning from a
heading of south, the compass indicates
a turn in the proper direction, but at a
more rapid rate than is actually being
.
made.
(2) Acceleration error. Acceleration
error is due to the action of the vertical
component of the earth's magnetic field.
The pendulous-type mounting of the
compass causes the compass card to tilt
during changes in acceleration and pitch.
This momentary card deflection from the
horizontal results in an error which is
most apparent on headings of east and
west. When the aircraft is accelerating or
establishing a descent on either of these
headings, the error indicates a turn to
the north. When the aircraft is
decelerating or establishing a climb, the
error indicates a turn to the south. If the
aircraft is on a north or south heading
while climbing, descending, or changing
speed, no acceleration error is apparent.
NOTE: Acceleration-north/decelera-
tion-south (ANDS) is helpful in
remembering acceleration error.
(3) Oscillation error. Rough air or poor
control technique causes erratic swing of
the compass card and ,asults in
compass oscillation error. The fiuid in
which the magnetic compass is
immersed is subject to swirl which may
!
,
ì
ì
---F~re 2-4. -Northerly turning error
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
create noticeable error. Also, the small
size of the compass bowl restricts the
use of efficient dampening vanes.
(4) Other errors.
la) The earth's magnetic lines of flux
must be strong enough to cause a bar
magnet, as in a compass, to align with
them. The magnetic compass is mounted
so that when an aircraft is in straight-
and-level unaccelerated flight, the
vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field has no effect on the
compass indications. In the ex1reme
latitudes near the North and South
Poles, the horizontal component of the
earth's magnetic field is very weak and
the compass may spin erratically or
indicate improper headings.
(b) All magnetic compasses are
constructed to compensate for disturbing
magnetic influences within the aircraft.
The compensating mechanism is
satisfactory when used with a deviation
card as long as the deviation on any
particular heading is constant. In modern
aircraft, however, the deviation is seldom
constant, so the use of the deviation
card is limited. In the slaved gyro
compass system, the remote compass
transmitter is usually located in a wingtip
or vertical stabilizer away from aircraft
electrical and other magnetic
disturbances.
11

Section II
Gyroscopes
2-6. Gyroscopic principles
A gyroscope (fig 2-5) is a wheel or rotor
that is mounted to spin rapidly around an
axis. It is also free to rotate about one or
both of the axes that are perpendicular
to each other and to the axis of. spin. A
spinning gyroscope offers resistance
(inertia) to any force which tends to
change the direction of the axis of spin.
The rotor has great weight (high density)
for its size and is rotated at high speeds;
therefore, it otlers a very high resistance
to any applied force
.
2-7. Gyroscopic mountings
A freely (universally) mounted
a. Free.
gyroscope has three planes of freedom
and is free to rotate in any direction
about its center of gravity. The rotor, free
to rotate in any plane in relation to the
base, spins so rapidly that its spin axis
tends to remain in a fixed direction În
space. The freely mounted gyroscope
uses the gyroscopic property of rigidity in
space. The flight instruments that use
this type of mounting are the heading
indicator and the attitude indicator.
b. Semirigid. A semirigidly mounted
gyroscope is mounted so that one of the
planes of freedom is held fixed in
relation to the base. it uses the
gyroscopic properties of rigidi~yin space
and precession. The turn-and-slip
indicator, a flight instrument, has a
gyroscope which is semi rigidly mounted.
2-8. Gyro3copic properties
spinning,
a. Rigidity in space. When
the rotor remains in Its originai plane of
rotation regardless of how the base .is
.
moved.
b. Precession. This is the resultant
action or deflection of a spinning rotor
MODEL GYROSCOPE
~
.'"
Figure 2-5. Primary elements of
12
when a deflective force is applied to its
rim. Precession is classified as real and
apparent.
(1) Real precession. This a positive
deflection caused dir',ctly or indirectly by
an applied force or forces. Because of
imperfect construction, such as imperfect
balance of the rotor, bearing friction, and
friction in the mountings, any gyroscope
has some real precession. Other causes
of real precession are centrifugal force,
gravity force, acceleration, and
deceleration.
(2) Apparent precession. A freely
mounted gyroscope maintains its axis
fixed in relation to space and not in
relation to the surface of the earth. As
the earth rotates, carrying the gyro
mount around with it, the gyro spin axis
maintains its direction fn space. With
respect to the earth, the spin axis does
change direction. This change in
direction is called apparent precession.
2-9. Gyroscopic Instrument power
sources
Most Army aircraft use electrical power
to keep rotors of gyroscope instruments
rotating continuously. At higher altitudes
and lower temperatures, electrically
operated gyroscopes have proven to be
more reliable than vacuum driven
gyroscopes.
2-10. Vacuum driven gyroscopes
A few Army aircraft are still equipped
with vacuum driven gyroscopes. In
vacuum driven gyroscopes, an engine
driven vacuum pump'reduces the
pressure within the case of a gyroscopic
instrument and outside air is then
allowed to enter the. oase through a filter
and nozzle. The nozzle directs a stream
of air onto thè buckets recessed in the
ROTOR AND
iNNER GIMBAL ,GYRO.
ROTOR
a standard gyroscope
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
rim of the rotor and causes rotor to turn.
The speed of the rotor may vary from
10,000 to 18,000 RPM, depending upon
the design 01 the instrument. Some
multi engine aircraft have vacuum pumps
on more than one engine so that, if
either pump or engine fails, vacuum will
not be interrupted. Most modern single-
engine aircraft do not have an alternate
source of vacuum. However, if an engine
fails and the propeller continues to
windmill, use of proper gliding speed will
provide adequate vacuum for instrument
operation. A vacuum gage is located on
the instrument panel to indicate the
suction (vacuum) in inches of mercury. A
suction from 3.75 inches to 4.25 inches
of mercury will operate the vacuum-
driven attitude indicator and the
directional gyro. A suction from 1.8
inches to 2.1 inches of mercury will
operate the vacuum-driven turn indicator.
If the vacuum reading should fall as low
as 1.8 inches of mercury, the aviator
knows that the attitude and heading
indicators are inaccurate, but the turn
indicator is accurate.
2-11. Electrically driven gyroscopes
In electrically driven gyroscopes, the
rotor and stator of an electric motor are
enclosed in a gyro housing and become,
in effect, the gyro. The gyro or rotor is
operated on current supplied from the
aircraft's electrical system. An advantage
of this system is that the instrument case
can be hermetically sealed. This
eliminates the danger of moisture
condensation and keeps out foreign
material. When the gyro reaches
operating speed, enough heat is
generated to ensure etlective lubrication
at altitudes where outside air
temperature is extremely low.
GYRO AND OUTER
GIMBAL
Section III
Attitude Indicators
2-12. Operation
The attitude indicator, with its miniature
aircraft representing the actual aircraft
and the horizon bar representing the
actual horizon outside the aircraft, is the
only flight instrument that directly
displays the flight attitude of the aircraft.
It simultaneously displays both the pitch
and the bank aftitudes of the aircrafl. It
has no lead or lag in aircraft attitude
changes and instantly indicates even the
smallest change in attitude.
2-13. Power sources
Attitude indicators used in Army aircraft
are powered by an electrical source.
Electrically operated attitude indicators
(figs 2-6, 2-7, and 2-8) have warning
flags which appear on the face of the
instruments when electrical power is
interrupted.

'~
\..(
".. I

A. INDICATOR FACE B. GYR<I HOUSING AND COMPONENT

PARTS

xC()
~
~
C. ERECTION MECHANISM

Figure 2-6. The J-8 electric altitude Indicator

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 (RESERVED)

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

14
 2-14. Construction
Attitude indicators have a device to
represent the natural horizon. The
indicator may be a horizon bar, a horizon
line, or a sphere or disk with a line
separating a light color which represents
the sky from a dark color which
represents the earth. A banking pointer
is positioned at the top of the instrument
to indicate banking attitude of the
aircraft. A device representing a
miniature aircraft is mounted in front of
the horizon bar or sphere or disk. On
some attitude indicators, this device can
be adjusted up or down by a knob
located on the instrument case. This is
done to place the miniature aircraft in the
desired position in relation to the horizon
bar or horizon line. Other attitude
indicators have a knob which is used to
adjust the horizon line to place it in the
desired pos~ion in relation to the
miniature aircraft. The horizon bar, the
sphere or disk, and the banking pointer
are held rigid in space by a gyroscope.
The horizon line or horizon bar is parallel
to the natural horizon, and the banking
pOinter is perpendicular to the natural
horizon. This establishes a level
reference plane inside the aircraft. The
case of the instrument, which is attached
Figure 2-7. Lear model electric attitude indicator 400SG
to the aircraft, moves with the aircraft as
it changes its attitude. In this
way, the
attitude of the aircraft is displayed on the
attitude indicator in both pitch and bank.

2-15. Operation errors

a. Electrical attitude indicators have
gyroscopes mounted to allow 360-
degree movement of the instrument case
in both pitch and bank. If the instrument
has a caging knob, it may be used to
quickly erect the gyroscope after power
has been applied to it or to erect it when
in-flight errors have been induced in the
instrument.
b. Caging of an attitude indicator
should be done only when the aircraft is
in level flight. If uncaged in an unlevel
flight attitude, it will remain in an unlevel
attitude until the erecting mechanism
places it back in its usual operating
position.
c. Att~ude indicators may have small
errors in operation due to precession.
Figure 2-8. Navigation electric attitude Indicator 1D-882
These may be caused by uncoordinated
use of the aircraft controls in flight or by
the poor mechanical condition of the
instrument. The errors may also be
caused by turning the aircraft or by
accelerating or decelerating the aircraft
in flight. Many of these errors will be so
small and 01 such short duration that
they will not be noticed. The errors will
usually be detected by relerence to the
other flight instruments. II the instrument
is in good operating condition, the
erecting mechanism will complete its
correction of the error in a reasonable
time after the error-inducing condition is
no longer present.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 15

NOTE: The operation of the attitude
indicator in each aircraft is described in
the appropriate aircraft operator's
manual.
Section IV
Turn-and-Slip Indicators
2-16, Operation
The turn-and-slip indicator (fig 2-9) is a
combination of two instruments-a turn
needle and a ball. The turn needle
depends on gyroscopic precession for its
indications, arid the ball is actuated by
gravity and centrifugal forces. The gyro
has a horizontal spin axis with a
restricted mounting and is only free to
tilt. The tilting of the gyro is displayed as
a deflection of the turn needle.
2-17. Turn needle
The deflection of the turn needle away
from its vertical or centered position
indicates that the aircraft is turning in the
direction of the deflection. The amount
of deflection from the centered position
is proportional to the rate of turn in
degrees per second. The rate of turn
depends on whether the instrument is a
2-minute or 4-m,inute turn needle. A 360-
degree turn with a single-needle width
deflection will require 2 minutes with a 2-
minute turn needle and 4 minutes with a
4-minute turn needle (fig 2-9). The rate
of turn with a single-needle width
deflection is 3 degrees per second with a
2-minute turn needle and 1- V2degrees
per second with a 4-minute turn needle.
A rate of turn of 3 degrees, per second
on a 4-minute turn needle will require a
two-needlp-width deflection of the turn
needle.
Figure 2-9. Turn~and.slip Indicator
16
2-18. Ball
The ball of the turn-and-slip indicator
consists of a sealed, curved glass tube
containing kerosene and a black agate
or steel ball bearing which is free to
move inside the tube. The fluid provides
a dampening action and ensures smooth
and easy movement of the ball. The tube
is curved so that the ball seeks the
lowest point at its center. A small
projection of the ieft end of the tube
contains a bubbie of air which
compensates for expansion of the fluid
during changes in temperature'. Two
strands of safety wire are wound around
the glass tube as referencé markers to
indicate the correct position of the ball in
the tube. The forces acting on the ball
are gravity and centrifugal force.
a. In straight flight. During
straight
flight, the force of gravity causes the ball
to rest in the lowest part of the tube
between the reference markers.
b. In a balanced turn. In a balanced
(or coordinated) turn, gravity and
centrifugal forces are balanced and 1he
ball remains between the reference
markers.
c. In an unbalanced turn. When the
forces acting on the ball become
unbalanced or unequai, the ball moves
away from its position between the
reference markers. A skid or a skip may
result from an unbaianced turn.
(1) A skid. in a skid, the rate of turn is
too great for the angle of bank. The
centrifugal force is greater 1han gravity,
and the ball moves out of its centered
position and toward the outside of the
turn. Correcting to a balanced flight
requires an increase of the angle of
bank, a decrease in the rate of turn, or
an adjustment of both until the forces
are baianced.
15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE' FM 1-240
(2) A slip. In a slip, the rate of turn is
too slow for the angle of bank. Because
gravity is greater than centrifugal force,.
the ball moves from its centered position
toward the inside of the turn. Correcting
to a balanced flight requires a decrease
of the angle of bank, an increase in the
rate of turn, or an adjustment of both
until the forces are balanced.
d. As a balance indicator. The ball
instrument aids in achieving correct
coordination. Correct coordination in
fixed-wing aircraft is achieved by proper
use of the ailerons and rudder in relation
to each other. However, correct
coordination is achieved in rotary-wing
aircraft by proper use of the antitorque
pedals and the cyclic in relation to each
other. The ball instrument also aids in
correctly setting the aileron and rudder
trim in fixed-wing aircraft during flight.
Section V
Slaved Gyro Compass Systems
2-19. Operation
The slaved gyro compass (fig 2-10), a
gyro-stabilized magnetic compass, may
be operated as a magnetically siaved
gyro compass over areas of the earth's
surface where the earth's magnetic field
is usable. Each system may aiso be
operated as a free gyro heading indicator
in areas where the earth's magnetic fieid
is unusable.
In
a. Slaved gyro mode of operation.
the slaved mode of operation, a
direction-sensing device called a flux
valve detects the anguiar position of the
earth'smagnetic field with respect to the
aircraft. This information is fed to a drive
unit used to align the gyro. That presents
a stabilized heading indication.
I
b. Free gyro mode of operation. n the
free mode of operation, the ditection-
sensing flux valve is disconnected from
.
lhe systEifT'. and the gyro is used only as
.Ii heading reference indicator. The
heading indicator is originally set to
correspond to the aircraft heading. The
aircraft heading can be obtained from a
standby magnetic compass or by
alignment with the runway. Since the
gyro is not slaved to the flux valve unit,
the heading indicator is subject to drift.
The heading indications should be
periodically checked with those of the
standby source of reference heading and
reset, if necessary.
2-20. Components
Essentially, each slaved gyro compass
system consists of a compass
transmitter, an amplifier, a directional
gyro, a primary heading indicator, and
normally a repeater heading indicator.
a. Compass transmit/er. The compass
transmitter contains the flux valve unit
which is the direction-sensing device of
the system. This unit detects the
SECONDARY SLAVED
GYRO COMPASS
HEADING INDICATOR (RMI) (ID-250/ARN)
COMPENSATOR

FLUX
VALVE
.
UNIT

REMOTE COMPASS
TRANSMITTER

...,..
-- --

~J
.~
ANNUNCIATOR WINDOW

.: SYNCHRONIZER KNOB
PRIMARY SLAVED
GYRO COMPASS
HEADING INDICATOR (RMI) (ID.998/ASN)

Figure 2-10. Components of a typical slaved gyro compass system

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240 17

 supplies both impact and static
horizontal components (or lines of flux)
pressures through connecting lines to
of the earth's magnetic field and is
the instruments. The indications on the
suspended by a universal joint. The unit calibrated scales of these instruments
is weighted so that it normally maintains
result from differences in air pressures
a horizontal plane. The universal that exist within each of the instruments.
suspension allows the flux valve to hang To interpret the indications of these
like a plumb bob and swing in a Instruments properly, it is essential to
pendulous manner. The flux valve unit understand the construction, operation,
cannot rotate and is fixed to turn with the and use of the entire Pitot-static system.
aircraft. Any change in direction by the
aircraft results in a corresponding
change of the flux valve unit in relation
to the earth's magnetic field. This field of
force induces an electrical voitage in the
flux valve unit which is transmitted
through the amplifier to the directional
gyro control. Since the heading Figure 2-11. Heading Indicator
information is transmitted electrically to
the gyro, the unit can be installed at a
remote part of the aircraft (for example, HEADING
the wingtip) where magnetic deviation is MARKER ..
at a minimum. A mechanical -
,T 'I
'....<'\~'\'
~I
compensator further reduces the \
N
\
'/
,//'
deviation effect.
b. Amplifier. The amplifier is the ,
'::'~~
() ~//
cr-- ~
d'

coordinating and distributing center of :'^'J :=

. the slaved gyro compass system. Its
principal function is to increase the
strength of the signals from the compass
transmitter. Normally, the amplifier also
serves as the power suppiy and junction
=-~
~-~
'. cy
'. /2
f. "
fT1-=

,~
'1>-:
'-:,\,,-,.?:
\' \<#
/ Ò>

box of the compass system.

'/ "I
.

c. Directional gyro. The directional
gyro maintains a constant directional
reference by using the gyroscopic
property of rigidity in space. The case of
the directional gyro controi unit rotates in
azimuth auout the directionally stabilized
gyro as the aircraft turns. As the aircraft
rotates about the gyro, the turn
information is relayed to the primary
heading and repeater indicators. The
directional gyro maintains its reference to
magnetic north by signals received from
the remote compass transmitter. These
signals operate a torque motor in the
directional gyro control. The torque
motor precesses the gyro unit until it is
aligned with the transmitter signal, thus
slaving the gyro with the earth's
magnetic meridian. The gyro is free to
operate within 85 degrees from the level
flight attitude, both in pitch and bank.
When these limits are exceeded, the
gyro strikes mechanical stops. This
causes erroneous indications to appear
on the heading indicators until the
directional gyro is again slaved through
the compass transmitter to the magnetic
meridian. Induced errors may be as large
as 5 degrees; however, the gyro will fully
erect in less than 5 minutes.
d. Heading indicators. The heading
indicators (figs 2-11 and 2-12) in gyro
compass systems may be either primary
-or: repeater. -
18
I, l f,
\ \
"
ó':1
1-ÆAI:Jt.4G COlJItSf
Figure 2-12. Course indicator
(1) Primary. Some primary heading
indicators have an annunciator window
and a gyro synchronizing control knob.
The annunciator window shows the
direction in which the synchronizing knob
should be rotated. If the gyro controis
are not on the primary heading indicator,
they are on the gyro control panel.
(2) Repeater. The repeater dial may
look exactly like the primary dial, but it
merely repeats the indications on the
primary indicator. The repeater indicator
does not have a synchronizing knob.
NOTE: The operation of the slaved gyro
compass system in each aircraft is
described in the appropriate aircraft
operator's manual.
Section VI
The Pitot-Static System
2-21. Operation
The Pitot-static system (fig 2-13) is the
source of power for the operation of the
differential pressure instruments-the
altimeter, vertical speed indicator,
instantaneous vertical speed indicator
(IVSI), and the airspeed indicator. The
differential pressure used to power these
instruments is created either by impact
and static or by static and trapped air
pressures. The. f"ito\:static ßYstem.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

STATIC LINE
SOUFICE OF STATIC PRESSURE
2-22. Impact pressure
a. Impact pressure is required for the
operation of the airspeed indicator. The
open Pitot tube is mounted on the
aircraft, parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft, where there is a minimum
disturbance of air caused by aircraft
motion. Two major parts make up the
Pitot tube-the impact pressure chamber
with lines and the heating unit. The Pitot
tube receives the impact pressure of the
air which increases with the aircraft
speed. Since the diaphragm of the
airspeed indicator is connected directly
to the Pitot line, it is expanded by this
increase in impact pressure. The
expansion or contraction of the
diaphragm, in turn, controls the position
of the airsoeed needle by a series of
levers and gears. During preflight
inspection, any cover that is over the
impact opening of the Pitottube should
be removed.
b. Pitot tubes contain a heating
alement to prevent and remove ice
formations which can obstruct the
pressure chamber and cause erroneous
instrument indications. (The appropriate
aircraft operator's manual contains
proper Pitot heater preflight procedures.)
2-23. Static pressure
To obtain the required difference in
pressure for the operation of the
differential pressure instruments, static
air pressure from the atmosphere is
supplied to the instruments through static
vents or ports. To minimize sensing
errors, the static vents are located in an
area that has the least disturbed airflow. aircraft may cause depressurization.
Some airc~ft have these vents located
on the Pitot tube. However, the majority
of subsonic aircraft have them located
on both sides of the fuselage. These
vents are connected to a common line
by a V-fitting. 'By placing and connecting
.the vents in this manner, errors in static. -giass..wilhouLdamaging the instrument.
ALT VIS
- PITOT-PRESSURE
HEATING LINE
DRAIN OPENING
Figure 2-13. Flush-type Pitot-statlc system
pressure due to erratic changes in the
attitude of the aircraft during flight are
minimal. During preflight inspection,
vents should be checked to be sure that
they are unobstructed. Also, a check
should be made to see that nothing has
damaged or changed the size of one or
more of these vents. Distorting the holes
or the surrounding skin area a few
thousandths of an inch can cause
pressure-sensing errors.
a. Alternate source of static pressure.
Some aircraft have an alternate source
of static pressure in case the normal
system becomes obstructed by ice or
otherwise fails. The alternate static vent
(or vents) is usually located at a pOint in
the airframe that is not susceptible to
icing conditions. When this alternate
source is located within the cockpit or
cabin, there is usually a diflerence
between the static pressure it supplies
and that supplied by the normal system.
Also, opening storm windows and air
vents or operating the heating and
ventilating system may introduce a
further change in the pressure supplied
by the altemate source. When the
normal system is switched to the
alternate source, airspeed and altitude
will usually change and the vertical
speed indicator will momentarily indicate
a climb or descent. The amount and
direction of the instrument errors are
normally available from charts in the
aircraft operatòr's manual. Corrections
indicated by these charts should be
applied to the airspeed indicator and
altimeter during flight.
NOTE: Refer to the appropriate aircraft
operator's manual, because selection of
alternate static air in some pressurized
b. Emergency alternate source of
static pressure. If the normal static
system is inoperative and the aircraft has
no alternate source, static pressure may
be obtained by breaking the glass on any
of the differential pressure
one
instruments. It is difficuit to break the
.
15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240
PITOT LINE
(SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OF PITOT HEAD)
CHAMBER
\
PITOT-HEAT ELEMENT
For this reason, it is advisable to break
the glass on the vertical speed indicator
since this is the least important of the
differential pressure instruments. If the
glass of the vertical speed indicator is
broken and the instrument is still
operating, its indications will be the
reverse of normal indications. The
altimeter and airspeed indicators will lag
in their indications, because the static
pressure now comes from inside the
cockpit and forces its way to the
instruments through the calibrated leak in
the vertical speed indicator.
Section VII
Altimeters
2-24. Pressure altimeter
The atmosphere surrounding the earth
exerts downward pressure because of its
weight. The air near the earth is
weighted down and compressed by the
air above and thus has greater density
than the air above. This difference in
pressure at various levels is used by the
altimeter. The pressure altimeter (fig
2-14) is essentially a pressure-measuring
device calibrated to convert atmospheric
pressure to an altitude indication. The
conversion is bssed on a fixed set of
values known as the US Standard of
Atmosphere. A portion of these values is
tabulated in table 2-1 Although these
.
atmospheric vaiues exist only on paper,
they were constructed by a formula
which approximates the average
pressure and temperature of 45 degrees
north latitude in the United States. Up to
an altitude of about 15,000 feet, pressure
decreases approximately 1 inch of
mercury per 1,000 feet. A pressure-
setting knob compensates for
nonstandard conditions of surface
pressure that exist from hour to hour.
19
 is visible through
longest. The shortest hand indicates tens b. A barometric scaie
of thousands; the intermediate hand an opening (Kalis man window) in the
thousands, and the longest hand right-hand side of the altimeter dial. This
hundreds. Figure 2-14 illustrates 750 scale is calibrated from 28.10 to 31.00
feet. inches of mercury and is rotated by the
old type altimeter dial (fig 2-14) pressure-setting knob. In the type of
a. The
has been modified because of difficulty altimeter illustrated in figure 2-14, the
in rapidly determining thousands and rotation ot the pressure-setting knob also
tens of thousands of feet. The MB-2 (fig moves the reference marks. These
2-16) was developed both as a new reference marks provide alternate means
altimeter and as a conversion of older (in hundreds of feet and thousands of
modeis. It has a crosshatched "flag" on feet) of adjusting the altimeter if sea
the lower part of the diai and, instead of level pressure is outside the range of the
a 10,000-foot needle, it has a disk with a barometric scale. Rotating the setting
pointer extending out to the edge of the knob provides altimeter adjustment to
dial. A hole in the disk is located so that nonstandard conditions of pressure other
the edge of the flag barely shows at than those in table 2-1. An example
15,000 feet. At altitudes below 10,000 would be an altimeter placed on the
feet, the entire flag shows. beach and set at 29.92 inches of
Figure 2-14. The pressure altimeter mercury. If the hands indicate an altitude
of 200 feet, the barometric pressure at
Table 2-1 that point on the beach is lower than
Standard pressure and temperatures at 1,000- standard. A barometric pressure of 29.72
foot Intervals
inches will cause a 200-foot-high
Feel Pressure Degrees indication if 29.92 inches of mercury is
(inches Hg) lempera1Ure
(0)
set into the Kollsman window; if 29.72
inches of mercury is rotated into the.
16,000 16.21 -17 Kollsman window, the hands of the
15,000 16,88 -15 altimeter will return to zero. (One inch of
-13
,

14,000 17.57
13,000 18.29 -11 mercury equals 1,000 feet; 0.20 inch of
12,000 19.03 -9 mercury equals 200 feet.) In effect, the
11,000 19.79 -7 hands have been assigned a different
10,000 20.38 -5 pressure for their zero indication.
9,000 21.38 -3 Rotating the setting knob on the
8,000 22.22 -1
7,000 23.09 1 altimeter merely displaces the hands a
6,000 23.9B 3 given amount with respect to the aneroid
5,000 24.9B 5 '

7
wafers.
4,000 25.84
3,000 26.81 9
11
2,000 27.82 Figure 2-16. The MB-2 altimeter dial
1,000 28.66 13
Sea Level 29.92 15

2-25. Construction
The basic component of the pressure
altimeter is a series of aneroid wafers (fig
2-15). The aneroid wafers are airtight
cells from which nearly all of the air has
been evacuated. This series of
interconnected wafers contracts or
expands with changes of atmospheric
pressure. As the aircraft altitude
""'t~S', .

-~-::""'-""~-
":""'~.~, '" .._,,~~,:~.~
increases, the static pressure
surrounding the wafers decreases and
allows the wafers to expand. When the
aircraft altitude decreases, the static
""
:~t" '~
,(~,
",,',' ~',
~: ""''"',
-', ~J~~-Iwr'
";Iâ,)~
1 #("
~'~J~
'\
Iij:\:' f~;.,,' ..,~!,~J5'
I.,
~.~~ ".')' '~:;,'
.

pressure surrounding the wafers

increases, causing the wafers to
',':,
-"""
....,
.
II J
-,'

;,
.

";':!I'
I'~ r
.

contract. One end of the stack of wafers

'-~,.~~4It..-~:",;(,
c.,
L1'~'''"J;,.
(:~
"'..." ~
-

is attached to the instrument case and .

"-
. .
,

the other is linked by a lever to a shaft ".)'(/. .~,.. '" -

,c

,"-- '.' 1 \, ..,~('/, "

'ii'"
r
A linkage and gear assembly Is also ,;
connected to the shaft. Expansion or
contraction of the wafers causes the
shaft to rotate. This rotation through the
;' .
:','
,'.

..

\
~

", L
lJ
""
;,'
v~\~,
'pr-'
,.//
,V .

"

'I" ,~!!/y
gearing mechanism positions the hands
on the altimeter dial to indicate the
altitude.
;,.(..:~ ...: '

2-26. Altimeter Indications

The altimeter dial (fig 2-14) is properly
Figure 2-15. Cutaway view of the altimeter
read by noting the position öf all three
hands in the DrderoUhe shortesUo the
>----~-~._..
20 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

c. Another type of pressure altimeter
is the counter-drum-pointer altimeter.
One model of this altimeter is the AIMS
altimeter, the AAU-32/ A (fig 2-17). In
the term AIMS, the A stands for Air
Traltic Control Radar Beacon System
(ATCRBS), the 1.stands for identification
friend or foe (IFF), the M represents the
Mark XII identification system, and S
means system. This altimeter is used in
aircraft whose systems have a negligible
installation error. It is a self-contained
unit which consists of a precision aneroid
altimeter combined with an encoder. The
altitude is displayed by the counter-drum-
pointer dial. The encoder generates a
signal which transmits the altitude to the
air traltic control (ATC) equipment
through the aircraft transponder. The
.
following techniques may be used to
read the altimeter:
(1) Read the counter-drum window,
without referring to the 100-foot pointer,
as a direct digital readout of both
thousands and hundreds of feet.
(2) Read the two counter indications,
without referring to the drum, and then
add the 100-foot pointer indication. The
100-foot pointer serves as a precise
readout of values less than 100 feet
required for determining lead points of
level-off altitudes, maintaining level flight,
and performing instrument approaches. If
the "CODE OFF" flag, located on the
upper left of the altimeter face is visible,
it means that the AC power is not
available, the circuit breakers are not in,
or there is an internal altimeter encoder
failure. This indicates that the encoder is
not operating and that no altitude
informatioo is being furnished through
INDICATED-ALTITUDE IS 725 FEET
5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Figure 2-17. Counter-drum-polnter altimeter
the transponder to the ATC equipment. terrain where no minimum obstruction
However, this does not affect the ability clearance information is available,
of the instrument fo indicate the correct nonstandard temperatures aloft must be
altitude. considered.
2-27. Effect of nonstandard
temperafures and pressures
Atmospheric temperature and pressure
vary continuously. Rarely is the pressure
at sea level exactly 29.92 inches of
mercury or the temperature + 15
degrees Celsius. Furthermore,
temperature and pressure may not
decrease with a standard increase of
altitude. Even if the altimeter is properly
set for surface conditions, it will often be
incorrect at higher levels. On a warm
day, the air expands and weighs less per
unit volume than on a colder day;
consequently, the pressure levels are
raised. On a cold day, the reverse would
be true.
a. Altimeter error due to nonstandard
temperature. If the air is warmer fhan the
standard temperature for the flight
altitude, the aircraft will be higher above
sea level than the altimeter indicates. If
the air is colder than the standard
temperature for the flight altitude, the
aircraft will be lower than the altimeter
indicates (fig 2-18). The altimeter
provides no adjustment for nonstandard
temperatures. However, since instrument
flight in controlled airspace is
accomplished at assigned altitudes,
aircraft separation is maintained. This is
because all aircraft using the same
altimeter setting and flying in the same
general area are equally affected by any
nonstandard temperature. In selecting
altitudes for flight over mountainous
10,OQO-Foot Counter
1 ,OOO-Foot Counter
100'Foot Pointor
10D-Foot Drum
Koll,man Window
----. .------
-
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 <
 ~_Al TIMETER READS
---- --~~\ -
_l~W-
.
Cl
~
l-
I-
~
oCt
WARM AIR
w
~ COLD AIR
'"
I-
SAME SEA LEVEl PRESSURE
Figure 2-18. Altimeter errors due to nonstandard temperatures
b. Altimeter error due to nonstandard
atmospheric pressure. Figure 2-19
shows the error in altimeter readin9 that
would result if the altimeter is not
adjusted for variations from standard
atomspheric pressure. The figure shows
a pattern of isobars in a cross section of
the atmosphere from Pensacola, Florida,
to New Orleans, Louisiana. The pressure
at Pensacola is 30.00 inches of mercury
and the pressure at New Orleans is
i 29.60 inches of mercury-a difference of
,
0.40 inch of mercury. On a flight from
Pensacola to New Orleans at an altitude
of 700 feet, a decrease in mean sea
level (MSL) pressure of 0.40 inch of
mercury from Pensacola to New Orleans
could cause the aircraft to gradually lose
altitude. Although the altimeter would
continue to indicate 700 feet, the aircraft
could actually be flying approximately
300 feet over New Orleans.
2-28. Altimeter settings
a. Currenl altimeter setting. The
current altimeter setting is normally given
during radio communications with
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
flight service stations (FSS), airport
control towers, and other ATC personnel.
However, the altimeter setting may be
requested at any time. The first altimeter
setting is received prior to flight which
allows opportunity to check the accuracy
of the altimeter while aircraft is still on
the ground. The altimeter accuracy
check will be. made as fonows:
.
22
IAU~~~::C:l~ADS
-
"
IN~~~;;~' TIME:I~H READS
._~:~TlTUD'-1Al
29 96 "'- -
'Iv
-~------
Ii""'---<;
9
-
-- ---
.
....
Q
È
I-
~
oCt
:J
'"
I-
30.23 IN Hg
(1) The altimeter is set to the known engine(s). This!s done to eliminate the
field elevation. This elevation should be effect of any pressure changes caused
the one nearest the aircraft; examples by the turning rotor blades. For fixed-
include airport elevation posted on an wing aircraft, the check may be made
airport building, elevation printed in flight either before or after starting engines.
information publications (FLIPs), or
NOTE: For instrument approaches, the
altimeter checkpoints on certain US Air
altimeter setting provided by ATC is
Force bases. The instrument panel is
lightly tapped near the altimeter to checked with the forecast altimeter
setting. If there is a large difference,
overcome any friction error within the
verification is requested from ATC.
instrument and to allow the altimeter
needles to assume their .corrected b. Altimeter setting system. The
positions. This is not necessary when altimeter setting provided by navigation
using a counter-drum-pointer altimeter, radio stations, control towers, and other
air traffic control agencies is a correction
because it has an interl)al vibrator.
only for nonstandard surface pressure.
(2) The altimeter setting is read on the
Atmospheric pressure is measured at
barometric scale. The assumed reading
is 29.90 inches of mercury on the
each station and the value obtained is
corrected to sea level according to the
Kollsman window. The current altimeter
station's surveyed elevation. Thus, the
setting is obtained from the proper
altimeter setting is a computed sea ievel
source. If the altimeter setting is 29.96
inches of mercury, the difference
pressure and should be considered valid
only in close proximity to the station and
between the field elevation setting of
near the surface. Nonstandard lapse rate
29.90 inches of mercury and the current
errors may exist at all altitudes. However,
altimeter setting of 29.96 inches of
at low altitudes the error is usually small.
mercury is 0.06 inch of mercury or 60
feet. If the difference between the two
settings does not exceed 0.07 inch of
mercury or 70 feet, (0.01 inch of mercury
on barometric scale equals 10 feet) the
altimeter is considered reliable for
instrument flight. During flight, the current
altimeter settings should be placed on
the barometric scale as they are
received.
(3) For rotary-wing aircraft, it is best to
make the check prior to starting the
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 ~--....
700 FEET
ALTIMETER READS

700FE~
Û
300 FEET

I
I

NEW ORLEANS
ÆNSACOLA
29.60 in.Hg.
30.00 in.Hg.
Figure 2-19. Altimeter
error due to nonstandard atmospheric pressure

(1) The obstruction clearance limits pressure patterns at high altitudes. For a
published for airways and instrument complete discussion of this type altimeter
approaches will normally provide the error, see FM 1-230.
necessary ",argin of safety for aircraft
operating under instrument flight rules 2-29. Types of altitude
(IFR). Altitude separation between The following types of aititude are most
aircraft is maintained as long as the often used:
current altimeter setting is used. For
a. Indicated altitude. Indicated altitude
example, in figure 2-20, aircraft A is is altitude as read on the dial with a
assigned an altitude of 5,000 feet current altimeter setting (sea level
eastbound and, with the current altimeter pressure) set in the Kollsman window.
setting applied, indicated altitude is 5,000
feet. However, due to nonstandard
conditions aloft, actual aititude is only
4,700 feet. Aircraft B is assigned an
altitude of 6,000 feet westbound and,
with the current altimeter setting applied,
the indicated altitude is 6,000 feet. The
same nonstandard conditions affect
aircraft B and the actual altitude is 5,700
feet. Even though both aircraft are 300
feet below indicated altitude, they will still
maintain a 1,000-foot vertical clearance
as they approach and pass each other.
(2) At higher altitudes, pressure and
temperature deviation from standard
conditions could combine to cause
altimeter errors that would place the
aircraft below a sefe terrain clearance
altitude. A high altimeter setting,
combined with a pressure level aloft
which is lower than standard, is
particularly dangerous in mountainous
terrain. For this reason, the weather
forecaster is. always consulted to analyze
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 2:
 AIRCRAFT B-INDICATED
ALTITUDE ALTITUDE 6,000 FT

6,000 FT

AIRCRAFT A-INDICATED
~
I
I
I
I z
0
...,J
I t: i=
ALTITUDE 5,000 FT I I Ii< <(

~I I ~.~
<(I I~ ~fu
01 (J)
,

~I 1<(-
,a::
....
~...,w
(J)I
z
I~
0 I ,<( ..J

Z', I I

4,000 FT ~

3,000 FT

2,000 FT

1,000 FT'

MEAN SEA LEVEL

Figure 2-20. Altitude separation maintained by using current altimeter setting

24 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 b. Pressure altitude. Pressure altitude
(fig 2-21) is the height measured
above
the 29.92-inch-of-mercury pressure level
(standard datum plane). If the Kollsman
window is set to 29.92 inches of
mercury, the hands of the dial indicate
~ TRUE PRESSURE
ALTITUDE ALTITUDE
pressure altitude. This setting is called
the standard altimeter setting. In fhe --------
ABSOLUTE
United States, the use of pressure ALTITUDE
altitudes (standard altimeter setting)
begins at 18,000 feet. These altitudes TERRAIN
are referred to as flight levels (FL); for "

example, 18,000 feet = FL 180 and SEA LEVEL

35,000 feet FL 350.
=

c. Absolute altitude. Absolute altitude

(fig 2-21)
is the altitude above the
surface or terrain where the aircraft is
flying. .

d. True altitude. True altitude (fig

2-21) is the altitude above MSL.

e. Density altitude. Density altitude is

Figure 2-21. Types of altitude
the altitude for which a given air density
exists in the standard atmosphere. If the
barometric pressure is lower or the
temperature is higher than standard, HI ALTITUDE BUG
then density altitude of the field is higher
than its actual elevation. For example,
for Denver, Colorado, with an elevation
of 5,500 feet, a temperature of 110
degrees Fahrenheit, and barometer
reading (corrected to MSL) of
29.55 LO ALTITUDE
inches of mercury, density altitude is
BUG
about 10,000 feet. Since higher density NO-TRACK
altitude requires a greater takeoff MASK
distance and reduces aircraft LO WARNING
performance, failure to calculate density LAMP
altitude in some situations could be fatal. OFF FLAG
Density altitudes can be obtained from
many airfi~id towers or may be computed LO SET
BUG HI SET BUG
on the dead reckoning computer. .

2-30. Radar altimeter

a. The radar altimeter, also known as
radio altimeter, continuously indicates
aircraft height above the ground. The
system is a "down-looking" device which Figure 2-22. Radar altimeter
accurately measures the distance
between the aircraft and the highest
object on the terrain. The time interval
between a transmitted and received
radio signal is automatically converted
into an absolute altitude
reading. The
radar altimeter shown in figure 2-22 has
a dial type reading, but
another type
utiiizes a digital presentation. A warning
light and aural tone are included in
some
models which alerts the aviator when
aircraft reaches a preselected altitude.
b. All radar altimeters operate on a
radio frequency of 4,300 megahertz. A
radar altimeter has three main functions.
(1) It serves as a ground proximity
warning device.
(2) It is an accurate cross-check for
the barometric altimeter.
(3) It indicates absolute height above
the terrain. .

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240

25
 Section VIII
The Airspeed Indicator
2-31. Construction
The airspeed indicator has a cylindrical
airtight case connected to the static line.
inside the case is a small diaphragm
made of phosphor bronze or beryliium
copper. The diaphragm, which
is very
sensitive to pressure changes, is
connected firmly at one side to the
impact pressure line. The needle is
connected through a series of levers and
gears to the free side of the diaphragm
(fig 2-23).
2-32. Operation
The airspeed indicator is a differential
pressure instrument that measures
pressure difference between the impact
pressure and static pressure lines. The
two pressures are equal when the
aircraft is stationary on the ground, but
air movement causes the pressure in the
impact line to become greater than the
pressure in the static line. The
diaphragm, being connected directly to
i
the impact pressu re line, will expand due
to increased impact pressure. The dial is
,
2-35. Operation constant relation between the two
Although the vertical speed indicator pressures.
it
operates entirely from static pressure,
is a differential pressure instrument. The 2-36. Instrument lag
differential pressure is establisned The vertical speed indicator gives the
between the instantaneous static rate of climb or descent or indicates
pressure in the diaphragm and the level flight. These indications are not
trapped static pressure within the case. reliable in extremely rough air or when
the attitude of the aircraft is constantly
When the aircraft starts a climb, the
changing. This is partially due to the lag
pressure in the diaphragm decrease" in
ratio to the reduction in atmospheric
in the instrument. The instrument can be
used to indicate pitch attitude if a
pressure. The calibrated leak retards the
thorough understanding of its lag is
pressure change to the instrument case.
considered in Interpreting the indications.
This ca'.'ses the diaphragm to contract,
causing the needle to indicate an ascent.
The leak in the case is calibrated to
maintain a definite ratio between
pressure in the diaphragm and pressure
in the case if a constant rate of climb is
maintained. When the aircraft leveis off,
the calibrated ieak requires 6 to 9
seconds to equalize the two pressures
and allows the needle to return to zero.
This causes a lag of 6 to 9 seconds in
the instrument. When the aircraft is
descending, the pressure inside the
diaphragm is increasing and the

calibrated leak again maintains a

I
scaled so that the needle will indicate
this pressure differential in knots.

I 2-33. Airspeeds
: There are three kinds of
! airspeeds-indicated, calibrated, and PRINCIPAL PARTS
true.
indicated
a. Indicated airspeed. (1) Diaphragm
.
airspeed is the airspeed read directly
I from the indicator.
(2) Rockònq Shaft
!
b. Calibra ted airspeed. Calibrated
airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected
(3) Pinion
for instrument installation error. This. (4) Sector
In the
. error is caused by the difference
: static pressure at the Pitot head and the (5) Topered Stoff
static pressure at the static vents. The
(6) Pointer
error is usually small and. may be

!
.
computed by reference to the
appropriate aircraft operator's manual.
c. True
airspeed. True airspeed is
r>'"

I
_~5"'.
calibrated airspeed corrected for error , 2
due to air density (aititude and 43
temperature). This may be computed on
the dead reckoning computer: Figure 2-23. Cutaway view of the airspeed Indicator with component parts
"

S6ction IX
The Vertical Speed Indicator

2-34. Construction
The vertical speed indicator (fig 2-24)
has a sealed case connected to the
static pressure line through a calibrated
leak. Inside the case is a diaphragm
similar to that in the airspeed indicator.
This diaphragm is connected directly to
the static pressure line. A system of
levers and gears connects the
diaphragm to the indicating needle on
the face of the instrument. The vertical A.INDICATOR FACE B. INTERNAL VIEW
speed indicator contains a mechanism
which enables it to compensate
automatically for changes in air Figure 2-24. The vertical speed Indicator
temperature. .. .. --.
. -

26 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 2-37. Adjustment
The needle of the vertical speed
indicator should indicate zero while the
aircraft is on the ground or maintaining a
constant altitude. Any reading other than
zero indicates the instrument needs to
be adjusted. This can be done by using a
small screwdriver to turn the screw in the
lower ieft corner of the indicator.
2-38. Instantaneous vertical speed
indicator
The instantaneous vertical speed
indicator can be identified by the letters
"IVSI" that appear on the dial.
Compared to the conventional vertical
speed indicator, this instrument has no
apparent lag. The IVSI is similar in
construction to the conventional vertical
speed indicator. It differs from this
indicator by the addition of two
accelerometers which generate pressure
differences when there is a change in
the normal acceleration of the aircraft.
The pressure differences are transmitted
.
to the sensitive diaphragm by pneumatic
circuits. Velocity is added, as necessary.
to the pressure-leak velocity to obtain
the almost instantaneous vertical speed
indication. As the pressure-leak
component approaches the actual
speed, the integrated component fades
out. The sum of the pressure-leak and
acceierometer velocities is the total
vertical airspeed. provided the normal
axis of the aircraft is within about 30
degrees 01 the vertical.
a. Since the accelerometers are not
vertically stabilized, some error is
generated in turns. If a zero indication is
maintained on the IVSI when the aircraft
is entering a turn. some loss in altitude
will be encountered. A corresponding
gain in altitude will result when the
aircraft is recovering from a turn. The
IVSI should not be used for directly
controlling vertical speed when the
aircraft is rapidly banking in excess of 40
degrees. However, the indicator is not
affected once the aircraft is in a steady
turn.
b. The fade-out of acceleration in a
steady turn happens when a turn has
been started and the accompanying smooth
change in normal acceleration has been
completed. Fade-out occurs because the
accelerator masses will settle to
new bal-
ance points corresponding to the normal
acceleration maintained in the turn. When
a 3D-degree bank is
being established, al-
titude deviation should not exceed 90 feet
while the IVSI is maintained at zero. In
more steeply banked turns. the turn error
IJipidlyinçreases wjthbank angle.
--
-
Chapter 3
Power, Pitch Attitude, and Bank
Control Through Instruments
3-1. General
In instrument flight, instruments
must be
properiy cross-checked and correctly
interpreted to detect any malfunction and
to control the aircraft in the desired flight
path. During instrument flight. the
instruments provide (1) a reference of
the attitude 01 the aircraft, (2) a
reference lor the use of power, and (3)
an indication 01 whether the combination
of attitude and power is producing the
desired performance. Control and trim
techniques used during instrument flight
are identical to those used during visual
flight.
Section I
Fundamental Skills
3-2. Attitude control
In instrument flying, attitude
requirements
are determined by interpreting the
instruments in the aircraft. The attitude 01
an aircraft is controlled by movement
around its lateral (pitch), longitudinal
(roll), and vertical (yaw) axes (figs
3-1
and 3-2).
3-3. Instrument cross-check
Ob~erving and interpreting two or more
instruments to determine attitude and
performance 01 an aircraft is called
cross-checking.
a. Although no specific method of
cross-checking is recommended, those
instruments which give the best
information for controlling the aircraft in
any given maneuver should be used. The
important instruments are the ones that
give the most pertinent inlormation for'
any particular phase 01 the manewer.
These are usually the instruments that
should be held at a constant indication.
The remaining instruments should help
maintain the important instruments at the
desired indications which is also true in
using the emergency panel.
b. Cross-checking is mandatory in
instrument flying. In visual flight. a level
attitude can be maintained by outside
relerences. However, even then the
altimeter must be checked to determine
if altitude is being maintained.
3-4. Trim
Proper trim technique is essential lor
and accurate instrument flying.
The aircraft should be properly trimmed
while executing a maneuver. The degree
of flying skill which will uitimately develop
depends largeiy upon how well the
aviator learns to keep the aircraft
trimmed.
a. Fixed wing. A lixed-wing aircraft is
correctly trimmed when it is maintaining
a desired attitude with all control
pressures neutralized. By relieving all
--control pressures,-iHs much easier-to
15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240
maintain the aircraft in a certain attitude.
This will allow more time to devote to the
navigation instruments and additional
cockpit duties. An aircraft is placed in
trim by applying control pressure(s) to
establish a desired attitude. Then the
trim is adjusted so that the aircraft will
maintain that attitude when flight controls
are released. The aircraft is trimmed for
coordinated flight by centering the ball of
the turn-and-slip indicator. The rudder
trim is moved in the direction where the
ball is displaced from center. Aileron trim
may then be adjusted to maintain a
wings-level attitude. Differential power
control on multiengîne aircraft is an
additional factor affecting coordinated
llight. When possible, balanced
power or
thrust is used to aid in maintaining
coordinated flight. Changes in attitude,
power, or configuration may require trim
adjustments. Use of trim alone to
establish a change in aircraft attitude
usually results in erratic aircraft control.
Smooth and precise attitude changes are
best attained by a combination of control
pressures and subsequent trim
adjustments. The trim controis are aids
to smooth aircraft control.
b. Rotary wing. Maintaining trim in
rotary-wing aircraft is accomplished by
continually cross-checking the
instruments and using the cyclic
centering button. II the helicopter is so
equipped this relieves all possible cyclic
pressures. Trim also refers to use of the
pedal adjustment to center the ball of
the turn indicator. Pedal trim is required
during all power changes. (See paras
3-17b and 3-23d for trim procedures.)
Section II
Power Control
:Hi. Lift
Power produces thrust and gives motion
to the wings and rotor(s), thus creating
lift. Sufficient power. combined with the
appropriate attitude of the wing,
overcomes the forces of gravity, drag,
and inertia and results in the desired
aircraft performance.
3-6. Power instruments
Army aircraft is powered by a variety of
power plants. Each power planf has
certain instruments that indicate the
amount 01 power being applied to
operate the aircraft During instrument
flight, these instruments must be
used to
make the required power adjustments.
27
 VERTICAL
lONGITUDINAL
AXIS AXIS

\ !

Figure 3~ 1. Axes of movement

PITCH
CONTROL

POWER
CONTROL

Figure 3-2. Power, yaw, pitch, and bank controls

----.------.--

28 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

3-7. Constant airspeed
If airspeed is maintained constant by
p~ch attitude adjusiments. there will be a
resulting p~ch attitude where a certain
power setting will result in level flight (fig
3-3, A). Then, if power is increased,
while pitch attitude is held constant, a
constant airspeed and a climb will result
(fig 3-3, B). If the power setting is
decreased. while pitch attitude is held
constant, airspeed will remain constant
and a descent will result (fig 3-3, C).
3-8. Constant altitude
A constant altitude is maintained by
minor pitch attitude adjustments and
desired airspeed is maintained by
necessary power adjustments. After the
altitude is stabilized and desired airspeed
is established, any deviation from that
altitude will result in airspeed change if
the altitude is changing. Once altitude is
stabilized again, the airspeed will return
to its previous indication if the power is
maintained at the previous setting. The
airspeed may be high due to loss of
altitude. If so, the excess airspeed may
be used by an upward pitch adjustment
to return the aircraft to the desired
altitude and airspeed. Conversely, the
same is true with a gain in altitude and
an accompanying loss of airspeed. The
excess altitude may be used by a
downward pitch attitude adjustment to
return the aircraft to the desired altitude
and airspeed. With desired airspeed but
undesirable altitude, pitch adjustments
may be used to make small corrections
in altitude while the airspeed is allowed
to temporarily change. In figure 3-4, the
aircraft at A-1 will return to 4,000 feet
altitude and 140 knots airspeed by the
action taken in B. Aircraft A-2 will return
to 4,000 feet altitude and 140 knots
airspeed by the action taken in C. In both
examples, note there was a temporary
airspeed change untii the aircraft
returned to the desired altitude.
Whenever a combination of high altitude
and airspeed or low altitude and airspeed
exists, a power adjustment is required.
This makes the altitude adjustment
easier and keeps desired airspeed.

,
,
,
,
,

-----------
~ .....
A
----------
--- ---- "
-- ---
---..
-',
-- -'
-........,,,,,
,
,
,
,
"

:/
,"

..
. . . --------------"
.

"X

.....
Figure 3-3. Effects of power changes while constant airspeed Is maintained

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

"'\

2f
 -
-
I
-
II
I
i
1\
-
I \
/ \

II
/ \
/ \
/ \
/

I \
I \
I \
I \
I
I - ,
I
I
I
I - I
I I
I I

II
I I
I

.8- ~::

II ..
.
C'I
I -
-

<(
.

.
II Figure 3-4. Airspeed converted to altitude and vice versa

30 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 Power variation
H.
When power is changed to adjust
airspeed, it may cause changes in the
attitude of the aircraft around some or all
the axes. The amount and direction of
movement will depend on how much
how rapidly the power is changed,
or ----
0
.
whether slngJe-engined or multiengined,

II
fixed or rotary wing. As airspeed
changes, the pitch attitude must be
adjusted to maintain desired attitude for
the maneuver being executed. The bank
must be adjusted to maintain the desired
~-~ "-..J:

heading or maintain a desired rate of

turn. And the rudder must be used to
A POWER INCREASE
maintain coordinated flight. Trim must be
adjusted as control pressures indicate a
change is needed. The effect on pitch
attitude and airspeed caused by power
changes during level flight is iliustrated in

~---
figure 3-5.

3-10. Power setting

Sometimes large airspeed changes are
desired such as reducing from cruise
---;---
81111
flight to traffic pattern airspeed. The
change can be made quicker if the
power is reduped to a lower setting than
recommended in maintaining the pattern
airspeed. Conversely, for making a
change from a.lower to higher speed, the
power may be advanced to a higher .

setting than recommended for the higher a flOWER QECRf"SE

speed. In both cases, as the airspeed
approaches the desired speed, the
Figure 3-5. Constant altitude and power variable maintained
power is maintained by adjusting to the
recommended setting.

3-11. Power Instruments cross-check

During or immediately after adjusting
power control(s), the power instruments
should be cro~hecked to
see if the
power adjustm..nt is as desired. Whether
or not the needlor a power adjustment.
is indicated by another instrument(s),
adjustment is made by cross-checking
th.. pow..r instruments.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

31
Section 1\1
Pitch Attitude Control

3-12. Attitude Instruments -------'~---------'

,~~--~-::::~
is
The pitch attitude control of an aircraft
the angular relationship between the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the
actual horizon (fig 3-6). The pitch --------
--
--- --
attitude control instruments are the
altimeter, attitude indicator, vertical
speed indicator, and airspeed indicator
(fig 3-7). The attitude Indicator dispiays a
direct indication of the aircraft's pitch
attitude. The other pitch attitude control
--------~--------_.
--
instruments indirectly indicate the pitch
attitude of the aircraft.
-- --
--------~~=~------
.-- --
Figure 3-6. Pitch attitude

ALTIMETER ATTITUDE INDICATOR

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Figure 3-7. Pitch attitude Indicating instruments

32 15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

3-13. Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator gives a direct and
immediate indication of the pitch attitude
of the aircraft. The aircraft controls are
used to position the miniature aircraft In
relation to the horizon bar or horizon line
for any pitch attitude required (fig
3-8).
a. The miniature aircraft should be
placed in the proper position In relation
to the horizon bar or horizon line before
takeoff. The aircraft operator's manual
expiains this position. As soon as
practicable in level flight and at desired
cruise airspeed, the miniature aircraft
should be moved to a position that aligns
its wings in front of the horizon
bar or
horizon fine. This adjustment may be
anytime when varying loads or other
conditions indicate a need. Otherwise,
the position of the miniature aircraft
should not be changed for flight at other
than cruise speed. This is to make sure
thet the attitude indicator will display a
true pjcture of pitch attitude in all
maneuvers.

NOSE LOW

NOSE HIGH

Figure 3-8. Attitude Indicator showing Indications of pitch attitude

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240 33

 indicator in
b. When using the attitude
applying pitch attitude corrections,
control pressure should be extremeiy
light. Movement of the horizon bar above
of the
or below the miniature aircraft
attitude indicator in fixed-wing aircraft
width
should not exceed one-haif the bar
(fig 3-9, A). In rotary-wing aircraft,
movement should not exceed one bar
width (fig 3-9, B). If further change is
required, an additional correction of not A FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
width will
more than one-half horizon bar
normally counteract any deviation from .
\ I
\ I
normal flight. \ I /

~~
3-14. Altimeter
If the aircraft is maintaining level flight,
the altimeter needles will maintain a
.....
~ /'
constant indication of altitude. If the
altimeter indicates a loss of altitude, the
pitch attitude must be adjusted upward to
-----+--
-~-
sfop the descent. If the altimeter
-;-
indicates a gain in altitude, the pitch
attitude must be adjusted downward to -;-
stop the climb (fig 3-10). The altimeter
'3
0--
~
can also indicate the pitch attitude
in a JJ.I

climb or descent by how rapidly the

needles move. A minor adjustment in
pitch attitude may be made to control the
rate at which altitude is gained or lost. AIRCRAFT
Pitch attitude is only used to correct
B. ROTARY-WING
small altitude changes caused by
external forces as turbulence or up and Figure 3-9. Initial pitch correction
down drafts.

~
A. NOSE LOW
(DESCENDING)

......,
B. NOSE HIGH (CLIMBING)
pitch attitude
FI9ure 3-10. Altimeter Indications of

34 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240

 3-15. Vertical speed indicator
a. In flight at a constant altitude, the
vertical speed indicator, sometimes
referred to as vertical velocity indicator
or rate-of-climb indicator, will remain at
zero. If the needle moves below zero,
the pitch attitude must be adjusted
.
upward to stop the descent and return to
level flight. If the needle moves above
zero, the pitch attitude must be adjusted
downward to stop the climb and return to
level flight. Prompt adjustments to the
changes in the indications of the vertical
speed indicator may prevent any
significant change in altitude (fig
3-11).
Turbulent air will cause the needle to
fluctuate near zero. In such conditions,
the average of the fluctuations should be
considered as the correct reading.
Reference to the altimeter will help in
turbulent air since it is not as sensitive as
the vertical speed indicator.
(1) The amount of vertical speed is
the rate at which the needle moves away
from the zero position. This indicates the
amount of pitch attitude adjustment that
is required to return the needle to zero
and stop any altitude change. An
example would be a large deviation of
the needle from zero or a rapid
movement away from the zero position.
This indicates that a large pitch attitude
adjustment is required to return the
needle to zero.
Figure 3-11. The vertical speed Indicator as
15 DECEMBER 1984
(2) When making corrections on the
vertical speed indicator for the desired
altitude, the correction must not be too
large. Over-correcting causes the aircraft
to overshoot the desired altitude. Nor
should corrections be so small that the
return to altitude is unnecessarily
prolonged. As a guide, the pitch attitude
should produce a rate of change on the
vertical speed indicator about twice the
size of the altitude deviation. For
example, if the aircraft is 100 feet off the
desired altitude, a 200-foot-per-minute
rate of correction would be used.
b. During climbs or descents, the
vertical speed indicator is used to
change the altitude at a desired
rate.
Pitch attitude and power adjustments
are
made to maintain the desired rate of
climb or descent on the vertical speed
indicator.
c. When pressure is applied to the
controls and the vertical speed indicator
shows an excess of 200 feet per minute
from that desired, overcontrolling is
indicated. For example, if attempting to
regain lost altitude at the rate of 500 feet
per minute, a reading of more than 700
feet per minu1e would indicate
overcontrolling. Initial movement of the
needle indicates the trend of vertical
movement. The time for the vertical
a pitch-Indicating Instrument
UPDATE. FM 1-240
speed indicator to reach its maximum
point of deflection after a correction is
called lag. The lag is proportional to
speed and magnitude of pitch change. In
fixed-wing aircraft, overcontrolling
may
be reduced by relaxing pressure on the
controls which allows the pitch attitude
to neutralize. In some rotary-wing aircraft
with servo-assisted controls, no control
pressures are apparent. In this case,
overcontrolling can be reduced by
reference to the attitude indicator.
d. Some aircraft are equipped with an
IVSI. The letters "IVSI" appear on the
face of the indicator. This instrument
assists in interpretation by
instantaneously indicating the rate of
climb or descent.
e. Occasionally, the vertical speed
indicator is slightly out of calibration and
will indicate a gradual climb
or descent
when the aircraft is in level flight. If
readjustment cannot be accomplished,
the error in the indicator should be
considered when the instrument is used
for pitch control. For example, an
improperly set vertical speed indicator
may indicate a descent of 100 feet per
minute when the aircraft is in level flight.
Any deviation from this reading would
indicate a change in pitch attitude.
I 2
.5 3
,
~
\VSI
--
~
~::..5
SPEED
2
3
35

3-16. Airspeed indicator
The airspeed indicator gives an indirect
reading of the pitch altitude. With a
constant power setting and a constant
altitude, the aircraft is in level flight and
airspeed remains constant. If the
airspeed increases, the pitch altitude has
lowered and should be raised. If the
airspeed decreases, the pitch altitude
has moved higher and should now be
lowered (fig 3-12). A rapid change in
airspeed indicates a large change in
pitch; a slow change in airspeed
indicates a small change in pitch.
Although the airspeed indicator is used
in
as a pitch instrument, it may be used
flight for power control. Changes
level
pitch are reflected immediately by a
change in airspeed. There is very IIltle
lag in the airspeed indicator.
3-17. Pitch altitude trim (fig
Incorrect selting of pitch altitude trim
3-13) may result in a nose-high or a
nose-low pitch altitude unless corrective
pressures are maintained.
pitch altitude trim for fixed-
a. Proper
wing aircraft may be made as follows:
(1) Establish desired altitude wi1h
control pressure.
(2) Relieve control pressure by
application of trim while maintaining
altitude.
(3) Repeat above procedures until the
aircraft maintains an attitude without
constant pressure on the control.
hold
attitude instruments can be used to
reasonably ievei flight attitude. However,
only the aitimeter will give the exact
altitude information.
b. Regardless of which
pitch attitude
control instrument indicates a need for
a
pitch attitude adjustment, the attitude
indicator, If available, should be used to
make the adjustment.
Common errors in pitch attitude
c.
control are-
(1) Overcontrolling.
(2) Improperly using power.
(3) Failing to adequately cross-check
the pitch allilude instruments and take
corrective action when pitch altitude
change is needed.
in
Figure 3-13. Pitch attitude trim
b. Some rotary-wing aircraft have
provisions for pitch altitude trim and
Pitch trim
relief of control pressures.
adjustments on these <lircraft should be
made as follows:
(1) Press force trim bulton or control
centering release button.
(2) Establish desired pitch attitude.
(3) Release force trim button or
control centering release button.
(4) Repeat (1) through (3) above if
necessary.
3-18. Pitch altitude Instrument cross-
check
is an important
a. The altimeter
instrument for indicating pitch attitude
in
level flight except when uSed In
conditions of exceptionally strong vertical
With
currents such as thunderstorms.
pitch
proper power settings. any of the
/

'"
'"
"
'"
.
" '" /'
'"
" .--
"

"
,
......

....
.

"'...
'... ,

pitch attitude Instrument

Figure 3-12. The airspeed Indicator as
a

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

36

Section IV
Bank Attitude Control
3-19. Straight flight
The banking attitude (fig 3-14) of an
aircraft is the angular relationship of the
lateral axis to actual horizon. To maintain
a straight course in visual flight, the
wings or rotor(s) of the aircraft must be
kept level with the actual horizon. In
balanced flight, any deviation from a
wings-level attitude produces a
turn.
During actual or simulated instrument
conditions, the miniature aircraft and
horizon bar of the attitude indicator are
substituted for real aircraft and actual
horizon. Therefore, banking attitude is
corrected if the turn is to be stopped. 3-22. Turn-and-slip indicator
The heading indicator aiso indirectly When the attitude indicator is not
indicates the amount of bank the aircraft available, the heading indicator is used
has assumed. If the heading is slowly for bank-attitude control in straight flight.
changing, the amount of banking is However, for making turns, the turn
small. If it is rapidly moving, the amount needle must be used.
of banking is large. If a fixed-wing aircraft
continues to turn after the banking is
corrected, the rudder trim should be
checked for a possibie resetting.
.'1'.
/
,-
:~/---......J
......

accurately indicated. Instruments which

indicate banking attitude are the attitude
indicator, heading indicator, and
turn.
.ir.\i. I. .1

HJN TURN
and-slip indicator (fig 3-14). 4

3-20. Attitude indicator

The banking attitude is shown directly on
the attitude indicator (fig 3-15). Banking
is shown by the miniature aircraft
wings
assuming an angle in relation to the
horizon bar and by the bank-index
pointer moving from the zero position.
The bank-index pointer will indicate the
angle of bank of the aircraft by assuming
a position in relation to the
angle of bank
reference marks at the top of the
instrument face. The aviator must
determine the direction of banking by
reference to the miniature aircraft. The Figure 3-14. Bank-attitude
instruments
bank-index pointer moves in a direction
opposite to the bank. In coordinated
flight, maintaining the bank-index pointer
at zero wil, prevent banking.

-- -..
-~
--
Figure 3-15. The attitude Indicator as a

bank-attltude instrument

3-21. Heading Indicator

Although the heading indicator gives an
immediate indication of turning (fig 3-16),
its primary purpose is to indicate
heading. not banking. In balanced or
coordinated flight, the indication of a turn
means that the aircraft is banking in the
.direction <Jf the turn.-rhe-bank must be "figure 3-:16. The heading Indicator as
-

a bank-attitude instrument
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
37
 The turn needle
a. Turn needle.
indicates both direction and rate of turn.
In balanced or coordinated flight, the
aircraft is not banking If the turn needle
is centered. If the needle is displaced
from center, the aircraft is banking and
turning in the direction of displacement.
Re-centering the needle with smooth and
coordinated control movements will
remove any banking attitude and the
aircraft will fly straigl1t. Any deviation
from the exact center position must be
promptly re-centered to prevent
turning
(fig 3-17). Accurate interpretaäon of the
needle position requires close
observation. In turbulent air, the needle
will oscillate from side to side. Accurate
interpolation of these fluctuations must
be made to detect attual turning. if the
deflection is equal on both sides of
straight. If the
center, the aircraft is flying
distance of deflection is greater on one
side than the other, the aircraft is turning
in the direction of the greater deflection.
b. T urn-and-slip indicafor bal/.
Although the ball is combined with the
turn indicator as one unit,
it is a separate
and independent instrument with its own
specific function. The two parts of the
turn-and-slip indicator are, however,
together. If
normally read and interpreted
the ball is off-center, the aircraft is
yawing (slipping or skidding). If the
aircraft is slipping, the ball is off-center
(low wing) toward the inside of the turn
(fig 3-18, A). If skidding, the ball is off-
center (high wing) toward the outside of
the turn (fig 3- t 8, B). The ball of the
indicator shows quality of control
coordination (fig 3-18, C), whether in
turning or straight flight. In fixed-wing
aircraft, the displacement of the ball to
wings-level flight
one side of center in
indicates the need for rudder. trim
adjustment and possibly aileron trim. In a
rotary-wing aircraft, the displacement of
the ball to one side of center indicates
pedal adjustment. To keep the aircraft
from turning, a cyclic movement must be
made in the opposite direction.

e
-

~ .',
-

--
-
-
"'....

.....'- -....
-

--
Figure 3-17. The turn-and-slip Indicator as
a bank-attitude instrument

SKIDDING C. BALANCED
A. SLIPPING B.

Figure 3-18. Slipping, skidding, and coordinated turn indications

38 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 c. Turn coordinator. Recent years (4) Release force trim push bulton or
have seen the development of a new -

control-centering release button.

type of turn indicator, referred to as a
-

------ --.. (5) Repeat (1) through (4), as

"Turn Coordinator" or "Pictorial Turn
Indicator." In place of the conventional
turn needle indication of rate of turn,
both instruments pictured in figure ~19
display movement of the aircraft on the
roll axis that is proportional to the roll
rate. When the roll rate is reduced to
zero, the instrument provides an
indication of the rate of turn. This new
design features a realignment of the gyro
in such a manner that it sensea aircraft
movement about the yaw and roll axes
and pictorially displays the resultant
motion as described above. Both
instruments also possess a dampening
feature that provides a more stable
indication than the conventional turn-
and-slip indicator. The conventionai
inclinometer (ball) is common to both
instruments. It should be clearly
understood that the miniature aircraft of
the turn coordinator displays only rate 01
roll and rate of turn. It does not direclly
display the bank angle of the aircraft.
~23. Bank-attitude trim
a. In fixed-wing aircraft, an incorrect
setting of aileron or rudder trim will
cause the aircraft to bank and turn.
Resetting of the aileron and rudder trim
tabs (fig 3-20) will correct the banking
tendency.
b. In a fixed-wing aircraft, an incorrect
setting of the rudder trim results in a
tendency to gradually skid out of a
straight flight path. A skid usually causes
the aircraft to bank because it increases
velocity and therefore the lift of one
wing. Accurate trim adjustment facilitates
precise bank control.
c. Rudder and aileron trim adjustments
in fixed-wing aircraft should be made
as
follows:
.
(1) Establish balanced flight in the
.
desired attitude with control pressures.
(2) Relieve rudder pressures with
rudder trim.
"\
"
."-
-::::-_~
Figure 3-20. Rudder and aileron trim
(3) Relieve aHeron pressure with
aileron trim.
(4) Repeat process until the aircraft
will maintain desired attitude.
d. Rotary-wing aircraft equipped with
trim mechanisms should be trimmed as
follows:
(1) Press force trim push button or
control centering release button.
(2) Establish level flight with cyclic
control with reference to the altitude
indicator.
(3) Center the ball of the turn-and-slip
indicator with pedals.
necessary.
~24. Bank Instruments
a. All available bank-alt~ude
instruments are used to maintain straight
flight and to perform
turns. Maintaining
straight flight in a balanced condition can
be accomplished by using the heading
indicator and the attitude indicator. If
ne~her of these instruments is available,
the turn needle must be used. For bank
control in turns, the altitude indicator is
used; If not available, the turn needle
must be used. I n all cases, the turn-and-
slip indicator should be included in the
cross-check to detect possible
malfunctioning of the other bank control
instruments and to check for a balanced
flight condition.
b. Common errors in bank.altitude
control are failing
to-
(1) Cross-check the heading indicator
to maintain straight flight.
(2) Correct action promplly to return to
the desired heading.
(3) Use altitude indicator properly.
(4) .Control turn needle properly when
using the turn.and-slip indicator.
(5) Exert correct pressures on rudders,
ailerons, pedals, or cyclic control.
Chapter 4
Basic Instrument Maneuvers
4-1. General
Any instrument flight, regardless of how
long or complex, is simply a series of
connected basic maneuvers which can
form the basis for both training and
practice. These maneuvers allow the
aviator to become proficient in
instrument interpretation, air..-aft altitude
control, power control, and Instrument
cross-check. Maneuver performance is
first discussed when all flight instruments
are operational; then it is discussed
when some are non-operational
(emergency panel).

Section I
Fixed Wing

4-2. Maneuver performance

The method of performing each
maneuver is discussed in~ially under the
assumption that all flight instruments are
operational (full panel). Then the
performance of the maneuver is
discussed as if certain instruments are
non-operational (emergency panel).
Except where prohib~ed by regulation,

Figure 3-19. Pictorial turn Indicators

---.----------.--- ----.-- ----"---

-

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE -FM 1-240 39


an emergency panel may be simulated
by covering the face of an instrument or
by other simulated failure procedures.
4-3. Instrument takeoff
An aviator should be proficient and fully
confident to take off with little or no
visual references other than flight
instruments. For an instrument takeoff to
be performed, all flight instruments must
be operational. The aircraft operator's
manual explains the recommended
procedures for performing the instrument
b is indicated.
takeoff. The, method outlined in a and
beiow is general in nature and
supplements the instructions in the
appropriate operator's manual and
aircrew training manual.
is aligned on the
a. The aircraft
centerline of the takeoff runway and
allowed to roll forward for a short
distance. This ensures that the
nosewheel is centered. The brakes
should be firmly held and the throttles
should be advanced siightly above idling.
All flight instruments are checked for
correct indications and any checklist
requirements should be performed. After
takeoff clearance is received, the aviator
fully releases the brakes and smoothly
applies takeoff power. If there are any
outside visuai references, they are for
directional control in the Initial part of the
takeoff roll.
if absolutely
b. Brakes are used only
necessary for directional co.ntrol because
any use of them will extend the takeoff
roll. As the takeoffprogresses,lhe
'
navigator shifts Irom outside references
to the heading indicator and attitude
indicator. r>irectional control is
.
maintained by reference to the heading'
indicator. AileronS are used only if a
bank is indicated on the attitude
indicator. As the lakeoff roll progresses,
the airspeed indicator is brought into the
cross'check along with the heading
indicator and the attitude indicator. When
the recommended airspeed is attained,
the pitch attitude is adjusted on the
attitude indicator as recommended by
the operator's manual. The aircraft ' .
should then fly off the ground.
directional
c. The aviator maintains
control after takeoff with the heading
indicator, recommended pitch attitude
and level wings on the attitude indicator.
The aviator then begins to include all
o.ther flight instruments in the cross-
check. The aviator waits for the altimeter
and vertical speed indicator to begin
indicating a climb befo.re performing any
after-takeoff checklist. If necessary, the
pitch attitude is carefully adjusted to
cause the airspeed to. increase at a
.
steady rate toward recommended
climbing speed. At the same time, the
vertical speed indicator should show a
'steady climb. The bank attitude is
controlled to maintain or correct back to.
the takeoff heading, The turn needle is
cross-checked to' see il the bank attitude
40
is being indicated correctly on the
attitude indicator. As the recommended
climb airspeed is reached, power is
reduced as recommended for climb and
pitch attitude is adjusted to maintain
ciimbing airspeed.
d. Common errors in instrument
takeoffs are failureto-
(f) Align the aircraft properly on the
runway.
(2) Use sufficient nosewheel steering
or rudder to maintain takeoff heading.
(3) Maintain takeoff attitude until climb
(4) Allow airspeed to go too high
before applying takeoff attitude.
(5) Adjust proper pitch attitude while
aircrall is accelerating to climbing
airspeed.
4-4. Stralght,and-Ievel flight
a. A/titude control. The
altimeter
sho.uld be cross-checked to see if the
desired ,altitude is being maintained. If
not, the pitch attitude is corrected on the
attitude indicator in order to maintain or
correct back to the desired altitude. The
indications of the verticai speed indicator
are used to detect and alert the aviator
to possible changes in the desired
altitude. If the attitude indicator becomes
inoperative, the vertical speed indicator
can assist in maintaining and correcting
to the desired altitude.
b. Heading control. The heading
indicator is cross-checked to see if the
desired heading is being maintained. If
not, the banking attitude is corrected on
the attitude indicator to maintain or
correct back to the desired heading. The
turn needle is checked to see if the
banking attitude is correctiy displayed on
the attitude indicator. The standby or
magnetic compass is used to. see if the
heading is being displayed correctly on
the heading indicator. If the heading
indicator becomes inoperative, the
attitude indicator can be maintained or
corrected back to the desired heading on
the magnetic compass. If both the
heading and attitude indicators become
inoperative; the turn needle is used to
make straight flight co.rrections and
heading corrections on the magnetic
cámpass.
airspeed
c. Airspeed contro./. The
indicator is cross-checked to see if the
desired airspeed is maintained. If no.t, the
pitch co.ntrol instruments are adjusted in
order 10 maintain or co.rract back to the
desired airspeed. Power control will be
adjusted as required to maintain a
constant altitude. If the airspeed indicato.r
becomes inoperative, power settings that
have previously produced the desired
airspeed are used for any maneuver or
configuration.
d. Power contml. The power
normally
required or recommended for a
maneuver is used by referring to the
power control instruments. If the po.wer
appiication doesno.t produce Ihe desired
15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE' FM 1-240
airspeed, then a correction is made by
using the power control instruments.
in power appiied,
e. Trim. Changes
airspeed, configuration, altitude, and
loading require trim changes. The
desired aircraft attitude and balanced
flight is maintained by using trim
adjustments.
f. Errors. Common errms in straight-
and-level flight are failure to-
(1) Maintain heading.
(2) Use correct procedures to. correct
heading.
(3) Use attitude indicator properly for
maintaining altitude.
(4) Use power control instruments for
airspeed adjustments.
(5) Cross-check all instruments to
detect any instrument maifunction.
(B) Keep the aircraft trimmed for
balanced flight.
4-5. Straight climbs and descents
airspeed, constant power
a. Constant
a enter a constant airspeed
climbs. .T
climb using recommended climb power
settings, Ihe pitch attitude is adjusted on
the attitude indicator to start the aircraft
climbing. A pitch a1titude that has
previously been known to enter the climb
smoothly and gradually sho.uld be used.
There may be a few seco.nds before Ihe
altimeter and vertical speed indicator
begin to indicate a climb. Power Is
advanced on the power controi
instruments to the recommended setting.
To maintain the desired climbing
airspeed, the attilude is adjusted as
required and the power instrumenls are
cross..-checked in order to maintain a
constant power setting. Variations in the
indication of the vertical speed indicato.r
may be used to alert need for pilch
adjustments.
b. Constant airsþeed, constant rate
climbs. When entering this climb, the
pitch attitude is adjusted as
recommended in a above. The power is
adjusted to the settings that have
previously been used to perform Ihis
maneuver. As the vertical speed
indicator approaches the desired rate of
ciimb, the pitch attitude is adjusted to
maintain that rate of climb. The power is
adjusted as necessary to maintain the
desired airspeed.
As the aircraft
c. Lave/off from climbs.
approaches the desired altitude, the
pitch a1titude is adjusted on the attilude
indicato.r.This is done so that the rate of
climb slowly decreasas and the altimeter
sto.ps onthe desired altitude, As a guide,
10 percent of Ihe vertical speed indicator
is used to compute th,e altitude to start
this pitch attitude adjustment. In other
words, when leveling off at 5,000 feet
with a rate of climb of BOO feet per
minute, the pitch attitude adjustment is
started as the altimeter moves past
4,920 feet. It is important to adjust power
as required to maintain a desired
 airspeed or adjust to a computed
power
setting for cruise operation.
d. Constant airspeed, constant rate
descent. To enter this type descent
when a change in airspeed is not
desired, it is necessary to adjust the
pitch attitude on the attitude indicator. At
the same time, power is reduced as
required to maintain the airspeed. As the
vertical speed approaches the desired
rate of desce~t, the pitch attitude is
adjusted to maintain this rate. Two
methods are recommended for entering
this type descent when a reduction in
airspeed is desired. In both methods,
once the descent has been stabilized, it
is necessary to use pitch attitude
adjustments to maintain the desired rate
of descent and power to maintain the
desired airspeed.
(1) If there is not a requirement to
leave the altitude immediately, the power
is reduced to that setting which will
normally maintain the desired
descending airspeed. Altitude is
maintained with pitch attitude
adjustments until the airspeed
approaches the descending airspeed.
Then the pitch attitude is lowered 10
enter the descent.
(2) If there is a requirement to leave
the altitude immediately, the pitch
attitude is lowered to enter the descent.
At the same time, power is reduced to a
setting well below that which will
normally maintain the airspeed in the
descent. This will allow the airspeed to
gradually decrease to that desired for the
descent.
e. Leveloff from descents. The altitude
can be computed at which pitch attitude
must be adjusted to stop the descent on
the desired altitude. This is done by
using 10 percent of the rate 01 descent
indicated on the vertical speed indicator.
To level oft at 5,000 feet from a descent
rate of 500 feet per minute, the leveloft
should be started at 5,050 feet. As the
desired altitude is reached, it is
maintained with pitch attitude control and
the power is adjusted to maintain the
desired airspeed.
f. Heading control. Heading
control is
maintained as recommended in
paragraph 4-4b.
g. Trim. Adjusting trim maintains
desired aircraft attitude and balanced
flight.
, h. Emergency panel. If the attitude
indicator is not operational, level flight
and heading control is maintained as
recommended in paragraph 4-4. During
a constant airspeed,
constant power
climb, using the airspeed indicator makes
possible the required pitch attitude
adjustments. The trend of the vertical
speed indicator also aids in pitch attitude
control. During a constant airspeed-
constant rate climb, or a constant
airspeed-constant rate descent, the
vertical speed indicator is used for pitch
attitude adjustments.
Î. Errors. Common errors in straight
e. Ërrors. Common errors in level
climbs and descents are failure
(1) Maintain heading. to- turns are failure
to-
(1) Coordinate aileron and rudder
(2) Coordinate pitch attitude and
pressures during the entry and recovery.
power adjustments where necessary. (2) Correct any loss of pitch attitude
(3) Lead properly when leveling
off. during entry and recovery.
(4) Make pitch attitude adjustments (3) Stop the bank at the desired angle.
with the attitude indicator.
(4) Stop the rollout when the banking
(5) Adjust pitch attitude and power as
pointer returns to zero.
altitude or configuration changes. (5) Maintain a constant rate of
turn.
4-6. level turns
a. Entry. To periorm a level turn
(figure 4-1), it is important to first
establish a bank in the direction of turn
by coordinated pressure on the ailerons
and rudder. Both pitch attitude and bank
attitude are controlled by the attitude
indicator during the entry. As the banking
pointer reaches the desired angle of
bank, it is necessary to relax the control
pressures or use slight opposite control
pressures as may be required to stop
and hold the bank. The indicalion of the
turn needle is cross-checked to see if it
is deflected in the direction of the
turn
and that the deflection is proportional to
the angle of bank. Cross-checking of all
instruments is continued. Loss of vertical
lift may require an adjustment of pitch
attitude to hold altitude. Any pitch
attitude adjustment may require a power
change if it is desired that a constant
airspeed be maintained.
b. Recovery. To recover to straight-
and-level flight, coordinated pressure is
applied to the ailerons and rudder in the
opposite direction o.f turn. Pitch and bank
attitudes are controlled by reference to
the attitude indicator. The control
pressures are continued so that the
banking pointer moves steadily to the
zero bank position. Either the control
pressures are relaxed or opposite control
pressures are slightly used as required to
stop and hold the heading painter at
zero. Cross-checking of all instruments is
resumed. If the pitch attitude was
adjusted during the turn, it's important to
be prepared at the first indication of a
climb on the altimeter or vertical speed
indicalor to re-adjust the pitch attitude to
maintain altitude. If the power was
adjusted during the turn, the former level
flight setting should be
set when the
desired airspeed is reached. After rolling
out of a turn, the attitude indicator
display may be slightly inaccurate
because of procession errors caused by
the turn. Until the attitude indicator is
operating properly, the heading and pitch
attitude control instruments are cross-
checked for any required attitude
adjustments.
c. Trim. Trim is adjusted as necessary
to maintain the desired attitude and
balanced flight.
d. Emergency panel. Without the use
of the attitude indicator, the turn
entry,
rate of turn, and recovery from the turn
are controlled by reference to the turn
needle,.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
41
 .

.w.
I
c::::=::J -8 9.
,

J 1
(
2-
G
.1: ~!. -7
I
6
,..
n.
5
4 '
3-
,
.. ....t;IoI"

~ 130Kr

"" /
--K-J~~--

Figure 4-1. Level turns

b. If the attitude indicator

4-7. Turns to headings
control
a. Entry and recovery
techniques for turns to headings are the
same as those for level turns. The angle
of bank should not be more than the
number of degrees to be turned and
should not exceed the angle of bank for
a standard rate turn (fig 4-2). To roll out
of the bank with the heading indicator on
the desired heading, the rollout must
begin before reaching the desired
heading. The "lead" or early initiation of
the rollout will depend on the angle of
bank and rate of roll being used. As a
guideline, there is 1 degree of lead for
in
every 2 degrees of bank. For example,
a right turn to a heading of 90 degrees
and using 28 degrees of bank, the rollout
would begin as the heading indicator
if
passes 76 degrees. To determine the
proper amount of lead was used, the
heading indicator is checked after the
wings are level. A variation from the
desired heading would indicate the need
for a change in lead for future turns.
is not 4-8. Steep turns
rollout lead can be a. Turns greater than
standard rate or
available, the
any turn exceeding a 3D-degree bank is
determined. This is done by using the
same number of degrees for rollout as considered a steep turn. The rate of turn
is determined by the attitude indicator or
were required to establish the turn on
is not the turn-and-slip indicator. A 4-minute
roll-in. If the heading indicator of
available, timed turns or compass turns turn needle should indicate a minimum
a 3-needle width deflection.
A 2-minute
will be required. of
turn needle should indicate minimum
a
Common errors in turns to headings
c.
a 1 Y2-needle width deflection. This type
are failure to use-
(1) Proper bank for number of degrees of turn is seldom necessary or advisable
in instrument weather. However, it is a
to be turned.
(2) Proper lead in rollout. good test of ability to react quickly and
smoothly to changes in attitude of the
(3) Same rate of roll during roll-in and
aircraft. Regardless of the degree of
rollout of the turn.
bank, the techniques of entry and
recovery are the same in steep turns as
is steep,
any other turn. When the bank
however, it is more difficult to control the
pitch attitude. This is due to the large
variation in the vertical lift components.
b. Pitch attitude control instruments
should quickly be cross-checked during
the entry to the turn. This is so the pitch
attitude may be adjusted upward at the

42 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

 ------- A

Figure 4-2. Turns to headings using heading Indicator

first indication of any altitude loss. After
the desired angle of bank has been
established, there may be a requirement
to hold aileron and rudder pressures
opposite the direction of turn. This is to
prevent the bank from increasing. The
tendency in steep turns for the bank to
increase is "overbanking tendency." The
slight extra speed of the wing on the
outside of the turn increases as the bank
increases. At steeper angles of bank,
this extra speed Will overbalance the
lateral stability of the aircraft. This will
cause the bank to continue to increase
unless control action is taken to resist it.
Power is increased as required to
maintain the desired airspeed. On the
rollout, the pitch attitude is decreased as
required Ie maintain altitude and the
power is adjustéd as required to maintain
airspeed. The' use of instruments in the
steep turn is the same as in standard
rate turns.
c. Common errors in steep turns
include failure
to-
(t) Maintain altitude.
(2) Maintain proper airspeed.
(3) Use proper power and pitch
attitude control during entry and
recovery.
(4) Use proper bank attitude and pitch
attitude control.
deflection for a standard rate turn and
the angle Of bank is noted on the
attitude indicator. As the second hand
passes a convenient point to start the
timing, the heading is noted on the
heading indicator. At each to-second
interval, the heading is noted again. If
the heading change is 30 degrees at
each interval, the turn needle deflection
is correct for a standard rate turn (3
degrees per second). If not, the angle of
bank and resulting needle deflection are
changed until the turn is standard rate (3
degrees per second). When the turn
needle has been calibrated in both
directions of turn, the corrected
deflection is noted, if any, and applied
during all timed turns. .'
c. Timed turns are normally entered
from straight'and-Ievel flight. T 0 enter a
timed turn, hooding is maintained until
the second hand arrives at the desired
position, then, roll.in starts.

4-9. Timed turns

8. in a timed turn, the heading of the
aircraft is changed a definite number of
degrees with reference to the clock and
the turn needle. It may be easiest to start
the timing when the second hand is at
the 3-, 6-, 9-, or t 2-o'clock position.
b. Before practicing timed turns, the
turn needle is calibrated to determine the
accuracy of the needle indications. A
turn is established with the needle

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 43

 d. The number of degrees to be
turned governs the length of time and
rate of turn. Turns of 20 degrees or more
""
."'f"
I
'.'"

are made at standard rate; turns of less

.
.

. ...
I >S
than 20 degrees, at half-standard rate. -,'

~.-~3~
in the
Normally, turns to headings will be ~9
shortest direction of turn. For example, :', .

starting a timed turn from heading of .

north (fig 4-3, A) and turning right to a ", f

6 ,-
','
heading of 120 degrees (fig 4-3, S, C, D) 11".;(,,8"
takes 40 seconds. If the time and the
roll-in are started with the second hand
in the 12-0'clock position, the rollout will A. START TU RN
start when the second hand is on the 40-
second position (fig 4-3, C). The same ~ 1,1' I {
\.~'\
rate of rollout was used to roll into the
,,'J2'.'
turn. In this way, the delay
in reaching a
standard rate turn indication on roll-in will
be canceled by the delay in reaching a
;.y.
i9.~Á._,":,3-;
wings-ievel condition on rollout. Upon :,
-
completion of the rollout, the aircraft "
" 6 ,~
should be on the desired heading (fig -'lllrl,';'"''
using a
4-3, D). Example can be shown
haif-standard rate turn (1112 degrees per
second). It is easier to compute the time BANK ESTABLISHED
B.
by first computing for a standard rate
turn (3 degrees per second) and then
doubie the time. ".,\\'Ir",
12 .IT,
in timed turns .....:-'
e. Common errors '.
include failure to-
.
~
'I D"'''! ':

turn.
(1) Enter in the shortest direction of

(2) Apply the proper rate of turn.

",,9
.,/
:(1._,":,3-; .-
6
"
,'"
(3) Enter and recover from timed turns "

at the same rate. .'(",IL\\\-"

(4) Compute time correctly for turns.
C. START ROLLOUT
4-10. Climbing and descending turns
a. To execute
climbing and
descending turns, the technique used in
straight climbs and descents is combined
with various turn techniques. For
proficiency training, it is recommended
that the climbs and descents be made at
a definite rate and that the maneuver be
checked against time. This is done for
both altitude change and degrees of
in error, the level off
turn. If the timing is
is made on the desired aititude and roll
out of the turn on the desired heading. D. TURN COMPLETED
When entering a turn while performing a
Figure 4-3. Timed turns
rate climb or descent, the aviator should
be prepared to adjust the pitch attitude
upward to maintain desired verticai
speed. Power is then added to maintain
airspeed.
b. Common errors in
climbing and
descending turns are failure
to-
(1) Detect a need for a change in rate
of turn or vertical speed.
(2) Control proper power, pitch
attitude, or bank attitude.
(3) Recognize errors associated with
turns, timed turns, climbs, and descents.

44 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240

4-11. Compass turns
a. The magnetic compass is a basic
direction-indicating instrument. If all other
directing-indicating instruments fail in
fiight, the magnetic compass can
determine the aircraft heading. However,
the inherent characteristics of the
compass must be understood to be able
to turn the aircraft to a magnetic heading
and maintain it.
b. The pilot may consider an angle of
bank between 12 degrees and 18
degrees and the rate of turn not to
exceed a standard rate. The amount of
lead or lag used when turning to
headings of north and south varies with,
and is approximately equal to, the
latitude of the locality over which the turn
is made (fig 4-4). This lead or lag is at a
minimum over the equator and increases
as the latitude increases, reaching its
maximum at the polar regions. The angle
of bank must be accurately heid to attain
success in turns to magnetic compass
headings. The compass reading is
reliable only when the aircratt is in a
wings-tevel and constant-pitch attitude at
a constant airspeed.
./
"~. -".-::;~'
, .'
~âuili ili1~
MAGNETIC COMPASS
.
OVERSWINGSWHEN MAKING
TURNS TO THE SOUTH
Figure 4-4. Compass turns
c. In the Northern Hemisphere, when
turning to a heading of north, the rollout
lead must be the number of degrees
equal to the latitude plus one-half of the
angle of bank used in the turn (fig 4-5).
An example would be during a left turn
to a heading of north in a locality where
the latitude is 30 degrees and the angle
of bank is 15 degrees. The rollout would
start when the magnetic compass reads
37.5 degrees (30 degrees plus one-half
of 15 degrees). To turn to a heading of
south, the aircraft is turned past south
the number of degrees equal to the
latitude, minus one-half the angte of
bank used in the turn (fig 4-5). For
example, when turning to the right to a
heading of south, the rollout is started
when the magnetic compass reads 202.5
degrees (180 degrees plus 30 degrees
minus 7.5 degrees). When turning to a
heading of east or west, the usual lead
for rollout (one-half the angle of bank) is
used. When turning to other than
cardinal headings, the lead or lag must
be interpolated. South of the equator,
lead and iag are reversed.
d. Common errors in compass tums
include failure
to-
MAGNETIC COMPASS
LAGS WHEN MAKING
TURN S TO T HE NORTH
~~ ~.-f~~
N
I.
I
~,Wl~
;J.iJ.
E
,
S
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
(1) Level the wings upon completion
of turn.
(2) Maintain an angle of bank of 12
degrees to 18 degrees.
(3) Maintain proper attitude.
4-12. Unusual altitudes
An unusual attitude is any attitude of the
aircraft not required for normal
instrument flight. An unusual attitude may
result from anyone or a combination of
several causes. Some of these causes
are turbulence, vertigo, confusion,
distraction from flight instruments, and
failure of flight instruments.
a. Recognition. Normally, an unusual
attitude is recognized in one or more of
the following:
(1) An attitude on the attitude indicator
not typical of the maneuver being
performed or an attitude that is rapidly
changing to an extreme position of pitch
or bank.
(2) Indications on the heading
indicator or turn needle of th'e aircraft
entering a rapid turn from straight flight
or increasing its rate of turn extremely
from a normal instrument flight turn.
(3) Indications of the altimeter,
airspeed, and vertical speed rapidiy
changing from those indications that are
normal to the maneuvers being
performed. When any of these situations
occur, the speed of cross-checking is
increased to determine quickly if the
problem is caused by failure of one or
more instruments.
b. Instrument failures. Failure of an
instrument can be detected by
comparing its indications with the other
instrument indications. Common failures
are those of the attitude indicator,
especially if it is the spillable type, and
the heading indicator. A quick reference
is needed to the turn-and-slip indicator
for verification. This would show whether
or not the turn indicaUons on the attitude
indicator or heading indicator are normal
for the maneuver being performed.
Reference can be made to the other
pitch attitude control instruments
(airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical
speed indicator). This will verify whether
or not the pitch attitude on the attitude
indicator is normal for the maneuver
being performed. However, if the aviator
cannot confirm instrument failure with a
quick cross-check, prompt application of
the procedures should be made for
recovery from unusual atUtudes.
c. Recovery. These procedures should
be modified or supplemented by any
instructions contained in the operator's
manual for the aircraft. When a recovery
from an unusual attitude is required, the
initial control acUons should be made.
This can be done by using the power
instruments, altimeter, airspeed indic~
vertical speed indicator, and turn<a1iÕ-slip
45
indicator. The indications of the attitude
indicator and heading indicator should be
disregarded until proper operation can be
assured by cross-checking them with
other instruments. The nonspillabie
attitude indicator may be used when
known to be operating correctly.
(1) Control movements should be
smooth, but applied firmly enough so
some of the pressure to adjust pitch
attitude should be released at this time.
The attitude indicator and heading
indicator are incorporated in the cross-
check if they appear to be operating
normally. If required by the instructor or if
operating under direction of ATC, action
should be taken to return to the original
heading, altitude, and airspeed..
(2) The aircraft may be In a climbing
.
power adjustments in a nose-high
attitude will aid in preventing a stall or
spin. In a nose-low attitude, prompt
power adjustments will aid in preventing
excessive buildup of airspeed and loss of
altitude. A prompt correction, such as a
banking attitude in a dive, will aid in
adjusting the pitch attitude and in
preventing excessive loss of altitude.
Prompt lowering of the pitch attitude in a

that the aircraft will promptly move to the

desired attitude. Coordinated movement
of the control will hasten the recovery
and prevent abnormal stress on the
aircraft. If the aircraft is in a diving or
nose-low pitch attitude, it will be shown
by a loss of altitude, an increase in
airspeed, and an indication of a descent
on the vertical speed indicator. The
aviator reduces power in proportion to
the indication and trend of movement of
the airspeed indicator and centers the
turn needle and ball with coordinated
aileron and rudder pressure. An upward
pitch attitude correction is also applied
until the altimeter and airspeed
movements begin to cease. The aircraft
is then approaching level flight. When
the indications of the altimeter and
airspeed indicator begin to reverse their
direction of movement, the aircraft is
passing through ievel flight attitude. To
remain at or near .Ievel flight attitude,
INNER NUMBERS-DESIRED MAGNETIC HEADING
OUTER NUMBERS-APPROXIMATE lATITUDE ERROR
NORTH
or nose-high pitch attitude as shown by a
gain of altitude, a loss of airspeed, or an
indication of a climb on the vertical
speed indicator. If so, the aviator should
apply power In proportion to the
Indication and trend of movement of the
airspeed Indicator. Downward pitch
attitude correction is applied until the
altimeter and airspeed movements begin
to cease. The turn needle and ball are
centered. Then as the altimeter and
airspeed start to reverse their movement,
the aviator releases sorne of the control
pr~ssure that was reqUIred for the pitch
attitude adjustment. The remaining
procedures are the same as those
performed above after recovering from a
descending attitude.
d. Control actions. Remember that the
initial recovery actions can be applied
simultaneously, but the sequence of
actions should not be changed. Prompt
climbing attitude will aid in preventing a
stall or spin. In all cases, prompt,
smooth, coordinated control actions
should be taken. These actions should
be taken to recover from the unusual
attitude with a minimum change in
altitude and without exceeding the
limitations of the airframe or engine.
e. Spatial disorientation. After recovery
from an unusual attitude, the aviator may
suffer from spatial disorientation or
vertigo for some time. Instrument cross-
check must be continuous and an
attempt be made to reiax any unneeded
pressures on the controls. This gives the
aircraft an opportunity to resume
balanced or coordinated flight. An
uncoordinated flight condition will
frequently induce or prolong spatial
disorientation. Relaxing the control
pressures will aid in preventing the
application of unneeded control
pressures that may be induced by spatial
disorientation.
f. Spins. If an unusual attitude results

30. in a spin, the aviator applies recovery

procedures as outlined in the operator's
manual for the aircraft. A spin is
indicated on the flight instruments in the
3600
following manner:
.

3300 30. (1) Turn needle displaced fully in the

direction of spin, with the ball usually
45. displaced fully in the direction opposite
to the turn needle. However,
300 occasionally the ball will oscillate back
BEFORE
and forth across the center of the tube.
(+)\1, ANGLE BANK (2) Needie of the airspeed indicator
will be hovering at the stall airspeed.
(3) Vertical speed indicator will
o. 2100 90. o' indicate a high rate of descent.
WEST EAST (4) Altimeter will indicate a rapid loss
of altitude.

AFTER
(5) Indications of the attitude indicator
and heading indicator should be
(-)\I, ANGLE BANK disregarded as they will probably be
erroneous or too difficult to use for a
recovery. After spin recovery procedures
are applied, the turn needle should be
closely checked for a sudden movement
back toward center. This indicates that
1800 the rotation of the aircraft has been
stopped. The rudder pedals are promptly
centered so that the aircraft will not
begin rotation in the opposite direction.
30. The recovery is completed by using the
SOUTH procedure for recovery from a dive. Pitch
adjustments are made carefully while the
Figure 4-5. Compass ~urn maneuver procedure airspeed is still low and reference is
--- ---
--
- -

46 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

made to the turn-and-slip indicator to
ensure that the wings remain level.
g. Effors. Common errors in recovery
from unusual attitudes are failure
(1) Adjust power adequately. to-
(2) Execute procedures in incorrect
sequence.
(3) Recognize level flight pitch
attitude.
(4) Allow excessive altitude variation
during recovery.
(5) Maintain requ~ed heading. altitude,
or airspeed after recovery.
Section II
Rotary wing
4-13. All-weather operations
Since the advent of helicopter flight, field
commanders have desired the use of
helicopters for maneuvers in both good
and adverse weather conditions. This is
in order to gain tactical advantage and
eiement of surprise by increased
mobility. The maneuvers discussed in
this section are designed to develop
proficiency in the attitude control of
rotary-wing aircraft. These maneuvers
can be considered as the first step in
fulfilling the requirement of
all-weather
operations.
4-14. Maneuver performance
a. The basic principle of helicopter
instrument flight under any weather
condition stems from the application of
fundamentals for visual flight rules (VFR)
for helicopter flight. There are only two
eiements of control in all aircraft-the
attitude of 'he aircraft to the horizon and
the applied power. Therefore, all
maneuversmupt be. based solidly upon
attitude and pòwer control references.
appropriate for the aircraft being flown.
After the aircraft is aligned with the
runway or takeoff pad, the parking
brakes are set or the toe brakes are
applied. This is to prevenl forward
movement of helicopters equipped with
wheel-type landing gear. If the parking
brake is used, it must be unlocked
before starting the takeoff. Sufficient
friction should be apptied to the
collective pilch control to minimize
overcontrolling and to prevent collective
pitch creeping. However, in order not to
limit pitch control movement, the
application of excessive friction should
be avoided.
(2) After a recheck of all instruments
to see if they are operating properly,
start the takeoff (fig 4-6) by applying
collective pitch and a predetermined
power seiling. Iv!ore power is used than
necessary for hovering, but not
exceeding maximum allowable power,
depending on the aircraft being flown.
Power is added smoothly and steadily to
gain airspeed and altitude simultaneously
and to prevent setUing to the ground. As
power is applied and the helicopter
becomes airborne, pedals are used
initially to maintain the desired heading.
At the same time, forward cyclic control
is applied to start the acceleration to
climbing airspeed. In the initial
acceleration, the attitude of the !\ÌI"CI"aft
as read from the attitude indicatOr should
be one to two bar widths below the
horizon. As airspeed increases to the
appropriate climb airspeed, the nose of
the aircraft is adjusted gradually to the
climb attitude. As climbing airspeed is
reached, power is reduced to the
climbing power setting and
~ejs
transition to fully coordinated flight,
a
"
there will be no apparent change of
attitude, as read from the attitude
indicator. If the amount of power applied
does not produce the desired rate, minor
adjustments are made. As a rule of
thumb, in a UH-1 helicopter, for example,
a change of 1 torque pound will usually
change the rate of climb 100 feet per
minute.
c. During climb, the heading, attitude.
and airspeed are maintained with cyclic
control. Rate of climb is controlled with
power and trim is .maintained with
pedals. Although the amount of lead
varies w~h aircraft and individual
techniques, the lead is normally 10
percent rate of climb.
d. To level off at normal cruise, the
cyclic is adjusted to establish the desired
attitude with reference to tne attitude
indicator. Power is adjusted to maintain
normal cruise airspeed.
e. Common errors in straight climbs
include failure
(1)
to-
Apply proper use of power.
(2) Avoid overcontrolling pitch attitude.
(3) Maintain heading.
(4) Level off at the desired altitude.
(5) Maintain adequate cross-check.

Airspeed isa nesuifofattit\Jde control;
altitude is à fE!SLItt of power control. To
properly charige'\o or hold any desired
altitude, there must be a tentative
estimate ot'b~cpÒwer settings for
climb, cruise, and descent.
b. The method of performing each
maneuver presupposes full panel and
(3) During the initial climtiQut: minor :
corrections to heading shoúld .be made
with pedals only until sufficient airspeed
is attained to make a transition to
coordinated flight. A rapid cross-check
must be started at the same time the
aircraft leaves the ground and should
include all available instruments.
.

emergency panel, with the exception of b. Common errors in the instrument

the instrument takeoff, The instrument takeoff include failune
'

takeoff is performed with full panel. (1) Mailiiain heading.

Except where prohibited by directives,
emergency panel is simulated by
covering one or more of the flight
instruments or by deactivating certain
flight instruments.
c. Airspeeds and power settings will
be as recommended in the operator's
manual for the aircraft.
4-15. Instr\Jment takeoff
a. The following procedures for
making an instrument takeoff will be
modified or changed as necessary to
conform with any procedures set forth in
the operator's manual for the aircraft:
(1) The attitude indicator is adjusted
by setting the miniature aircraft as
to-
(2) Control pedals.
(3) Use required power.
(4) Adjust pitch attitude as climbing
airspeed is reached.
(5) Cross-check all available
instruments.
(6) Control pitch altitude.
4-16. Straight climb
a. The straight climb (fig 4-7) can be
entered from normalcruise.
b. To enter a climb from normal
cruise, power is increased to the setting
which will produce a 500 foot-per-minute
rate of climb. As power is increased, a
correction for trim is made with pedals. If
cruise and climb airspeeds are the same,
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 47
 0'
10
\

14020
/
_'20
10Ó~o,~0-
/80 60

II' ,""1
",
>' \,'
'

~\~.. It.-'~/
<':I' 1:,'
:
'"
,,,, c.

=:-~~ "/
/ I ~
U,I~:..

~,

~
.

-'
,<ï.. ,,'"
9
'J 'J \ ,'\
I I ~\ \

~
Figure 4-6. Flight lristruments during the takeoff

'140
20
120
.JTS40
.-cfcK -

IU'
060
/ '

12 :3

0"'" vEt:. "

L~:--'-
.
~
;'f 3
,; 2

~
-
Figure 4-7; Straight climb

48 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

4-17. Slralght-and.Jevel flight
a. Exact straight-and-Ievel flight is
possible only under ideal conditions,
which rarely exist. Turbulence may cause
changes in the helicopter's attitude,
altitude, and heading. In every flight
attitude, the forces acting on the
helicopter have a definite relationship.
These forces, which are lift, weight, drag,
and thrust, must be in balance for
straight-and-Ievel, unaccelerated flight.
When an instrument indicates a need for
an adjustment to maintain a given
performance, other instruments will
reflect the necessary amount and
direction of adjustment. For example. if
the airspeed indicator shows a decrease
in airspeed, the torque pressure or
altimeter will indicate the adjustment to
be made in power or altitude. When
altitude, airspeed, and level flight are
being maintained, the miniature airplane
of the attitude indicator should be
adjusted to reflect level flight attitude.
Thereafter, any deviation in attitude can
be read directly from the attitude
indicator (fig 4-8). Since the miniature
aircraft is set for levei flight at normal
cruise, it will be seen as an approximate
one-bar above-the-horizon indication
when the aircraft is in level flight at slow
cruise. Corrections are made for attitude
when any deviation is observed.
b. Any deviation from the desired
heading will be shown on the heading
indicator. Immediate and smooth
application of cyclic control is initiated to
return the aircraft to the desired heading.
The quicker a need for correction is
observed, the smaller the amount of
correction needed. For deviations of 20
degrees or more, use a standard rate
turn. For deviations of less than 20
degrees, a half-standard rate turn is
sufficient. Any time an instrument
indicates a change in attitude, correction
should be made. Then, instead of
watching that particular instrument to see
the effects of adjustment, the cross-
check is continued before finally
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
returning to the original instrument. In
this way, the entire panel will reflect the
total effect of adjustment. A helicopter
does not remain in any given attitude.
Therefore, by the time a cross-check has
been completed and necessary
adjustments have been made, another
cross-check must be initiated.
c. During straight-and-Ievel flight,
heading and altitude are maintained with
cyclic control, airspeed is maintained
with power, and trim is maintained with
pedals. Power is used to adjust minor
variations of altitude only if the desired
altitude cannot be maintained by varying
pitch attitude without exceeding + 1 0
knots airspeed.
-
d. Common errors in straight-and-Ievel
Bight include failure
to-
(1) Maintain heading.
(2) Maintain attitude.
(3) Cross-check all available
instruments.
(4) Avoid overcontrolling power and
pitch attitude.
49
 \ \ ,'IJ;, f'l :
,

~\\.\ 2.J 'I'~

7-\ ip./~~
.

,,~
.

...:: 'b.:-
-
'-.. -

<f)
." ----+v..
-

":~c;. '-.."'--"'-

//,4 9 'î-
~,~
í
""
II I' 1\ 1\
\

-.

Figure 4-8. Stralgl1t.andRlevel1light

50 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

4-18. Straight descents b, During descent, the heading, minute rate of descent, the lead will be
a. Straight descents can be entered attitude, and airspeed are maintained approximately 50 feet.
from either normal or slow cruise. To with cyclic control. Rate of descent is ,

c. When the proper altitude for starting

enter a descent (fig 4-9), power is controlled with power and trim is
the level off is reached, power is applied
maintained with pedals. To level off from
reduced to the setting which results in to the predetermined power setting. Also,
the descent, power is applied before
the desired rate of descent. To maintain the vertical speed is checked to
reaching the desired altitude. This will
trim as the power is reduced, a determine if level flight has been
check the downward movement in
correction for torque is made with established. The altimeter and airspeed
sufficient time to p,event going beiow the
pedals. If the initial power reduction does indicator should also be checked at this
desired altitude. The amount of lead
not produce the desired rate of descent,
depends on the weight of the aircraft time to ensure flight is at the proper
additional adjustment is made using the and the rate of descent. The lead is airspeed and altitude.
rule of thumb described in paragraph normally 10 percent of the rate of d. Common errors in straight descents
4-16b. descent. For example, for a 500-foot-per- include failure
to-

1
. I .

\
\ ,
I!
"
0
10
I
-,"9'"
"'f"1 '''.

20' (~,

1201: _J\18
,

,,'140 :-8 AL: ?'

-

K~ .ITS
40- '4':'L----
~
-

'-7
~:~
~t::-
:3;-
------t- ,~.
.

lOG
8060
I
~ ".þ .
-,
S.
j,
J I \ \
4,."
,

,...1.. ./ II.
:'-,\'2\ 24 lþ'~
< .:;,

:~ '\~
--:. s;

</ .)
ìoC..
Ç..
""
;'-
~-,,~
"
-

I
9 \
,'..
'.
:
I{ II 111\"'

-------
----
Figure 4-9. Straight descent

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 51

 (1) Maintain heading.
(2) Establish desired rate of descent.
(3) Maintain proper trim.
(4) Level off at desired altitude.
(5) Avoid overcontrolling pitch attitude.

4-19. Turns
Determine the angle of bank necessary
to produce a standard rate turn by the
true airspeed of the aircraft. The angle of
bank required to achieve a standard rate
turn is to figure about 15 percent of TAS
and this is applied to the attitude
indicator. At an airspeed of 70 to 90
knots, the angle of bank of the standard
rate turn is approximately 12 degrees to
15 degrees, as read from the attitude
indicator. The number of degrees to be
turned governs the amount of bank to be
used. A change in heading of 20 degrees
or more requires a standard rate turn (3
degrees per second) and is shown as a
2-needle deflection on the 4-minute turn-
and-slip indicator. For changes of less
than 20 degrees, one-half standard rate
is sufficient and is shown as a 1-needle
deflection.

4-20. Level turns

a. To enter a turn, a movement of the
cyclic control is applied in the direction
of the desired turn (fig 4-10). The roll-in
should be smooth and steady and should
take approximately 4 to 6 seconds. The
initial bank is started with reference to
the attitude indicator. When the desired
angle of bank and rate of turn have been
attained, control pressure should be
relaxed to prevent overbanking. To
recover to straight-and-Ievel flight,
coordinaterl movement of the cyclic
control is applied in a direction opposite
to the established turn. The rate of
rollout should be the same as the rate of
roll-in. Straight-and-Ievel flight should be
established with reference to all available
instruments.
b. Common érrors in level turns
include failure 10-
(1) Maintain constant rate of turn.
(2) Maintain altitude.
(3) Maintain airspeed.
(4) Avoid varying rate of roll-in and
rollout.

52 15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 ("'
,

"20 \
"
.~~
,

II,.
140
,"9 ""..-

120 2;-,
--8 AU ,
/?
10i:TS40 \..
.

'~";
---7 ,
"
,
, 3::-

80 60/
//,þ "
I I
~
I'. \
~""
'.

ee

Figure 4-10. level turns

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 53

4-21. Turns to headings
A turn to a heading (fig 4-11)
a.
consists of a level turn to a specific
heading as read from the heading
indicator and is performed at normal
cruise. Turns to specified headings
should be made in the shortest direction.
The turn is entered and maintained as
described in the level turn maneuver.
Since the aircraft will continue to turn as
long as the bank is held, the rollout must
be started before reaching the desired
heading. The amount of lead used to
rollout on a desired heading should be
equal to one-half the angle of bank. The
rollout on a heading is performed in the
same manner as the rollout of the level
turn. When the heading for starting the
rollout is reached, cyclic control is
applied in the direction opposite the turn.
b. Common errors in turns to headings
include failure to-
(1) Use proper le>.o in rollout of the
turn.
(2) Maintain altitude.
(3) Recover lrom the turn with the
proper heading and altitude.
(4) Avoid overcontrolling pitch and
bank attitudes.
4-22. Compass turns
The procedure for making compass turns
is explained in paragraph 4-11.
t
\
, c::::=:::,
.
Figure 4-11. Turns to headings
54
4-23. Steep turns
a. Any turn greater than standard rate
is considered a steep turn; however, for
practice, a 4-minute turn needle should
indicate a 3- to 3V2.needle width turn. A
steep turn is seldom necessary or
advisable in instrument weather, but it is
a good test 01 the individual's ability to
react quickly and smoothly to changes in
aircraft attitude. The techniques of entry
and recovery are the same as for any
turn maneuver. Rate of turn and attitude
are maintained with cyclic control;
airspeed and altitude are maintained with
power.
b.. Common errors in steep turns
include failure
to-
(1) Maintain altitude.
(2) Hold a constant rate of turn.
(3) Maintain airspeed.
4-24. Timed turns'
heading of the necessary to turn to the new magnetic
a. In a timed turn, the
aircraft is changed a definite number of
degrees with reference to the turn-and-
slip indicator and the clock. For practice,
the timed turn is performed at normal
cruise with the heading and attitude
indicators covered, To perform accurate
timed turns, the needle of the turn-and-
slip indicator must be calibrated in both
left and right turns.
b. To calibrate the turn needle, the
approximate angle of bank for a standard
rate turn is established with reference to
the attitude indicator. Necessary changes
are made to produce an indication of a
y predetermined time has elapsed, then
\,\,'1101,
\" \~' N ~ 'f~.-:.
" '!I'\
\\
.-'Ii'
","
-=::--....:.~
:3
--:.
.....~
~"'-~
d
i;:)
:;..~ /,:-
h S
"'I'
"
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
standard rate turn with reference to the
turn needle. Unless oscillations of the
turn needle are of equal distance on
either side of the standard rate position
(average), errors will result in the rate of
turn. After establishing the rate of turn,
the position of the second hand of the
clock and the heading are noted. The
rate of turn is maintained until a
predetermined time has elapsed-:-and
the heading is noted again.
c. Exact timing is very important. If the
turn needle is in calibration, a standard
rate of turn for 10 seconds will produce a
change in heading of 30 degrees. Any
deviation is corrected by changing the
position 01 the turn needle to produce a
turn of 3 degrees per second. When the
needle is properly càlibrated, the position
is carefully noted and used during all
standard rate turns.
d. Prior to starting the turn, the time
heading must be computed. To compute
the time in seconds, the angular
difference (shortest direction) between
the present heading and the new
heading is divided by three.
e. The techniques of entry and controi
of the timed turn are the same as for the
level turn. The position of the second
hand of the clock must be noted when
the turn is started (fig 4-12). For ease in
timing, it is best to start the time when
.
the second hand passes the 3-, 6-, 9-, or
12-0'ciock position. The standard rate 01
turn must be maintained until the
the rollout is started. The rate of rollout
is the same as the rate of roll-in. After
straight-and-Ievei flight is established, the
"'-.....
G'
0
'4\'IJ{~11tté
"
:. ,-...
,'''''' '
1\'\
.w.
I
y .i:1.
" ~'H 'Ji~
Figure 4-12. Timed turns
compass should indicate the desired
heading.
f. Common errors in timed turns
include failure
to-
(1) Maintain a standard rate turn.
(2) Correctly compute the time to
complete the tUrn.
(3) Use the sarne rate of roll-in and
rollout of the turn.
(4) Maintain altitude.

4-25. Climbing turns

a. A climbing turn (fig 4-13) is a
combination of a climb and a turn. For
practice, a climbing turn consists of a
climb of 500 feet and a turn of 180
degrees in 60 seconds. In this maneuver,
rate of climb and the rate of turn are
both checked against time. The climbing
turn is generally periormed at normal
cruise and requires a very rapid cross-
check for precise execution.
b. The climbing turn is started as the
second hand of the clock passes the 3-,
6-,9-, or 12-0'clock position. As the
power is applied to the predetermined
setting, torque corrections should be
made with pedals to maintain trim. The
initial bank should be established with
reference to the attitude indicator. To
maintain the rate of turn, minor bank
corrections are made with reference to
the turn-and-slip indicator. During the
climbing turn, the rate of turn and
airspeed are maintained with cyclic
control; the rate of climb, with power;
and trim, with pedals. Power is used to
adjust the rate of climb if deviation from
desired airspeed is :1:5 knots. The :1:5
knots is used for minor pitch correction
during climbs an~ descents. After 30
seconds, the aircraft will have turned
approximately 90 degrees and climbed
approximately 2SO 'feet. If the
instruments indicate other than the
de'sired readings, the rate of climb or
turn .shoUld be. adjusted as necessary, A
further checkOan be made at the
expiration of 45 seconds. Adjustments in
the rate of climb or turn should again be
made if necessary. Normally, the
recovery should be started as the
second hand reaches the original starting
position of 60 seconds. However,
regardless of the time factor, a recovery
should be made when the desired
heading and altitude have been reached.
c. Common errors in climbing turns
include failure
to-
(1) Detect a need for a change in rate
of turn or climb.
(2) Apply proper use of power.
(3) Apply proper use of pedals.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 55

 ~Q

0
,c20
...~. ~
.:/~~t;~:;:~:;:~~~~~~:})::}:}8:::::::::::;::::::;::;':;.:;'"

/40
120t40
K' ,TS
lOG
..
80 60

...
,
~

.::.
..",,"TIlAIoI

Figure 4-13. Climbing turns

56 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

4-26. Descending turns
A descending turn (fig 4-14) is a
a.
combination of a descent and a turn. For
practice, a descending turn consists of a
descent of 500 feet and a turn of 180
degrees in 60 seconds. In this maneuver,
the rate of descent and the rate of turn
are both checked against time. The
descending turn is generally performed
at normal cruise airspeed and requires a
very rapid cross-check for precise
execution.
b. The descending turn is starfed as
the second hand of the clock passes the
3-, 6-, 9-, or 12-0'clock position. As the
power is reduced to the predetermined
setting, torque correction should be
made with the pedals to maintain trim.
The initial bank should be established
with reference to the attitude indicator.
To maintain the rate of turn, minor bank
corrections are made with reference to
the turn-and-slip indicator. During the
descending turn, the rate of turn and
airspeed are maintained with cyclic
control; rate of descent, with power; and
trim, with pedals. Power is used to adjust
the rate of descent only if the desired
airspeed is exceeded by +5 knots. The
:!::5 knots is used for minor pitch
correction during climbs and descents.
After 30 seconds. the aircraft will have
turned approximately 90 degrees and
descended approximately 250 feet. If the
instruments indicate other than the
desired readings, the rate of descent or
turn should be adjusted as necessary. A .
further check can be made at the
expiration of 45 seconds. Adjustments in
the rate of descent orturn should again
be made if neGeSsary- Normally, the
recovery should be .started as the
second hand reaches the original starting
position of 60 seconds. However,
regardless of .the jime factor, a recovery
should be made when desired heading
and altitude have been reached.
c. Gammon errors in descendingturns
Include failure
to-
(1) Detect a need for a change in rate
of turn or rate of descent.
(2) Apply proper use of power. .
(3) Avoid improper use of pedals.
(4) Recover from the turn with the
proper heading and altitude.
(5) Avoid overcontrolling pilch and
bank attitudes.
4-27. Unusual attitudes and
recoveries
a. Any maneuver not required for
normal instrument flight is an unusual
attitude and may be caused by
turbulence, vertigo, Instrument faiiure, or
careless cross-checking. Due to the
inherent instability of the helicopter,
unusual attitudes can be extremely
critical. As soon as an unusual attitude is
detected, recovery is made to level flight
as quickly as possible with minimum loss
of altitude.
-b. The recovery from an unusual
attitude requires an immediate analysis
of what the helicopter is doing and how
to return it to normal flight as soon as
possible with minimum altitude loss.
c. To recover from unusual attitude,
the aviator corrects the pitch and bank
attitude, adjusts power, and trims the
aircralt as necessary. All components
are changed almost simultaneously with
little lead of one over the other. In other
words if the aircraft is in a steep climbing
turn or descending turn, bank, pitch, and
power are corrected simultaneously. The
bank attitude is corrected with reference
to the turn-and-slip indicator, or attitude
indicator if available. Pitch attitude is
corrected with reference to the altimeter,
airspeed indicator, vertical speed
indicator, and the attitude indicator, if
available. Power is adjusted with
reference to the power control
instruments and the airspeed indicator.
d. The displacement of controls used
in recoveries from unusual attitudes may
be greater than those for normal flight.
Thus, care must be taken in making
adjustments as straight-and-Ievel flight is
approached. The instruments must be
observed closely to avoid overcontrolling.
e. Common errors in recoveries from
unusual attitudes include failure to-
(1) Make power correction.
(2) Correct pitch attitude.
(3) Correct bank attitude.
(4) Avoid overcontrolling pitch and
bank attitude. .
(5) Avoid excessive loss 01 altitude.
(6) Avoid overcontrolling power.
(7) Maintain aircraft in trim.
4-28. Autorotations
An autorotation is a controlled descent
without power in a helicopter. In the
event of power failure or other
ernergencies requiring autorotation,
prompt corrective action must be taken
to ensure positive control of the aircraft.
a. To enter autorotation, collective
,
'pitch is smoothly reduced to maintain
safe rotor RPM, and pedals are trimmed
to assure coordinated flight. The attitude
of the aircraft should be level and the
airspeed adjusted to the autorotative
speed.
b. Practice instrument autorotations
must be terminated with a power
recovery. Power recoveries will be
accomplished in accordance with the
appropriate operator's manual and AR
95-1.
c. Common errors in autorotations and
corrective actions include failure to-
(1) Avoid skidding and slipping on
entry due to improper pedal trim.
(2) Avoid improper airspeed or
airspeed variation due to improper pitch
attitude.
(3) Maintain proper rotor RPM due to
improper cross-check on RPM.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
4-29. Accelerations and decelerations
An acceleration or a deceleration is a
coordinated maneuver that can be
practiced during straight-and-Ievel flight.
a. To practice this maneuver, the
airspeed should be at normal cruise.
Power changes should be executed in
coordination with all available attitude
instruments. Changes in attitude and trim
control must be made throughout the
maneuver to maintain altitude and
desired heading.
b. To accelerate from normal cruise to
high cruise, power is increased a small
amount above that required to maintain
high cruise and attitude is adjusted to
maintain levei flight. Then as the desired
airspeed is approached, power is
reduced to high cruise power setting,
while attitude is adjusted to maintain
level flight.
c. To decelerate from high cruise to
low cruise, power is reduced a small
amount below that required to maintain
low cruise and attitude is adjusted as
necessary to maintain level flight. Then
as the desired airspeed is approached,
power is increased to low cruise setting
and attitude is adjusted to maintain
appropriate altitude.
d. To accelerate from low cruise to
normal cruise. power is increased a small
amount above thet required to maintain
normal cruise and attitude is adjusted to
meintain appropriate altitude. Then as
the desired airspeed is approached,
power is reduced to normafcruise power
setting and attitude is adjusted to
.
maintain the desired 'altitude.
f;. Common errors'in'aocelerations
and decelerations include JaJlure to-
(1) Apply proper use of power.
(2) Avoid overcontroiling pitch attitude.
(3) Maintain heading.
(4) Maintain altitude.
(5) Avoid overcontrolling power.
(6) Use proper pedal adj,-!stment.
57
 ..:..:..:..:.,:..:..:.::.:..:.::.:.,:.::.:.::,:,:.:.:~':':":';':':':::::':':":':::'.':':.':.:.':.':,
"..;...;."",

140
20
120 !)
= <,oij, 40
80 60

.W'.
\

~,
.::.~.,,,f~

Figure 4-14. Descending turns

58 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

Chapter 5
Coordination Maneuvers
5-1. General
The maneuvers described in this chapter
are practiced primarily to develop
coordination in power, pitch attitude, and
bank attitude control. These maneuvers
wili also help increase speed in cross-
checking instruments. Vertical Sand 8-1
is a series of climbs and descents, while
Pattern A includes straight-and-Ievel
and Pattern B is more advanced.
flight,
5-2. VerticalS and 5-1
a. The vertical S (fig 5-1) consists of a
series of climbs and descents.
Throughout the maneuver, constant
airspeed and heading are maintained. All
climbs and descents are made at a
constant rate as shown on the vertical
speed indicator. The reversing of vertical
direction is made at specified altitudes.
The time element is eliminaled from the
maneuver. The vertical S is entered as in
a constant rate climb or descent.
(1) Pitch attitude is adjusted on the
attitude indicator during the climb or
descent to control the vertical speed, but
airspeed is controlled with power. The
heading indicator and attitude indicator
are references for bank control
throughout the maneuver. The change
from a climb to a descent requires the
same amount of lead on altitude that is
used in a leveioff.
(2) Power must be smoothly adjusted
to the approximate setting for desired
descendino airspeed. At the same time,
pitch attitude is adjusted to the
approximate position for desired rate of
descent. The same control technique is
used in changing from a descent to a
climb. The frequency of reversing the
vertical direction depends on the type of
aircraft.
b. The climbs and descents will be at
the same indicated rate as the amount of
altitude to be gained or lost. Normally in
aircraft with a low rate-of-climb capability,
the maneuver is accomplished by
climbing 500 feet, descending 500 Jeet;
climbing 400 feet, descending 400 feet;
climbing 300 feet, descending 300 feet;
and, climbing 200 feet, descending 200
feet. This completes the maneuver. High
performance aircraft may accomplish the
maneuver by changing altitudes of 1,000,
4500'
4300'
800, 600, and 400 feet, with
corresponding rates of climb and
descent. Trim control is especially
Important because of the constant
changes in attitude and power
throughout the maneuver. The frequency
of these changes requires a rapid cross-
check for precise control of the aircraft.
c. The vertical 8-1 (fig 5-2) is a
combination of the vertical Sand
standard rate turns of 360 degrees. Each
turn is started in a climb and ends in a
descent. The direction of the ban k is
reversed after each descent.
d. Common errors to the verticai S
and 8-1 maneuvers include failure to-
(1) Use the airspeed indicator properly
for pitch control when changing the
vertical direction.
(2) Avoid overcontrol of pitch attitude
when climbing and descending (indicated
by excessive movement of the vertical
speed indicator).
(3) Use the proper altitude lead when
reversing the vertical direction.
(4) Correct sufficiently for torque when
power is changed.
DESCENDING
TURN 400'
'*'~URNSOO'DESCENDING
C'*. ,~;~~Gt
TURN 400' ~ noted. If the aircraft is not on the correct
DESCENDING
TURN 300'
OfSCEN~G
TURN 200'
/'-
'*'~
~ east and west, a shallow bank and turn
. CliMBING
ClIMBING \.
ÌÙR;:'-3òõ.
TURN 200'
*"
Figure 5--2. Vertical 5-1
figure 5-1 Vertical S
.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
5-3, Pattern A
Patlern A (fig 5-3) is designed to give
practice in maintaining straight-and-Ievel
flight and performing timed turns at
definite time intervals. This combination
of procedures will be used in the
advanced phase of instrument training. It
is an invaluable experience in planning,
precision timing, maintaining orientation,
holding, performing procedure turns, and
making approaches.
B. Here are three prerequisites for
successful performance of pattern A.
(1) Proficiency in performing timed
turns without use of attitude and heading
indicators. Timing should begin when the
second hand is on the 12-o'clock
(preferable) or 6-0'clock position. All legs
are 2 minutes long except the first which
is 1 minute. All turns are 3 degrees per
second timed turns. Timing for all turns
begins and ends on a cardinal point on
the clock. Timing for each leg of the
patlern begins at the same moment that
pressure is applied on the controls to roll
the aircraft out of the preceding turn.
This applies even though the aircraft is
still turning and is not on the desired
heading.
(2) Understanding of the proper use of
the magnetic compass and a wareness of
its errors. The patlern may be started on
any heading, but initial practice should
be accomplished on cardinal headings
for simplification. .
(3) Familiarity with the pattern and
knowledge of the power settings for the
different airspeeds used.
b. When the aircraft is in straight flight
and a few seconds have been allowed
for the magnetic compass to stop
oscillating, the compass heading is
compass heading, a correction is made
toward the desired heading before
changing the airspeed. On headings of
north and south, this correction must be
+ a timed turn. However, in the vicinity of
...
/ directly to the heading is possible since
there is no turning error on headings of
east and west.
c. The airspeed should be immediately
changed if a correction of heading is not
required. When the turn-and-slip indicator
is the only bank instrument available, it
must be closely observed at all times.
4600'
4400'
4200'
,6
59
 CHANGE TO
SLOW CRUISE

"* /
CHANGE TO
Ãcr

SLOW CRUISE

Z
Z
~ '"
~ ~
'" N

START
"D
..
NORMAL
CRUISE + I
~

CHANGE 10
NORMAL S,RUISE
~

~~CHANGE 10
.c- r-.ORMAL
CRUISE

Figure 5-3. Pattern A

60 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

The magnetic compass can be used only
to determine the accuracy of the
heading. The altimeter is used with the
vertical speed indicator to maintain
precise pitch control. A rapid and
efficient cross-check is required during
airspeed changes so that corrections can
be immediately applied.
d. Common errors in the pattern A
maneuver include failure to
(1) Control bank properly in turns.
(2) Maintain heading and altitude.
(3) Avoid the compass as a bank
.
same maneuver as pattern A with the
following exceptions:
(1) All available instruments are used.
(2) Airspeed is changed during the
turns.
(3) A before landing check is
completed on the fourth leg.
(4) Descents at 500 feet per minute
are made during the maneuver.
(5) The airspeed is maintained
following the final turn and a descent of
500 feet per minute is established,
followed by a go-around after
the legs. The pattern can be started on
any heading, but initial practice should
be done on cardinal headings.
c. Common errors in the pattern 8
maneuver include failure
(1) Control rate of turn.
to-
(2) Maintain heading and altitude.
(3) Avoid attempting to use the
compass as a bank instrument.
(4) Avoid poor bank control during
changes in airspeed.

instrument. descending 1,000 feel.

(4) Avoid poor bank control during
changes in airspeed.
(5) Make allowances for an incorrectly
calibrated turn needle during the timed
turns.
B
5-4. Pattern
a. Pattern B (fig 5-4) is designed to
give further practice in the procedures
used during the advanced phase and to
combine most of the maneuvers
previously performed. It is essentially the
b. The timing is consecutive since the
time for each leg starts when the time
for the previous turn has elapsed. This is
true regardless of the bank attitude of
the aircraft. Timing is simplified if the
pattern is always started when the
second hand of the clock indicates the
12-o'clock position. The pattern may be
memorized. However, using a card will
give valuable practice in accomplishing
advanced work. Planning should take
place when flying straight and level on

BEFORE-
LANDING

-+ CHECK

I
EXECUTE
GO \ROUND
-+
z
z
~ ~
'" I
~ START
DESCENT 500 fpm

T
CHANGE TO z
NORMAL ~ ~
CRUISE In'"

\ :t~
\
START DESCENT 500fpm

LEVEL OFF AND

MAINTAIN SLOW CRUISE

Flgur. 5-4. Paltern B

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 61

Chapter 6
Air Navigation
6-1. General
Air navigation is the art of directing an
aircralt along a desired course and
determining ils position along this course
anytime. Such navigation may be
pilotage. dead reckoning. or radio
navigational aids. This navigation also
includes those procedures which are
used during instrument flight to direct
aircralt to a safe ianding. The aviator
must be able to plan a mission covering
any eventuality. Thus, the aviator must
always try to think ahead of the aircralt
and make decisions immediately based
on the changes encountered.
Section I
Measuring the Earth in Space
6-2. Shape
A perfect sphere is a body whose
surface is at all points equidistant trom
its center. Any straight line which passes
from one side, through the center of the
sphere, to the opposite side is called the
diameter of the sphere. Although the
earth is actually a spheroid, slightly
flat1ened at the poles, for navigational
Figure 6-1. West to east rotation of the earth and Its revolution around the sun
62
purposes it is considered a perfect
sphere.
6-3. Rotation
The diameter of the earth, around which
the spherical body rotates, is an
imaginary straight iine cailed the axis.
The points formed by the intersection of
the axis with the earth's surface are the
North and South Poles. Any point on the
earth's surface, except the North and
South Poies, completes one rotation
around the axis every 24 hours.
6-4. Revolution
As the earth rotates, it also revolves
around the sun in an elliptical path (fig
6-1). The earth completes one orbit
each year.
6-5. Inclination
The axis of the earth is inclined
approximately 23Y, degrees from the
perpendicular to its plane of revolution.
This inclination is such that the North
Pole paints generally loward the North
Star (Polaris).
/'"/
-
(~) .
/'"
~
-
/ I \"
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Section II
Measuring Position on the Earth

Coordinates
~.
To identify point on the surface of the
a

earth, a universal system of expressing

geographical position without reference
to physical features is a necessity. Such
a method, known as a coordinate or grid

system (fig 6-2), designates iocation or

position and expresses angular
magnitude. This is performed by
meridians and parallels which intersect at
right angles, By reference to these lines,
any point may be accurately located,
This system of coordinates is formed by
the intersecting of great and small
circles.

NORTH POLE

1050 22'W

-, ::=i{W
C\::::
:;:;;::;.:'

\1;IliI11!,;
;~i ~;;
,i.~I;
";:;:;.;:::::;:;
." .

SP

Figure 6-2. Coordinate (grid) syslem

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 63

6-7. Circles on a Sphere

a. Great and small circles. The straight

cut of a plane through a sphere forms a
circie. If the cut passes through the
center of the earth, the circle formed is a
great circle. This is the largest circle that
can be cut from a sphere. Any other
circle, regardless of size, is called a

small circle. The plane of a small circle

does not pass through the center of the
sphere and, therefore, will not divide the
sphere in half (fig 6-3).
b. Arcs and their measurement. Arcs
are segments of circles measured in
degrees, minutes, and seconds. A
degree (") is .1/360 of the circumference
of a circle. Thus, if any circle is divided
into 360 equal arcs, each arc is 1 degree
in length, regardless of the size of the
circle. A minute (') is 1/60 of 1 degree, a
second (") is 1/60 of 1 minute.
c. Central angle. Straight lines drawn
from each end of an arc to the center of
a circle form an angle at the center

called the central angle. Angles, like

arcs, are measured in degrees, minutes,
and seconds. The angle at the center of
the circle contains the same number of
degrees, minutes, and seconds as the
arc which it subtends. Each line from the
center of the circle to its periphery is a
radius,

<3>
CD
e
THE EQUATOR is A THE GREENWiCH ANY CIRCLE THAT A PARALLEL IS NOT
GREAT CIRCLE. MERIDIAN IS A CUTS THE EARTH A GREAT CIRCLE.
GREAT CIRCLE. IN HALF is A
GREAT CIRCLE.

Figure 6-3. Great and small circles

64 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 d. Angular and linear distances. The
angular distance between any two points
on a circle can be expressed in degrees,
minutes, and seconds of arc. This
distance is actually a measure of the
central ang Ie and is independent of the
size of the circle. The angular distance
depends on that portion of the circle
which separates the two points. For any
given angle, the linear distance between
two points on the circle (fig 6-4, an arc)
varies with the size of the circle or with
the length of the radius.
6-8. Reference circles on the earth
The axis of the earth is the only
distinctive, natural geometric line of the
earth. The North and South Poles are
distinct points on the earth and are used
as central points for one set of reference
circles known as parallels of latitude.
The only great circle of this set of circles
is the equator (fig 6-2).
6-9. Equator
The equator is a great circle located
halfway between the North and South
Poles and serves as a reference line for
all parallels of latitude (fig 6-2). Since
the poles are 180 degrees apart, every
point on the equator is 90 degrees from
each pole. The plane of the equator Is at
right angles to the earth's axis and
Figure
6-4. Angular and linear distances
1S DECEMBER 1984
divides the earth into the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
6-10. Parallels
Any small circle whose plane is parallel
with the plane of the equator is a parallel
of latitude (fig 6-2). Every point on a
given parallel is equidistant from the
equator, the poles, and any other
parallel. The equator and all parallels are
concentric around the polar axis. An
infinite number of parallels may be
drawn; however, only a few are shown
on the globe. A parallel on the earth's
sunace is designated by its angular
measurement north or south of the
equator. Point A (fig 6-2) is parallel
2904S' north of the equator.
6-11. Meridians
A great circle passing through both poles
is called meridian of longitude (fig 6-2).
As with parallels, there may be an infinite
number of meridians even though few
are shown on the globe. The meridian
passing through the observatory at
Greenwich, England, has arbitrarily been
selected as the reference or prime
meridian. All other meridians are
designated by their angular distance east
or west of the prime meridian. Point A
(fig 6-2) is on a meridian 10s022' west of
the Greenwich meridian.
~ northeast, southeast, or southwest; or by
~ ~C'!
00 ij\
10
~-.u
40
RADII
UPDATE. FM 1-240
6-12. Latitude and longitude
a. Latitude. The latitude of a point on
the surface of the earth is its angular
measurement north or south of the
equator measured on the plane of the
meridian passing through the point.
Latitudes range from 0 degrees at the
equator to 90 degrees north or south at
the poles.
b. Longitude. The longitude of a paint
is its angular measurement east
or west
of the prime (Greenwich) meridian,
measured on the plane of the equator or
of a parallel. Longitude ranges from 0
degrees at the prime meridian to 180
degrees at the meridian diametrically
opposite the prime meridian. This is half-
way around the world at the international
date line.
c. Parallels. Naming the parallel and
meridian which passes through a point is
essentially the same as giving its
coordinates. Each parallel of labtude is
designated according to its angular
measurement north or south from the
equator. Each meridian of longitude is
designated according to its angular
measurement east or west of the prime
meridian. A meridian of longitude is a
line, but longitude is an angle; a parallel
of latitude is a line, but latitude is an
angle. In giving coordinates of a point,
latitude is given first, followed by the
longitude. For example, point A (fig 6-2)
is positioned at latitude 2904S'N,
longitude 1 OS022'W.
Section III
Measuring Direction on the Earth
6-13. Points
In air navigation, directionsare indicated
by cardinal points (north, east, south,
west); intercardlnal points such as
degrees (fig 6-5).
6-14. Compass
The compass rose (fig 6-5) divides the
horizon (fig 6-{;) into 360 parts or
degrees. Starting with north as 0 degrees
and continuing clockwise through east,
south, and west, directions are
expressed In degrees measured from
north (0 degrees). North may also be
expressed as 360 degrees. East is 090
degrees and west is 270 degrees.
65
 \ N ~ a. Figure 6-7 shows point
B in a

f. <- direction of 045 degrees (northeast) and

point C in a direction of 270 degrees
00 (west) of aircraft A. Aircraft A is headed
in a direction of 120 degrees. A line by
itself does not indicate a single direction;
~ arrows or labels along the line are used
<:::J~ to indicate the intended direction. The
I-v
^' Iv direction of C from A (270 degrees) is
not the same as the direction of C to A
(090 degrees), even though drawn as
one line. The direction of a line is
measured from its point of origin and
labeled by the angle the line forms with
w 0900 E an intersecting meridian.
b. in figure 6-7, the direction from A is
measured from point A. If the meridians
are drawn as parallel lines, the direction
of a straight line may be measured at
any point along the line. In measuring
the direction from C to A (A from C),
measurement is made with reference to
the mean meridian (DE) of points A and
C. This is because the meridians in figure
6-7 are not parallel. They converge
1800 toward the north as do the meridians on
most aerial navigation charts.
If'
s ~ 6-15. Course
The direction which an aircraft is to fiy to
reach a given destination is the course to
Figure 6-5. Compass rose that destination. Therefore, the course
from A to C (fig 6-7) is 270 degrees.

6-16. Rhumb line

The rhumb line is a line of constant

direction that crosses successive

meridians at the same oblique angle (fig
6-8). Parallels of latitude, the equator,
and meridians are often called rhumb
lines even though they do not fully
conform with the definition. A true rhumb
iine, if continued, will spiral toward the
poles, never quite reaching either of
them. Such a spiral is called a
loxodromic curve (fig 6-8).

Figure 6-6. The horizon as a compass rose

66 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 E
00

c 2700 090'

D 1800

Figure 6-7. Measurement 01 direction

lOXODROMIC CURVE (ABC DE)

GREA T
CIRCLE
SEGMENT
(BD)

RHUMB
LINE
(BCD)

Figure 6-8. Rhumb line, loxodromlc curve, and great circle

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 67


6-17. Measurement
a. Distance. The
length of a line
joining two points is its distance. The
most common unit for measuring
distance in navigation is the mile. Since
the word "mile" does not define an
exact distance, it is important to specify
the type of mile.
b. Statute mile. In the United States,
1 and rivers, radio aids to navigation,
mile is defined by statute as being 1,760
yards or 5,280 feet. This is called a US
statute mile. There are some differences
in the legal definition in other countries.
With the growth of cross-country flying
and the development of better aviation
charts, the statute mile is rapidly
becoming obsolete. It is still possible,
however, to encounter statute mile
indications on some charts, plotters, and
airspeed indicators.
c. Nautical mile. Military airmen use
the nautical mile as a unit of distance.
The nautical mile (6,076.1 feet) is
equivalent to 1 minute of latitude or
approximately 1.15 statute miles. A
statute mile is approximately 0.87
nautical miles.
d. Comparative distances (fig 6-9).
NOTE: The only requirement that
nautical miles be used in air navigation is
for filing flight plans. However, nautical
miles are more convenient since
distances on published aeronautical
charts are shown in nautical miles. Also,
wind speeds are reported in nautical
miles per hour (knots) and most airspeed
indicators are calibrated in nautical units.
If navigational data contains mixed units,
all measurements are converted either to
nautical miles or to statute miles.
e. Kilon,eter. The kilometer is used as
a measure of distance in planning
tactical instrument flights and other VFR
flights. It is also used in International
Civil Aviation Organization flight weather
planning.
6-18. Great circle
The shortest distance between two
points on the surface of the earth lies
along any minor arc of a great circle
passing through both points. A minor arc
of the great circle between two points is
more.nearly a straight line than the arc
of any other circle which can be drawn
between these points (fig 6,-8).
1 Kilometer (KM)
FEET 3,280.B
NM 0.539
SM 0.621
KM f.o
Figure 6-9. Comparative distances
68
Chapter 7
Navigation Charts
7-1. General
An air navigation chart is a diagram
representing the earth's surface. It
shows elevation, cities and towns,
highways and railroads, oceans, lakes
danger areas, and other useful features.
Section I
Chart Projections
7-2. Scale
The scale on the charts is the ratio
between the distance on a chart and the
actual distance on the earth. A chart
showing the entire surface of the earth is
drawn to small scale for convenient size.
A chart covering a small area and much
detail is drawn to a larger scale.
However, the scale of a chart may be
simple, such as "1 inch equals 30
miles." This means that a ground
distance of 30 miles is 1 inch on the
chart. On aeronautical charts, the scale
is shown in representative fractions or
graphic scales.
a. Representative fraction. A scale
may be given as a representative fraction
such as 1 :500,000 or 1/500,000. This
means that 1 unit on the chart
represents 500,000 units of the same
dimension on the èarth. For example, 1
inch on a chart may represent 500,000
inches on the earth or approximateiy 6.9
nautical miles or 8 statute miles.
b. Graphic scale. A graphic scale (fig
7-1) shows the distance on a chart
labeled in terms of the actual distance it
represents on the earth. The distance
between parallels of latitude is a
convenien1graphic scale since 1 degree
of latitude always equals 60 nautical
miles. Meridians are often divided into
minutes of latitude with each division
representing 1 nautical mile.
7-3. Distortion
Distortion is misrepresentation of
direction, shape, and relative size of the
earth's surface when the earth's round
shape is projected on a flat chart
surface. A globe is the only means of
representing the entire surface of the
earth without distortion.
1 Statute Mile(SM) 1 Nautical Mile (NM)
5,280 6,076.1
0.87 1.0
1.0 1.15
1.609 1.852
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
A
a. Deveiopable surfaces.
developable surface (fig 7-2) is a curved
surface such as a plane, cylinder, or
cone. It can be flattened without tearing,
stretching, or wrinkling.
b. Nondeveiopable surfaces. The
suriace of a sphere or spheroid is
nondevelopable because no part of it
can be laid out flat without distortion.
This can be understood by attempting to
flatten half of an orange peel. However,
a small piece of orange peel, because it
is nearly flat, can be flattened with little
stretching or tearing. Likewise, a small
area of the earth's surface which is
nearly flat can be represented on a flat
surface with little distortion (fig 7-2).
Distortion becomes a serious problem in
charting large areas and can never be
completely eliminated. It can, however,
be controlled and systematized; a chart
for a particular purpose can be drawn to
reduce the most distortion.
7-4. Characteristics
Each chart has a different purpose and
no one chart is best for every use. If a
perfect chart were possible, it would be a
true shape of all physical features and
correct angular relationships. A perfect
chart would also have correct relative
proportions, true scale value for
measuring distances, and great circles
and rhumb lines represented as straight
lines. A few, but not all of the above
properties are possible in one projection.
A chart cannot be both equal in angles
and equal in area. Desirable, but
secondary chart properties are ease in
finding and plotting coordinates, ease in
joining two or more charts, finding
cardinal directions parallel throughout the
chart, and simplicity and ease in
construction.
 KILOMETERS 10 IIII1 III 0 101 201 301 401
'NAUTICAL MilES 101 I I 1 0
STATUTE MilES 101 II I I I I I 0
101
101 201
201
301

Figure 7-1. Graphic scale

DEVELOPABLE

,
~, /~ '" ,

/'
/....
....
-l......
")......
i' /.,'\
....
-1;.

'(..... ).
'-
I, r-
....
, -.. \
-( /\-\..... ).
'1 .,.. .> r
-

, I- -
""'.J...
I
""''''''''
)- -"
Þ"). ....\
..... \ -4
-,-,.. \
-
-I...... ....-, ,
... -.,.."'"
I 1---'
,-,- r-,-+--.::~::::::: ì-,-I-j-), ì-......""'i.::-r::.. ......~-\-\_,-"
",:-"",-~:",\-:.-,_-t-,1---t \

,---f--f_f--,-l-l-I:;:':::, ....... ,...- ""'~-;.'-....-,-

-,-"""-.1_.1-....--1
=::.',-:' I I I
L_..J_...l.'-'--"1_L__....:. .,
I I
L---1-""1I-t-.!.. -,-....-_t""-:"; ---1.--""-'-T----'
~~;::.. _1- +
-,-
I
I
4
.....
-

\ .-i
.l--S-t:-:.
J-.J.\'-t-'-1-....\--;..~~-;'..
\ -
11"
/
':-...,-.2'-'-.
"~~/:::'f
.... ...,...;-,-4._1 T-r-- I

-'(...'.... .ÞC /,"'.J'" ',... -..... .J r"" -J

,
Y
\
-"'"\ -.,..)...\ -
-
'-'-<"
\ -
" >': ..A,.
"1:

~ -,'" '
....

.,',
)I.
..... ... "...',....,
-c.
....

J.. ".... ""'/

I

.....
~
0(
....
''''''..." "<.
,'1....'...( """"" ì.... I
Y""
~.... "
1("'" .,.
,...

v""....,,
)..'"'' """", "7

\...-",...'\,/'
\
"'\ ......
"(
.....
"'<.
. 1(.,/,"'1,,'....1
,.... ~.....,.
I
", "', ,"'... ""..J
... >,,, .."

\ /~,
...
I"" 7
I

"( ~,
"
/
)'

DEVELOPABLE

~iONDEVELO,'ABLE

Figure 7-2. Developable and nondevelopable surfaces

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 6(


7-5. Graticule
Exact coordinates of any point on the
earth may be found by astronomical
means. With this reference to control
points. the exact location of nearby
features may be found by geographic
surveyor aerial photography.
A chart can be made
a. Construction.
by drawing the established geographical
features on a framework of meridans and
parallels known as a gratlcule (fig 7-3).
Once the graticule is drawn. features
may be plotted in their correct positions
with references to meridians and
parallels.
b. Form and size. The form of the
graticule determines the general
characteristics and appearance of the
chart; its size determines the scale.
Since meridians and parallels cannot be
shown on a plane surface exactly as
Figure 7-3. Appearance of the Lambert projection gratlcule
70
they would appear on a sphere, there is
no perfect method of constructing the
graticule. For example, the meridians and
parallels may be shown as straight lines,
curved lines, or both straight and curved
lines. They may be spaced in various
ways and' may intersect at various
angles.
7-6. Projection
Transferring the surface of a sphere or
spheroid onto a flat surface is a
projection. The actual projection of a
graticule is accomplished by
mathematical formulas.
Projections are
a. Ciassifications.
primarily classified by the developable
surface (fig 7-2) where the spherical
surface is transferred. But there are
classifications for projections centered
on the equator (equatorial), pole (polar),
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
point or line between the equator and
poles (oblique), or a tangent at a
meridional (transverse) line. Some
cartographers drop the term "oblique"
and use the term "transverse" for such
projections. Chart projections most
commonly used in air navigation are the
Lambert conical, the Mercator cylindrical,
and the polar stereograph ie, all of which
are conformal projections. Stereography
is the art of representing forms of solid
bodies on plane surfaces.
b. Purpose of charts. Charfs are
mostly used in navigation for chart
reading, plotting and measuring. Charf
reading is the location of one's position
by identification of landmarks para 9-1.
Plotting refers to establishment of points
and lines on a chart. Measuring means
measurement of direction and distance
on a chart (para 10-1).
7-7. Lambert conlormal projection
The Lambert conformal projection
(Lambert chart) is a conic projection
using the cone lor a developable
surface. All meridians are straight lines
meeting at the apex of the cone. All
parallels are concentric circles with the
center as the .apex of the cone.
Meridians and parallels intersect at right
angles and the angle formed by any two
fines is correctly represented (Iig 7-3).
a. Standard parallels. The cone
intersects the sphere at two parallels (fig
7-4) known as standard parallels for the
area to be represented. In general. for
equal distribution of scale error, the
standard parallels are chosen at one-
sixth and five-sixths of the total
represented meridian length.

LIMITS OF PROJECTION

STANDARD PARALLELS

STANDARD

Figure 7-4. Standard parallels on Lambsrl conformal chart

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE -FM 1-240 71

 b. Accuracy. Along the two standard
parallels, areas are represented in true
scale. Between the standard parallels, 490 -101 Y2%
the scale will be too small; beyond them,
too large. For practical purposes, the
scale can be considered constant for a
large scale chart of a small area (fig
7-5). Accuracy is greatest for charts of
predominantly easl-west dimensions. 450 -100%
c. Conforma/ity. The Lambert
projection is conformal because the (SCALE EXACT)
scale is practically uniform in all
directions about any point. In addition,
the angles formed by parallels and
meridians are correctly shown. Because
390 -

99%0 %
of the scale uniformity, areas retain true
shape (fig 7-6).
d. Great circle vs. straight line. Any
straight line on a Lambert conformal
conic chart is neariy a great circle (fig
STANDARD 330 -100%
7-7). Using 2,572 statute miles between
San Francisco and New York, a great (SCALE EXACT)
circie and a straight line connecting them
on a Lambert chart are only gY2 miles
apart at mid-longitude. For shorter

,
distances, the difference is negiigible.
For all practical purposes, if a flight is
230 -
102 Ih %
only a few hundred miies long, a straight
line may be considered a segment of a
I great circle.
A
e. Rhumb line on a Lambert chart.
i rhumb line on a Lambert chart is a
curved line that cuts all meridians at the
.

Figure 7-5. Variation of scale on typical Lambert projection

same angle. The closer its direction is to
east-west, the more a rhumb line departs
from a straight line. Between distances
of 1 00 to 200 miles in the latitude of the
United States, a rhumb line departs little
I from a straight line. B.ut over long
,

I distances, the difference becomes large.

. Between San Francisco and New York
I City, the length of a rhumb line differs
from a straight line by about 170 miles.
An accurate rhumb line cannot be drawn
on a Lambert chart, but it can be
: approximated by a series of short
I
straight lines.
f. Use. The constant scale and
conformity of Lambert charts place them Figure 7-6. Areas and angles (Lambert)
among the best charts for air navigation.
They are suitable for navigation, using
long-distance radio bearings, and they
are superior to Mercator charts (para
7-6) for problems involving long.
distances and true dire'ctions. However,
I for plotting positions and measuring
: rhumb line directions, the are inferior to
Mercator charts.

. 7-8. Mercator projection

, The Mercator chart is a cylindrical..
projection with meridians appearing as
equidistant and parallel straight lines.
Parallels of iatitude are parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the meridians.
a. Measurement. The distance
between parallels increases with an
increase in latitude. Since the meridians
are parallel to each other, the east-west
scale is increased with an increase in
Figure 7-7. Great circle vs. straight line on a Lambert chart
latitude. Consequently, parallels must be

72 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

placed in such a manner that the
north-
south scale increases proportionately. As
a result, the scale at any point is
constant in all directions. Since
meridians and parallels intersect at right
angles as on the earth, all angles are
correctly shown. Every rhumb line
appears as a straight line and every
straight iine is constant in direction. The
equator and the meridians are the only
great circles which appear as straight
lines; all other great cincles appear as
curved lines (fig 7-a).
b. Use. The Mercator chart is used In
air navigation only for long-range
overwater flying. Its greatest advantage
is that a rhumb line on the chart is a
straight line. Plotting is easier because of
the rectangular graticule. On the other
hand, long-range radio bearings cannot
be plotted without special corrections.
Because of the expanding scale of this
chart, distances are difficuit to measure.

20

15

10

Figure 7-8. Mercator chart showing rhumb line vs great circle

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240 73


7-9. Polar stereographic projection
The polar stereographic projection (fig
7-9) is based on a plane, tangent at the
pole, with the point of projection at the
opposite pole. Meridians are straight
lines converging at the pole. Parallels are
concentric circles with the pole as their
common center. For the world
aeronautical chart series, the polar
stereographic chart is modified by using
a secant piane. A secant plane is a line
intersecting a curve at two or more
points (fig 7-10). This modification
makes the polar stereographic and
Lambert charts the same scale at 80-
degrees latitude. The poiar stereographic
chart becomes true scale at 80"14' since
the secant plane intersects the earth's
Figure 7-9. The polar stereographic projection
-figure 7-10. Modified polar ster-eographic projection
74
surface at that latitude. The scale
decreases as the pole is approached.
The polar stereographic chart is the best
chart for navigation in polar regions.
A polar
a. Area of coverage.
stereographic chart may include a whole
hemisphere. However, a chart used for
air navigation will not extend more than
20 degrees or 30 degrees from the pole.
b. Scale. Since the interval between
parallels increases with distance from
the pole, the north-south scale also
increases away from the pole. The east-
west scale increases in the same
proportion, so that at any point the scale
is constant in all directions. For all
practical purposes, the scale is constant
within the limits of a navigational chart.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE -FM 1-240
c. Angles. All angles are correctly
shown since meridians appear as radii of
circles representing parallels. Meridians
and parallels intersect at 90.degree
angles on the chart.
d. Straight lines vs. rhumb lines vs.
great circles. Meridians, which are great
circles, appear as straight lines; hence,
any great circle passing through the
center of the chart appears as a straight
line. Other great circles appear as
slightly curved; however, the closer they
are to center, the straighter they appear.
Within the limits of a navigational chart, a
great circle is shown as a straight line
and rhumb lines appear as curved lines.
Section II
Aeronautical Charts
7-10. Sectional aeronautical charts
Radio navigation data is shown on many
types of aeronautical charts, including
the sectional and world aeronautical
charts. Sectional aeronautical charts are
Lambert conformal charts published by
the Nationai Ocean Survey, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
United States Department of Commerce.
The scale is 1 :500,000 (1 inch equals
approximately 6.9 nautical miles or about
8 statute miles). These charts are
intended primarily for flights of short
duration using pilotage (visual flight), but
are suitabie for other forms of navigation.
the
a. Data. The large scale of
sectional chart permits information to be
included in great detail. A iisting of
aeronautical symbols and other useful
information is printed on the inside and
outside borders of the chart. Both the
chart's effective and obsolete dates are
printed on the front title page.
b. Terrain. The portrayal of terrain on
the charts emphasizes land forms by
reiief shading and also includes
contours, elevation tints, and a generous
depiction of spot elevations. The
maximum eievation figures (MEFs)
shown in each 30-minute quadrangle
represents hundreds and thousands of
feet above mean sea level. MEFs are
the highest known terrain features within
the quadrangle. The MEF is based on
available Information concerning terrain
and obstructions such as trees, towers,
or antennas. ..
c. Culture. Cultural features, such as
railroads and major roads, or sparsely
settled areas, such as dirt roads and
paths may be shown. Cities and towns,
mines, lookout towers, and many other
useful landmarks are indicated by
symbols.
d. Aeronaufics. There are aeronautical
features such as airports, airways, and
navigation radio facilities. Printed near
each airport is information concerning
that airport.
printed
e. Charts. There are 37 charts,
 back to back, covering the United States.
Each is designated by name and series,
New Orleans-Sectional Aeronautical
Chart, for example. Each chart covers an
area containing approximately 4 degrees
of latitude and from 6 degrees to 8
degrees of longitude. Overlapping
coverage on adjoining charts will be
provided on the north and east sides to
ease transition between charts. Charts
are printed to the edge of the sheet,
eliminating need for cutting and folding
of border areas when matching data on
adjacent charts is required.
f. Fold. Each chart will be folded to
convenient dimensions of 5 x 10-5/16
inches for easy handling and stowage.
The unique fold is designed to provide
rapid switchover from front to back,
ensuring availability of navigation
ìnformation for continuous and
uninterrupted flight.
7-11. World aeronautical charts
World aeronautical charts (scale
1:1,000,000) are published by the
National Ocean Survey, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
There is no Department of Defense
(000) requirement for civil editions of
domestic world aeronautical charts. 000
requirements are being met by
operational navigation charts.
Chapter 8
Plotting and Measuring
8-1. General
Plotting is establishing points and lines
on a chart with reference to meridians
and parallels. As used here, measuring
refers to distance and direction on a
chart. The chart serves as a record of
the flight and provides necessary
information for a successful flight. Chart
work is a fundamental navigational skill
and must be accurate.
8-2. Pencils and erasers
A soft lead pencil and
soft eraser is
used. The pencil makes a tine black line
which is easy to see and makes chart
work more precise. The eraser wiil not
damage the chart.
8-3. Dividers
Dividers are used to step off distances
on a chart. The dividers should have
their pOints separated to the desired
distance as determined from the proper
chart scale (latitude or graphic) or plotter
scale (fig B-1). The distance scale is
thereby transferred to the working area
of the chart and lines of desired length
can be properly marked off. By reversing
the process, unknown distances on the
chart can be spanned with the dividers
and compared with the chart scale.
While measurements are being made,
the charts must be flat and smooth
between the dividers. A wrinkle may
cause an error of several miles.
6-4. Plotters
A plotter is an instrument designed
primarily to aid in drawing lines and
measuring distances on an aeronautical
chart. The plotter, air navigation, type
PLU-2/C (fig B-2), is currently used by
the Army. It is made of transparent
plastic and has lines and scales printed
in black.
The rectangular part of the
plotter has a straight edge for drawing
lines and scales for measuring distances.
The semicircular part of the plotter has
three circular scales for measuring
direction.
a. Rectangular part. All scales on the
rectangular part are for measuring
distances in nautical miles. The two
upper scales read outward from the
center in both directions. The three lower
scales read from left to right. Scales of

7-12. Photomaps
These maps are prepared by the Army
Map Service, Corps of Engineers, and
are used for air navigation over small
areas. These maps may be constructed
by using a single photograph or a mosaic
of several Qhotomaps. They can also be
printed on the reverse side of tactical ...
maps. The scales are 1 :25,000, 1 :50,000,
and 1:100,000. Meridians and parallels '^"".
,

are indicated on the margin. Positions

..,. .

"'-"."""'"'\';"-"-":'""".,".DOI "''''::::'~~:~~'''~:.'

are located by reference to a system of :::..'

horizontal and vertical grid lines.

7-13. Tactical pilotage charts

These charts are produced to satisfy Figure 8-1. Plotter, air navigation, type PLU-2/C
most 000 requirements for 1 :500,000-
scale charts of the United States. They
are used for detailed preflight planning,
mission analysis, low-ta-medium altitude
navigation, and low level, high speed
navigation. Sectional charts of
comparable coverage are produced by
the National Ocean Survey (para 7-12)
to satisfy civil needs. There is a US Army
requirement to use the civil edition in low
level visual pilotage.

7-14. Operational navigational charts

These charts use the Lambert conformal
projection with a scale of 1: 1 ,000,000.
They are primarily designed for preflight
planning and medium altitude enroute .--c
nevigation by dead reckoning, visual
pilotage, and celestial, radar, and other
electronic techniques. These charts
replace world aeronautical charts in
duplicate coverage areas.
figure "8-2. "Measuring course In the first and second quadrants
.
.
.

1.5 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

75
1:500,000 (Sectional Aeronautical
Charts), 1:1,000,000 (Operationai
Navigation Charts and World
Aeronautical Charts), and 1 :2,000,000 ';;):;~ -::~:""':'~'\'
(charts such as Jet Navigation Charts)
are provided.
,
~
,\J.ð~"::
---
b. Circular scales. The circular scales -'f'
~fl~
are calibrated in degrees. The outer
\
......-Ø'
~.~.,
scale, reading from 0 degrees to 180 I \ ~ -
-"
degrees (right to left), is for direction in :\ '
. -
..-
the first and second chart quadrants
'.
.
.

~\"
(north through east to south, fig 8-2).
Since these directions are to the right on
the chart, the outer scale has an arrow

~'-
pointing to the right. The inner scale,
reading from 180 degrees to 360
degrees (right to left), is for directions in
the third and fourth quadrants (fig 8-3). Figure 8-3. Measuring course In the third and fourth quadrants
The center of curvature of both scales is
marked by a small hole.
c. The 60-degree center scale.
This ~
scale is an aid when measuring courses r",s OF
eo.~-
that are nearly north or south. The outer SC4iE~
scale reads from 150 degrees to 2f 0 ì;
degrees and the inner scale reads from
30 degrees to 330 degrees.
CE"'r
d. Measuremen Is. To measure OVEI>~kc~
a

(fig the center hoie is 1>'01<.,

course 8-4),
placed on a meridian approximately
midway along the plotted course line and
,
the straight edge is parallei with the , .

course line. If the chart meridians do not o.

" I

',J'''''''''"", 1\~6.r'
".". ,.,,~,,' '..1\''''('''''"\
intersect the course line, the line is '''''.-''
1100000 1
I'
1'__jfll~..._It.
extended and the straight edge of the
plotter Is moved parallel to the course
line. This is done untii the center hole
~I
'IDOOOO
,I. I. 'I
()
, 1
,I::JJ :lnlHll JJJdIJU'
) "'""HI IJlJ~UI

iies over a meridian (fig 8-5). Figure 8-4

-

":~IG"r DIRECTION Of +
COURSE lirE
shows the method of reading direction. lift ~DGf
The small arrows on the circular scale / '1>t c
oUl/BE
determine correct direction. The scale on
which the small black arrow points in the Figure 8-4. Measuring course
direction of the course shouid be noted.
The scale should be read "up" from the
smaller values toward the larger values. ",~\l\O\,.,14

10101 .. "~;..'~";'".!'.... "

...., .
... ,.,," ."'\ \
.'....to. ''''''''''
..

Figure 8-5. Moving plotter to a meridian

76 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 e. Course lines. To draw a given
course line from a known point, the
point-end of a pencil is placed at the
, .

known point. While the plotter is being ,.

pushed and pivoted against the pencil,
the straight edge will remain on the
known point while the center hole and
scale reading are being aligned with a
meridian. The pencil will be in place for
drawing the course line when the plotter " ,.1 I'~ ~-1",''''1 .::., 1""['''
has been properiy aligned with a ',11
... ", '"
.
~ .
-" ,,\.. ", '''' , ,
,,' "-,,,
"
\. ~;:~
. .':: .'" .' .

meridian (fig 8-6). In drawing a course .

line that is nearly north or south, 0 to

180 degrees, the center scale may be
used (fig 8-7).

Chapter 9
Instruments Used for Dead
Reckoning Navigation Figure 8-6. Drawing a course line from a known point
9-1. General
Dead reckoning is the method for 0
determining position with a heading 0

indicator and calculations based on

speed, elapsed time, wind effect, and z; ,

directional flow from a known position. ,-

The instruments used for dead reckoning i1
,
navigation include the outside air 0 .

I
temperature gage, airspeed indicator, l'
altimeter, clock, and the magnetic
compass system or slaved gyro system.
These instruments provide information
\
,\; ,

concerning direction, airspeed, altitude, -

.
and time and must be correctly
interpreted for successful navigation. .
(General information is provided , 1j
here,
but for complete description, theory, and ! ...J

operation of these instruments, see

chapter 2 nf the appropriate aircraft
operator's manuals.) no
~ U
~
.

9-2. Magnetic compass ;a

Certain magnetic compass errors must
be corrected when the compass is used
'- -

for navigation.
a. Applying compass corrections. The
.-
..
compass heading required to fly a given
cour'~ is derived by correcting true .

heading for variation, drift, and deviation.

When drift correction is applied to a true
course (TC :!: DC =
TH), it becomes a
true heading. A good method for
recording application of variation and
deviation is as follows:
(1) Write the equations shown below.
TH is true heading; V, variation; MH,
magnetic heading; D, deviation; and CH,
0
compass heading.
TH :!: V = MH
MH :!: D CH
=

(2) Place known information under FROM A TO B, REAO INNERSPECIAL S(ALE (100)
1.
FROMB TOA, READOUTER SPECIAL
2.
each factor as shown below.
NOTE: REVERSING
SUlf (1900)
TH :!: V = MH PLOTTER POSITION FROM 0 IGHT EFT
188'12" E SIDEOFTHE(OU SE LINE DOESN T A F CT REA
MH:!:D=CH
5'W Figure 8-7. Courses near 0 degrees or 180 degrees measured with a circular scale

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 77

 (3) Remember when making
calculations from a true heading to a
compass heading, easterly error is
subtracted; westerly error is added.
Completing the problem, subtraction of
the 12 degrees E (variation) from the TH
(168 degrees) gives a MH of 158
degrees. This figure is placed under both
of the MHs. Adding the 5 degrees W
(deviation) to the MH (158 degrees)
gives a CH of 161 degrees. The
compass heading is placed under CH.
find the
b. Reversing the equation. To
heading the heading
true when compass
is known, the same equation is written as
in (2) above. Placing the known
information in the proper places, it would
appear as shown below.
TH + V ~MH
12'E
MH + D = CH
5'W161'
(1) When changing from a compass
heading to a true heading, easterly error
is added; westerly error is subtracted.
This is the reverse of changing from TH
to CH.
(2) The 5 degrees W is subtracted
from the CH (161 degrees) and then this
figure (156 degrees) is placed below the
MHs.
(3) The 12 degrees E is added to the
MH (156 degrees) to obtain the TH (168
degrees) and this figure is then placed
below the TH.
9-3. Gyro heading indicator
The gyro heading indicator is used for
making turns to headings and for flying
headings in order to maintain a course. It
is not a dir8ction-seeking instrument and
must be used in conjunction with the
magnetic compass. During flight, the
gyro heading indicator must be set to the
same heading as the magnetic compass.
i
9-4. Slaved gyro system
The slaved gyro system is a direction.
seeking system and its heading indicator
is used for. making turns to headings and
for flying headings in order to maintain a
course.
9-5. Airspeed indicator
For dead reckoning navigation, the true
airspeed must be computed. To find the
true airspeed, corrections must be made
to the indicated airspeed or calibrated
airspeed, if applicable, for temperature
and pressure altitude. If no other method
is available, the following rule of thumb
may be used. Two percent of the
Indicated airspeed is added for each
1,000 feet of altitude to the indicated
airspeed to arrive at an approximate true
airspeed. (True airspeed computation is
discussed in chap 11.)
9-6. Free air temperature gage
During flight, the aviator will use the
temperature reading from the free air
temperature (FAT) gage for computing
78
true airspeed. (Refer to chap 11 for this
computation.)
9-7. Altimeter
The altimeter is used to determine the
pressure altitude during flight. Pressure
altitude is determined by setting 29.92 in
the Kollsman window of the altimeter.
Pressure altitude is then used in
computing true airspeed. (Refer to chap
11 for this computation.)
9-8. Clock
The clock is used in flight to determine
the time required to fly a measured
distance on the navigation chart. The
distance is then divided by the time to
determine the ground speed of the
aircraft.
Chapter 10
Wind and Its Effects
10-1. General
Wind direction is the direction from which
the wind blows, such as wind from the
northwest is a northwest wind. Wind
speed is the rate of wind motion without
regard to direction. In the United States,
wind speed is usually expressed in knots.
Wind velocity includes both direction and
speed of the wind. For example, a west
wind of 25 knots is recorded as wind
veiocity 270 degrees/25 knots.
Downwind is movement with the wind;
upwind is movement against the wind.
10-2. Wind
Moving air exerts a
a. Wind effect.
force in the direction of its motion on any
object within it. Objects that are free to
move in air will move in a downwind
direction at the speed of the wind. An
aircraft will move with the wind as does
the balloon shown in figure 10-1. In
addition to its forward movement through
the air, if an aircraft is flying in a 20-knot
wind, it will move 20 nautical miles
downwind in 1 hour. The path of an
aircraft over the earth is determined by
the motion of the aircraft through the air
and the motion of the air over the earth's
surface. Direction and movement of an
aircraft through the air is governed by
the direction where the nose is pointed
and by aircraft speed (fig 10-2).
-
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 WIND

tt
20 MPH

L
I. 20 MILES
MOVEMENT OF BALLOON
20 MILES
MOVEMENT OF AIR MASS

Figure 10-1. Wind effect on a free balloon in 1 hour

Figure 10-2. Wind effect on an aircraft

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 79

 The sideward wind of 270 degrees/20 knots affects
b, Wind drift,
displacement of the aircraft caused by the ground speed and track of an aircraft
flying on headings of 360, 090, 180, and
the wind is cailed drift (fig 10-3), Drift is
270 de9rees, On each different heading,
measured by the angle between the
the aircraft flies from point X tor 1 hour
heading (direction in which the nose is
at a constant true airspeed (TAS), The
pointed) and the track (actual path of the
length of each dash line represents the
aircraft over the earth),
distance the aircraft travels through the
body of air. This is the same distance it
10-5. Problems
a. Problem 1,
(1) Problem, Heading 160 degrees,
track 170 degrees, Is drift right or left? Is
drift correction to be made to right or
left?
(2) Solution, Since heading is less
than track, drift is right; drift correction is
left.

:J6üO would have traveled over the ground in 1 b, Problem 2,

hour had there been no wind, Each solid (1) Problem. Heading 350 degrees,
M
line represents the track of the aircraft. drift 4 degrees left, What is the track?
The length of each solid line represents What is the drift correction?
___!'~~E~D~''.':__@) ground speed, Differences between the
(2) Solution. Since drift is left, heading
must be greater than track, Track equals
length and direction of the solid and
dash lines represent the wind effect on 346 degrees (350 degrees minus 4
I
track and ground speed, degrees), Drift correction will be 4
j degrees right.
(4) Head wind, tail wind, and
j
WIND. crosswind, As shown in figure 10-4, the c, Problem 3,
2700 DRIFT
jð
/I-..Q::'" wind of 270 degrees/20 knots causes (1) Problem. Track 005 degrees, drift
20 r<T 4
IvGI.( right drift on a heading of 360 degrees; 10 degrees right. What is the heading?
/
on a heading of 180 degrees, it causes What is the drift correction?
'" (2) Solution. Since drift is right,
left drift, On the heading of 90 degrees,
2
Õ I
~ the aircraft, aided by a tail wind, travels heading is less than track, Heading
"

cD farther in 1 hour than it would with no

wind; thus, its ground speed is increased
by the wind, On the heading of 270
equals 355 degrees (005 degrees minus
10 degrees or 365 degrees minus 10
degrees), Drift correction wiil be 10
degrees, the head wind reduces the degrees left.
j
ground speed, On a heading of 360
I
I degrees and 180 degrees, the ground 10-6. Ground speed
I speed effect is usually complicated by Ground speed (GS) is the result of wind
the drift correction applied, velocity and the forward motion of the

CD 10-3, Correction
aircraft through the air. In calm air, the
speed of the aircraft over the ground is
equal to its TAS, If the aircraft is moving
Drift correction must be applied to a
x course to determine the heading, The against the wind (head wind), the ground
amount of drift correction must be just speed is equal to the difference between
enough to compensate for the amount of the TAS and the wind speed, If the
Figure 10-3, Drift
drift on a given heading, The drift aircraft is moving with the wind (tail
correction angle (DCA), sometimes wind), the ground speed is equal to the
NOTE: Track must not be confused with
called crab angle, is equal to, but in the sum of the TAS and the wind speed, if
course, wr;ch is the plotted course or If the aircraft is moving at an angle to the
opposite direction from, the drift angle,
intended track,
an aviator attempts to fly to a destination wind, the ground speed may be any
(1) Example of drift, As shown in
due north of a point of departure on a speed between the extremes of the
figure 10-3, an aircraft departs point X
heading of 360 degrees and a west wind ground speeds determined by head
on a heading of 360 degrees and flies winds and tail winds, Those ground
is blowing, the arrival is somewhere east
for 1 hour in a wind of 270 degrees/20 right drift speeds that are less than the TAS are
of the destination because of
knots, The aircraft is headed toward the result of hindering winds; those
point M directly north of X, Its heading is
(fig 10-5, A), To correct for right drift so
that the aircraft will remain on course greater than the TAS are the result of
represented by line XM, Under no-wind helping winds, Wind directions that are'
and arrive at the desired destination, the
conditions, the aircraft would be.at point of approximately 90 degrees to the
nose will have to be pointed to the left
M at the end of 1 hour, However, in this
the course, or upwind (fig 10-5, B), longitudinal axis of the aircraft (abeam
example there is a wind of 20 knots and winds) have a minimum effect on ground
the aircraft moves with it. At the end of 1
10-4. Points to remember speed, Winds may be classified as head
hour, the aircraft is at point N, 20 wind its winds (hindering winds), tail winds
When dealing with the and
nautical miles downwind from M, The line (helping winds), and crosswinds
XM is the intended path of the aircraft effects, remember the following points:
Wind from the right causes drift to (quartering head winds or quartering tail
through the air, the line MN shows the a,
the left. winds), Average ground speed is
motion of the body of air, and the line by dividing the total distance
b, Wind from the left causes drift to calculated
XN is the actual path of the aircraft over
the right. flown by the total time (in hours) required
the earth,
If heading is greater than track or for the flight. Airspeed factors to be
(2) Drift and ground speed change c,
course, drift is to the left. considered in computing average ground
with heading change, A given wind
d, If heading is less than track or speed include-
causes a different drift on each aircraft drift
.

right. Climbing airspeed is usuaily less

course, is to the a,
heading and affects the distance
If drift is to the right, drift correction than cruising airspeed,
traveled over the ground in a given time, e,
is to the left. b, Flying a constant true airspeed on
With a given wind, the ground speed
t, If drift is to the left, drift correction is the same outbound and return course
varies with each different aircraft with a constant wind velocity does not
to the right.
heading, is produce an average ground speed equal
(3) Effects of a given wind on track g, Drift always downwind,
h, Drift correction is always upwind,
and ground speed with different aircraft
heading, Figure 10-4 iilustrates how a

80 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 CD
360'
:RIGHT
I DRIFT
I
I
I
HEADWIND I TAILWIND

8 2700
NO DRIFT ~
I
NO DRIFT
(~/
------- 9{)'-----
- - - - -

I
I
I

. WIND I
I
I
I
I
I
J
1800
G)
-------- DISTANCE TRAVELED
-

TRAe K

Figure Effects of
1~. a given wind on track and ground speed with aircraft flying on different headings

DESIRED DESTINATION ACTUAL ARRIVAL

POINT ACTUAL ARRIVAL POINT
<( . AT DESIRED DESTINATION
, '''''''''
, "'I
,!:,
, <
,
,
, ~~ <""''''~~
,
w, /-..yð;;
.
. & r. .
, "~G'
,
,
,
,
~~
,
, "':
,
,
,
z'
~~ " "
,
,
w, "

. ~ & r,,
,
((f',j'1-(<::
w
,
,

"',
,
,
. U';.,"Vo
WINO
U)
<r
:0
Z'
õ~
'1-""G'
"1-
w
U)
WIND ~ <r ,

. 0
U
.
,
<M
w,
r,,
. "
,
,
,
5
u
Ii!

~
,
, ,
. ,
,
,
,
,
"<
: <"",'I-",
,
.
\S'~""1<>
,
, '1-""G'
"1-
i ~
: I
,
,

,
,
,

$-~_ß
0
CORRECTED DRIFT

0
Figure 10-5. Drift and drift correction

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

81
 Figure
to the average TAS. For example,
10-6 illustrates an aircraft flying a
constant TAS (100 knots) for 1 hour
against a 30-knot head wind and
returning to the starting point.
(1) The aircraft will cover 70 nautical
miles in 1 hour on the outbound course
(fig 10-6, A); ground speed is 70 knots
(100 knots TAS-30 knot wind velocity).
(2) On the return course (fig 10-6, B).
the aircraft will have a ground speed of
130 knots (100 TAS + 30 wind velocity)
and will cover the 70-nautical-mile
distance in 32 minutes (0.63 hour).
(3) The total distance (140 nautical
miles) divided by the total flying time
(1.53 hours) equals an average ground
speed of 91 knots.
Chapter 11
Slide Rule Face
The Dead Reckoning Computer
11-1. General
A dead reckoning (DR) computer is a
combination of two devices. One is a
specially designed instrument for solving
wind triangles and the other is a circular
slide rule for solving mathematical
problems. Many different types of DR
navigational computers exist, but
construction and design features of
major types are very similar. To illustrate,
the standard US Army DR computer,
this
type CPU-26A/P, is used throughout
chapter.
Section I
11-2. Slide rule
The slide rule side of the CPU-26A1P
computer consists of two circular scales.
The outer scale is stationary and is
called the miles scale. The inner scale
rotates and is called the minutes scale.
a. Values. The numbers on
the
computer scale represent multiples of 10
of the values shown. For example, the
number 24 on either scale (outer or

TAS 100KT ) ~ 30 KT

j 4
X ~ 70N M ) y

OUTBOUND COURSE

0 TIME ~ 1 HR; THEREFORE. GS " 70 KT

.".,
TAS 100KT
oil(
~30KT

j r
X 10NM ) y
(,
INBOUND COURSE

@ GS =
130 KT; THEREFORE. TIME = 32 MIN

Figure 10-6. Average ground speed

82 16 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 inner) may represent 0.24, 2.4, 24,
240,
or 2,400. On the inner scale, minutes
may be converted to hours by reference
to the adjacent hour scale. For example,
4 hours is found in figure
11-1 adjacent
to 24 meaning 240 minutes. Relative
values should be kepI in mind when
reading the computer. For example, the
numbers 21 and 22 on either scale are
separated by five spaces, each space
representing two units. The second
.
division past 21 will be read as 21.4
or
2,140. Spacing of these divisions should
be studied because the breakdown of
dividing lines may be into units of
1, 2, 5,
or 10.
b. Indexes. Three of the indexes on
the outer stationary scale are used for
converting statute miles (SM), nautical
miles (NM), and kilometers (KM). These
indexes are appropriately labeled
"NAUT" at 66, "STAT" at 76, and "KM"
at 122. On the inner rotating scale are
two rate indexes. The large black arrow
at 60 (speed index or 60 index) is the
hour index. The small arrow at 36 is the
second (SEC) index (3,600 seconds
equal 1 hour). The STAT index on the
inner scale is used in mileage
STATUTE
INDEX
NAUTICAL
INDEX
SPEED
INDEX
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
conversion. Each scale has a 10 index
used as a reference mark for
multiplication and division. The
application of these scales in solving
computer problems is illustrated in the
specific problems in paragraph 11-3.
11-3. Distance conversion
a. Problems and solutions.
(1) Problem. How many statute miles
equal 90 nautical miles? How many
1:-:-
kilometers equal 90 nautical miles?
í:-: "-
(2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-2 and !"'" .
(~:-
solve as follows:
-~:
(a) Sel 90 (inner scale) under NAUT
index (outer scale).
(b) Read 104 SM (inner scale) under .
STAT index (outer scale).
(c) Read 166 under KM index (166
kilometers).
Figure 11-2. Distance conversion
b. Addibonal guidance. When several
distance conversion problems are to be
solved between statute and nautical
miles, set the STAT index on the inner
scale under the NAUT index of the outer
scale. Then read any ratio around the
entire slide rule. For example, 13 statute
miles is 11.3 nautical miles, 13 nautical
miles is 15 statute miles (fig 11~3).
10 INDEXES
(REFERENCE MARKS)
KILOMETER
INDEX
MINUTES
SCALE
Figure 11-1. Slide rule face
83
 minutes are required to travel 66 nautical
(1) Set 60 index under 174 (outer
miles at the same rate? scale).
b. Solution. Refer to
figure 11-5 and (2) Under 333 (outer scale) read 115
solve as follows: minutes (inner scale) or 1 + 55 (hours
(1) Set 50 (inner scale) under 120 scale).
(outer scale).
(2) Under B6 (outer scale), read 36
minutes required (inner scale).

.
.

\ I,','" ~
\.i,:,).'\~'
; :
,~
".
Figure 11-3. Converting several distances
.
simultaneously

11-4. Simple proportion

The slide rule face of the computer
constructe.d that any relationship
is so
" Figure 11-7. Determining time

between two numbers will hold true for

all other numbers on the two scales. Figure 11-5. Time and distance 11-8. Distance determination
Numbers are on both the stationary and Distance equals ground speed multiplied
movable scales. For example, if the two by time.
11-6. Ground speed aircraft
10 indexes are placed opposite each a. Problem. How far does an
other (fig 11-4), all other numbers Ground speed equals distance divided by travel in 2 hours and 15 minutes at a
around the entire circle will be Identical. time. ground speed of 13B knots?
is the ground speed
If 20 on the inner scale is placed s. Problem. What b. Solution. Refer to figure 11-8 and
opposite the 10 index on the outer scale, if it takes 35 minu1es to fly 80 nautical solve as follows:
all numbers on the inner scale will be miles? (1) Set 60 index under 138 (outer
double those on the outer scale. If 12 on b. Solution. Refer to figure 11-6 and
. scale).
the outer scale is placed opposite 16 on solve as follows: (2) Over 135 (inner scale) or 2 + 15
the inner scale. all numbers will be in a 3 (1) Set 35 (inner scale) under 80 (hours scale), read 310 NM (outer scale).
to 4 (3/4) relationship. This scale design (outer scale).
enables the aviator to find the fourth (2) Over 60 index read 137 knots
term of any mathematical proportion (outer scale).
when three of the values are known.

Figure 11-8. Determining distance

Figure 11-6. Determining ground speed 11-9. Use of the 36 Index

The number 36 on the inner scale is
Figure 11-4. Numerical relationship used in solving rate-time-distance .

between the two scales problems in instrument flight. This is

11-7. Time required
Time equals distance divided by ground when time must be calculated in
speed. seconds and minutes instead of minutes
11-5. Time-distance
time is required and hours. For example, determine the
Time-distance problems are worked on s. Probiem. How much
the outer to fly 333 nautical miles at a ground time required to fly from the final
the inner minutes scale and
speed of 174 knots? approach fix (FAF) to the missed
miles scale.
b, Solution. Refer to figure 11-7 and approach point (MAP) on an instrument
s. Problem.
If 50 minutes are required

...
.a approach.
.

solve as íolíows: ..
- .

to travel 120 nautical miles, how many

64 15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 a. Formula. Problems where seconds
must be used as a unit ot time may be
solved by the following formula:
GS Distance
36 Seconds
NOTE: GS is the ground
speed, 36 is the
number of seconds in 1 hour (3,600),
distance is the number or decimal parts
of miles to be flown, and seconds is the
time required to fly that distance.
b. Problems involving less than 60
seconds.
(1) Problem. What is the time required
from the middle marker (MM) to the point
of touchdown (PT) if the ground speed is
100 knots and the distance between
these points is 0.5 of a nautical mile?
(2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-9 and
solve as follows:
(a) Set 36 (inner scale) under 100 (10
on the outer scale).
(b) Under 50 (0.5 NM) (outer scale),
read 18 seconds (inner scale).
.
Figure 11-9. Rate-Ume-dlstance problems
using minutes
c. Problems Involving More Than 60
Seconds.
(1) Problem. What is the time required
to fly from the outer marker (OM) to the
soive as follows:
middle marker If the ground speed is 95
knots and the distance between the two
points is 5 nautical miles?
(2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-1 0 and
solve as follows:
(a) Set 36 (inner scale) under 95
(outer scale).
(b) Under 50 (5 NM) (outer
scale),
read 19 (190 seconds) or 3 minutes and
10 seconds (inner scale).
NOTE: When using the minutes scale
as
a seconds scale, the hours
scale
becomes a minutes scale.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM
Figure t 1-10. Rate-Ume-dlslance
problems
using seconds
11-10. Gallons and pounds
conversion
Set the 60 index under rate gallons
per
hour (GPH) and read gallons used over
the given time. To convert gallons to
pounds or pounds to gallons, the
following conversion factors
are used in
simple proportion (para 11-4):
Gasoline: 6.0:1.
JP-4 fuel: 6.5:1.
11-11. Rate of fuel consumption
a. Gallons. Rate of fuel consumption
equals gallons of fuel consumed divided
by time.
(1) Problem. What is the rate of fuel
consumption ij 30 gallons of fuel
are
consumed in 111 minutes (1 hour and 51
minutes)?
(2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-11 and
.
Figure 11-11. Determining rate of fuel
consumption
1-240
(a) Set 111 (inner scale) under 30
(outer scale). In this case, the outer
scale is used to represent gallons.
(b) Over 60 index, read 16.2 GPH
(outer scale).
(3) Problem. Fo~; C3110ns of fuel have
been consumed in 135 minutes (2 hours
and 15 minutes) flying time. How much
longer can the aircrafl continue flying if
25 gallons of available fuel (usable fuel
not including reserve) remain and the
rate of consumption remains unchanged?
(4) Solution. Refer to figure 11-12 and
solve as follows:
(a) Set 135 (inner scale) under 40
(outer scale).
(b) Under 25 (outer scale), read
84.5
minutes fuel remaining (inner scale).
b. Pounds. Rate of fuel consumption
equals pounds of fuel consumed divided
by time.
(1) Problem. What is the rate of fuel
consumption if 300 pounds of fuel are
consumed in 111 minutes (1 hour and 51
minutes)?
(2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-11 and
solve as follows:
(a) Set 111 (inner scale) under 300
(outer scale). In this
case, the outer
scale is used to represent pounds.
(b) Over 60 index, read 162 pounds
(outer scale).
.
Figure 11-12. Fuel consumption
11-12. Maximum range
Aircraft perlormance data charts used in
determining maximum flying range
sometimes base fuel consumption rates
on nautical miles' flown per pound or
gallon of fuel consumed. This conversion
is accomplished as follows:
a. Formula. The relationship between
nautical miles per pound and pounds
per
hour is expressed as shown below.
Nautical miles per pound (or gallon)
TAS (miles flown per hour)
, pound (or gallon)
Pounds (or gallons) per hour
b. Problem. The maximum flying range
based on fuel consumption is indicated
on the aircraft perlormance chart as
0.231 nauticai miie per pound. At TAS of
85
196 knots, what is the aircraft fuel
consumption rate in pounds per hour?
to figure 11-13 and
c. Solution. Refer
solve as foilows:
(1) Set 10 inde. (1 pound inner scale)
under 0.231 (outer scale).
(2) Under TAS (196 knots) (outer
scale), read 850 pounds per hour (inner
scale).
Figure 11-13. Converting nautical miles
per pound 10 pounds per hour
11-13. Airspeed computations
The window marked "FOR AIRSPEED
AND DENSITY ALTITUDE
COMPUTATIONS" provides a means for
computing TAS when CAS, temperature,
and altitude are known or vice versa. To
change from one to the other, it is
necessary to correct for altitude and
temperature differences existing from
FAT
those that "e standard at sea level.
is read from free air thermometer and
a
the pressure altitude is found by setting
the altimeter at 29.92 inches of mercury
and reading the altimeter directly.
calibrated airspeed is
a. Problem. The
125 knots, FAT is -15 degrees Celsius,
and the pressure altitude is 8,000 feet.
What is the TAS?
b. Solution. Refer to
figure 11-14 and
solve as follows:
(1) Set 8,000 under -15 degrees
Celsius in the airspeed computation
window.
(2) Over 125 (Inner scale), read TAS
137 knots (outer scale).
NOTE: To solve CAS when TAS is
known. locate TAS on outer scale and
read answer (CAS) in inner scale.
86
Figure 11-14. Airspeed computation
11-14. Density altitude
Density altitude is that altitude in the
standard atmosphere at which a given
air
density exists. Because of variations of
temperature and pressure, the density of
the air on a given day at any given
density
pressure altitude may be that
found several thousand feet higher or
lower in the standard atmosphere. Such
conditions can be critical in aircraft
operations, especially in the operation of
helicopters. To compute density altitude,
movable scales are rotated on the
computer so that the FAT is set above
the pressure altitude in the window
labeled "FOR AIRSPEED AND DENSITY
ALTITUDE COMPUTATIONS." When set
in this manner, the density altitude is
read above the pointer in the window
labeled "DENSITY ALTITUDE." Using
the same flight condition as in paragraph
11-13, density altitude is read as 6,200
feet (fig 11-14). Accurate results can
only be obtained by using pressure
altitude. Pressure altitude can be read
directly from the altimeter when the
altimeter setting is 29.92.
11-15. Altitude computations
The window marked "FOR ALTITUDE
COMPUTATIONS" provides a means for
computing corrected altitude by applying
temperature
any variations from standard
to indicated or calibrated altitude.
altitude is
a. Problem. The pressure
9,000 feet, indicated altitude is 9,100
feet, and the FAT is -15 degrees Celsius.
What is the corrected altitude?
b. Solution. Refer to
figure 11-15 and
solve as follows:
(1) Set 9,000 under -15 degrees
Celsius in the altitude computation
window.
(2) Above 9,100 feet indicated altitude
(inner scale), read 6,700 feet corrected
altitude (outer scale).
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
Figure 11-15. Altitude computation
11-16. Off-course correction (rule of
60)
An aircraft headed 1 degree off course
will be approximately 1 mile off course
for each 60 miles flown. This is the rule
of 60. Inversely, for each mile an aircraft
is off course after each 60 miles of flight,
1 degree of correction will be required to
parallel the intended course. Applied to
other distances (multiples of 60), such as
1.5 miles off course in 90 miles,
2 miles
off course in 120 miles, or 2.5 miles off
course in 150 miles, a correction of
1
degree will be required to parallel the
intended course. To converge at
destination, an extra correction must be
made based on the same rule of 60.
correction
a. Formulas. The degrees
required to converge at destination is
determined by adding the results of the
following formulas on the computer.
(1) Correction to parallel course.
MILES OFF COURSE DEGREES CORRECTION
MILES FLOWN 60
(2) Additional correction to converge.
MILES OFF COURSE DEGREES CORRECTION
MILES TO FLY 60
b. Problem. An aircraft is
10 nautical
miles to the left of course when 150
nautical miles from departure point A.
How many degrees correction are
required to parallel course? If 80 nautical
miles remain to destination S, how many
additional degrees are required to
converge? In what direction is the
correction applied?
figures 11-16 and
c. Solution. Refer to
11-17 and solve as follows:
(1) Set 150 (inner scale) under 10
(outer scale) (fig 11-16).

. will be
Figure 11-16. Off-course correction to
parallel
(2) Over 60 index, read 4 degrees
(correction required to parallel).
(3) Set 80 (inner scale) under 10
(outer scale) (fig 11-17).
(4) Over 60 index, read 7.5 degrees to
converge.
(5) 4 degrees + 7.5 degrees =
11.5
degrees, total correction to converge at
destination. Since the aircraft is off
course to the left, correction will be
made to the right or added to the original
heading. For example, if the original
heading were 090 degrees, the new
heading is 101.5 degrees
or 102 degrees
to the nearest degree.
Figure 11-17. Off--course correction to
converge
11-17. Drift correction
This scale in the drift correction window
of the computer is a refinement of the
rule of 60 (para 11-16). Actually an arc
of 1 mile subtends an angle of 1 degree
at a distance of 57.3 miles rather than 60
miles. The drift correction window scale
incorporates this relationship correctly.
a. Problem. After traveling 400 miles,
the aircraft is 30 miles off
course-
(1) What drift correction angle is
necessary to parallel the desired course?
(2) What drift correction angle is
necessary to intercept the desired
course in 150 additional miles?
b. Solution. Refer to figure 11-18 and
solve as follows:
(1) Set 30 (outer scale) over 400
(inner scale) and read 4.3 degrees
(correction angle to parallel the desired
course) in the drift correction window.
Figure 11-18. Drift correctIon
computation
to parallel
NOTE: The drift correction window,
together with the D
2 -D, data and the
latitude scale on the face of the
computer, is also used in pressure
pattern flying. (Since the Army does not
use this navigation technique, it is not
explained in this manuaL)
(2) To find the angle to intercept the
desired course, place 30 (outer scale)
over the course miles to the interception
point, 150 (inner scale), and read 11.3
degrees (the additional angie to intercept
in the drift correction window) (fig
11-19). Total correction angle to
intercept the desired course is 15.6
degrees (4.3 + 11.3).
'e
Figure 11-19. Drift correction computation
to converge
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
11-18. Radius of action (fixed base)
Radius of action to the same base refers
to the maximum distance an aircraft
can
be flown on a given course and still
be
able to return to the starting point within
a given time. The amount of
available
fuel (not including reserve fuel) is usually
the factor determining time.
a. Problem. The ground speed on the
outbound leg of the flight is 160 knots;
on the return leg, 130 knots. Available
fuel permits 4.5 hours (270 minutes) total
time for the flight. How many minutes will
be available for the outbound leg of the
flight? How many minutes
required for the return leg of the flight?
What is the radius of action?
b. Solution. Refer to figures 11-20 and
11-21 and solve as follows:
(1) The sum of the ground speed out
(GS 1 ) and the ground speed on the
return leg (GS 2) is to the total time in
minutes (T), as the ground speed on the
return leg (GS,) is to the time in minutes
on the outbound leg (t 1)' Minutes on the
outbound leg of the flight can be
calculated by the formula in (a) below.
The formula in (b) below is used for
calculating time required for the return
leg of the flight; in this formula,
time required for the return leg 0 the
tf
is the
flight. These formulas can be
calculated
as ratio and proportion problems and
appear on the computer as they appear
in mathematical form.
GS, + GS, GS,
(a) =
T
t,
GS, +
(b) GS, GS,
T
=
t,
(2) Find the sum of the ground
speeds
(160 + 130 =
290).
(3) Set total lime (T 4.5 hours or
=
270 minutes) under the sum of the
ground speeds (290) (fig 11-20).
(4) Under 130 (GS,), read the time on
the outbound leg, 2 hours plus 1 minute
or 121 minutes (fig 11-20).
(5) Without changing the setting of the
computer, under 160 (GS , ), read the
lime required for the return leg, 2 hours
plus 29 minutes or 149 minutes (fig
11-20).
(6) These two amounts of time should
be equivalent to the total flight lime.
(7) Set 60 index under 160 (GS,).
Over 121 minutes (lime on the outbound
leg), read the radius of aClion, 322 NM
(fig 11-21).
87
 concentric arcs are used for calculations
(usually
of speed and are spaced 2 units
",,,,,,,\(;,,,TIO,,, knots or miles per hour) apart. The
DI;~l)"

, direction of the centerline coincides with

..\1'
,,~'I-~ .t('-tO
.
,JoO? ..: -.. , ""',

.\""
'_"..",."./,
~..',"...,;:',...
"'Q
the index. The common center of the
(.0"" ",~".'j
concentric arcs and the point at which all
.).. .
.

,:';..'~ .,~
.:~;;~'\
J,;(..;>'~
converging lines meet is located at the
lower end of the slide. On one side of
the sliding grid, the speed arcs are

.~~
l. """ \ \Vý~
scaled from 0 to 270; on the reverse
side, from 70 to BOO, The low range
of
'..
~;- \"-! \".".,',:-. .'j"
-il
.

"
'1'"
speeds on the sliding grid is especially
.~ '..~
~;:" ,.
heipfui in solving navigational problems
\\:, ;;:,..:", ;:/.~l7 for aircraft having slow flight speed
characteristics.
/'~~~-,
~';'''4-

>~.:;!. ~,(~/.t:\ . There are F

.
.~' oX, c<:
a. Correction factors. the
correction factors on the front side of
1111.."'" ....."...",,\\;
, ~"'" ~,j'''~''r''''''''
sliding grid. These are used for
calcuiating TAS caused by
compressibility of air at high airspeeds
Figure 11-20. Radius of action time
computation and altitudes. Army aircraft do not
require the application of these
correction factors to their TAS (fig
11-22),

~...;. ~";"~'<;:::::';,"~',
'~.'''''.
"

FIgure 1 1-21. Radius of action distance

",.' -;;;:;-,~;..,..~-=-~~..,,<... r
-,,0;< . -. +:'-
.

0". "-- .. -
~..!:..

Section \I
computation
~~; ~!~j.j
l:i~o~o~t~;}L
Wind Problems 'COR~~ :~:':,'
11-19. Disk and correction scales
,i",.}.', ,;/i x

Wind problems are solved by the grid

side of the DR computer (fig 11-22), It
~."""'-" ',". ,; ,(M'"",;';
consists of a transparent, rotatable
plotting disk mounted in a frame on the
A
reverse side of the circular slide rule,
compass rose is located around the
plotting disk. The correction scale on the
top frame of the circular grid is
graduated in degrees right and left of the
true index (labeled TRUE INDEX). This
",.>--~=~--,,/)
..:~':"~t';.~'i;j~.
,

drift
scale Is used for calculating drift or
correction and is labeled DRIFT RIGHT
and DRIFT LEFT, A small reference
~ ~
the
circle, called a grommet, is located at
center of the plotting disk,
REVf RSI8ll
11-20. Reversible grid SLIDING
GRtD
A reversible sliding grid (fig 11-22) (fRONT SID!
inserted between the circular slide rule
and the plotting disk Is used for wind
computations. The slide has converging
lines spaced 2 degrees apart between
the concentric arcs marked 0 to 150 and
1 degree apart above the 150 arc. The
Figure 11-22. SIIdin9 grid side

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

66
 b. Rectangular grid. There is a
rectangular grid on the reverse side of
the sliding grid (fig 11-23). It is designed
so that the left half can be used for
calculations on the 70 to 800 side of the
sliding grid. The right half
can be used
with the 0 to 270 side of the sliding grid.
On the left half, each small division has
a value of 10 units; each large division
has a value of .50 units, On the right half,
the small squares have a value of 3
units; the large
squares, a value of 15
units. This grid is used for solving
problems such as oft-course
correction,
air plot, and radius of action and for
correcting reported wind (para 11-28),
~ ,
11-21. Wind triangle construction
Problems involving wind can be solved
by constructing a wind triangle. In its
simple form, this triangle (fig
11-24) is
made up of three vectors (six vector
quantities) whose elements are
always
the same,
a, The three vectors necessary to
construct a wind triangle are as follows:
(1) A wind vector, consisting of
the
wind direction and speed.
(2) A ground vector, representing
the
movement of the aircraft with respect to
the ground, and consisting of the
course
(or track) and the ground
speed.
(3) An air vector, representing the
movement of the aircraft with respect to
the air mass, and consisting of the
heading and the true airspeed.
b. The direction of such vectors is
shown by the bearing of a line with
reference to north. The magnitude of the
vector is shown by comparing the length
of a line with an arbitrary
scale. For
example, if 1 inch represents 10 knots,
then a velocity of 40 knots would be
-

~ shown by a line 5 inches long (fig

,
11-24),
c. Necessary steps for drawing the
wind triangle are
to-
(1) Draw a vertical reference line with
an arrow at the top indicating north.
(2) Draw a very short line intercepting
the reference line at a convenient point
to indicate the point of origin in the
diagram,
(3) Draw in the known vectors (a
above).
(4) Close the triangle to determine
two
unknown factors. Known and unknown
factors will vary, but each factor
can be
determined, provided each
vector
Includes its
own factors, namely direction
and length.

:,:::: :::. '~::: ::::;::::+:::

... ...: :::: :::: t:::: :: ::1:;:' :::
CD
.~ "'
".,. '... .-4r4
..~. ....-- _0..
.... .. ''''
'"
r

...
.. .... ...~ ~..-
-... "" _... ...
~

+. '..-.
+.-. .... _.-.. .-.-.
--.. -.~. ---
.

~.- --..
....
.

--- COUI/s,
.-- -... .... ...-. .~.
'... ----
,.- -.- '90.
a,fou-\,o
50 5PEiD
-'-'. "', ....
".. '-' "'.
"'''-
k,
-.. '..,
.

-... 0.. "-- .-.

-.t.
.. ..., .-. ... -
-, ,
1'00 \
@ HEADING AND IRuE AI15PE!D I'A~I
" \
1108'6010
Figure 11-23. Reverse of sliding I I
grid side \ , / /
"
0
,
"
,
"
I
'-
"- //
,/
KNOH (KT)

Figure 11-24. Representing the six vector quantities In a wind triangle

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM

1-240 89
 t
11-22. Wind triangle solution
Figure 11-25 illustrates the construction N
of a wind triangle to solve tor heading
and ground speed when the course, wind (0
velocity (WV), and TAS are known. E
Similar triangles are used to solve for
heading and TAS or for WV.
a. Plot the wind vector
b. Plot the course for an
first (AB).
indefinite
distance from the point of origin (AD).
Dee
~ / plot TAS
-

"mea su re head ing

\
the end of the /. It .B
c. Swing an arc from "
/
wind vector (B), using the TAS as the arc v
~I.o~ ,
(C). ... " - - -'
radius, to intersect the course line 0
"
Draw the air vector (BG). ('0
d. Measure the
heading by -'>1{:>
" (,""$
determining the angle formed between OJ' " ~ ~\~
the vertical reference line and the air (,.....
"- ,:\0'
vector.
e. Measure
ground speed along the ~G'~
S ~
ground vector (AG).

11-23. Wind problems

In solving wind problems on the
plotted on
computer, part of a triangle is
the transparent surface of the circular
disk. Lines printed on the slide are used
triangle.
for the other two sides of the Figure 11-25. Solving for heading and ground speed
The center of the concentric arcs (fig
11-26) is one vertex of the triangle.
There are many methods applicable for
computing anyone probiem, but the
following method for each type of
problem is standard for use in Army
Aviation. This section includes probiems
where the centerline is used as ground
vector and the wind vector is plotted
above the grommet.
NOTE: Directions used in solving wind
problems must be compatible. Directions
In
are all in rderence to true north or all >

reference to magnetic north.

~

"

~ -

Figure 11-26. Wind trtangle on DR computer

90 15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

11-24. Heading and ground speed
computation
a. Problem. The wind is from 160
degrees/30 knots, the true airspeed is
120 knots, and the course is 090
degrees. What is the heading and ground
speed?
b. Solution. Refer to figures 11-27 and
-;t~~'b
k~,þ'
41,. :\,\~.,\
~~,,:,,\(!P
~\~'~\\~",~
UJD

:".,
~:
-l
~,\!~~~~.\\\\\\\IIII~!''0.\'J~JI~''':~
:
..
.180 J~ "S',//,J,11íIIIZU
''ilk&/.
",-.?Jft~~"
, ..
~
.

11-28 and solve as follows: .: :

-:-;
>"'?'."
-
-

. ""\f~ "CC .."..",/

.

'~
(1) Set 160 (direction from which the .

wind is blowing) under the TRUE INDEX ~', .

(fig 11-27).
.

~
(2) Plot the wind vector above the
grommet 30 units (wind speed) and t '.
place a wind dot within a circle at this
~'
point.
(3) Set 90 (course) at the TRUE
INDEX (fig 11-28).
\'
(4) Adjust the sliding grid so that the
TAS arc (120 knots) is at the wind dot.
(5) Note that the wind dot is at 14
degrees converging line to the right of
centerline.
(6) Under the 14 degrees correction
'''~
""1,4.
~/.
~':::,..:/::~
.

... ."
.. -'..
.

,,",
..
.",....a.
ct"~\,\
~.$~\
.

"-'
scale (DRIFT RiGHT) to the right of
center at the top of the computer, read
the heading (104 degrees).
(7) Under the grommet, read the
,
""""."1,

".. 0,.
AI
-. " ~ ',,,.'Y
....

".. O"/rltI,,,,.
'1--.:.....~.,.~
~,,,..,,,,,..
- ""of....",,,'.
-""I,,, I 0It Ot<' (lItE \ ---
,.
~

;:""",.."1....1.."\,,,, .11
1)",,' ~
~""-".'
." .

'\"'\"~.., ...t,-<I-
....
...'tJ.::
-

'\'''''11.'
.O"\,V-
.,." ..~'
\

.,.."
Ð~
.
~
TC8).!..:-,"",'
ground speed (106 knots). "

.~. lllJ-' --~,,,.,.

~'..
.

11-25. True airspeed computation Figure 11-27. Plotting the wind vector to solve
a. Problem. The wind is from 090 for heading and ground speed
degrees/20 knots, the counse is 120
degrees, and the ground speed is 90
knots. What is the heading and true
airspeed?

,
)

Figure 11-28. Reading heading, wind correcllon, and

ground speed

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 91

 figures 11-29 and
b. Solution. Refer to
11-30 and solve as follows:

~--'JfJ&;ç'7
-

(1) Set 90 (wind direction) under the ~

i ~
i
TRUE INDEX and plot the wind vector
20 units above the grommet using a dot ----:;';' ~
1111"11111,%;,7
;~;.~~\\\\\\\\\III
rlillo/'
~,,'K'\\::""
$'
within a circle (fig 11-29). ,~'\'
to 100,... ->..
-.. ~ WI/.I!:'O,
'_1:\ .- 111%
(2) Set 120 (course) under the TRUE
INDEX (fig 11-30).
'<
---\'';.~~'.p ;,~
",p "
:
-" <\;?-~

/,~ ~
-. 'f~"
(3) Move the siiding grid so that the '

ground speed concentric circie (90

"f
J
knots) is at the grommet.
(4) The wind dot is now on the .

converging iine 5 degrees to the left of

(115
the centerline. Read the heading
degrees) 5 degrees left of the TRUE
INDEX on the correction scale.
g
(5) Under the wind dot, read the TAS ~

(108 knots).

11-26, Wind velocity computation " ~, ~ "

heading is 130 ...J/. <11:,/
8. Problem. The
'

""'0..
degrees, the true airspeed
is 100 knots,
"x#:'
~""'I",~ ~
~
r

" -
~ ':;"'"
~\"~":~,
I

.
~\\\\\\'., ~'t>..'
the track is 140 degrees, and the ground 08t M r;jIf.
"'11/1
'... ~ :ri~:':;lïIJJWJlli.IjII1.lLl\!\J,I\I\\\\'\\\'c\,.;~.'
,Q"""'
speed is 90 knots. What is the wind ,..
0,,/, ,,-': .-..'t--~ "",,\' ~.....\'
,\
.'" 1 '" \'
-~.O"
.
'<;In!
velocity? !f
'" c
"

Î'~.
--J
V*,." I
--"".I! 'fC"~ -

heading and true airspeed

Figure 11-29. Plotting the wind vector to solve for

~.'
.

~"u;rt..:'r-r--
~~\\I\\I'::J1'I,(;~t;~~
..
~.. ,lIIW"~~I.,
'10""
'''\,'1.
;'i>.},~~ -.
..
~ .
-..g
~';"'~
-
""';;:"/
~""

~'ìp
,
".i~' ...
I' ". "'Ð
...,:,

~
'.
.

-;:.

,', "'"'Î'-:t ~
.

~;\. ""
...
.

'"
..~
'-::"'.I:"t" '~
~'io.""
.t:r'*'"
-3
". ""I.~
"'4""1 ~ ,.
...
""/"'11 Oft ClOt
..,oez r:J#-
1\,'1'11
I~i:"'\\'-"'.~:,
t."
~1'['
.
l."d"ol"lllnLilW\\\I\1'<~'-I'"
o,j~' ,o,'f"
,D,,/.
'. ...
!!tit
D',I,It"'1
~
'9101
~
.",
,,'t>- \,'t-"
..,
",- ~
Q"\,
~Q"
'V..:',.~"'I 'II:"~
"'~<I

and true airspeed

Figure 11-30. Reading heading, drift correction,

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

92
 b. Solution. Refer to figures 11-31 and
11-32 and solve as follows:
(1) Set 140 (track) under the TRUE
INDEX and the grommet over the GS (90
knots).
(2) Since the heading is 10 degrees
less than the track, find where the 10
degrees converging line to the left of
centerline crosses the 1 DO-knot (TAS)
line. Place a dot within a circle at this
pOint (fig 11-31).
(3) Turn the circular grid until the dot
is directly above the grommet (fig
11-32).
(4) Under the TRUE INDEX, read the
direction from which the wind is blowing
(075 degrees). The distance in units
between the dot and the grommet
indicates the wind speed (20 knots).

11-27. Reported wind correction

A pilotage fix, furnishing information
on
track and ground speed, can be used for
correcting the reported wind using the
rectangular grid portion of the sliding
grid.
a. Problem. After flying for 30 minutes,
an aviator establishes a fIX on a
navigational chart and finds he is 6 miles Figure t1-31. Solving for wind velocity
north of his on-course dead reckoning
position. The reported wind for the flight
was 30 knots from 125 degrees. What is
--L
-

the actual wind condition?

1--L I =+-
----1
~ ~~\\:;.:1::::~:~
\.$' ~\'~\\\\".Iø 10 . ~ ""'!:':'I/;,
~\,~\ J\ . ~ '..J
'I'"~,,,,,
,.,p~,~~ - I;;
.,~
",., ,{' fP ...
IZ.",:,~
~ "".."/
-'.9
t" D
~~"-,".
I)

<
<

"

1~
"
'- '"
"

Figure 11-32, Reading wind velocity

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 93

 (8) Rotate the compass rose until the
b. Solution. Refer to figures 11-33,
corrected wind vector (C) lies along the
11-34, and 11-35 and solve as follows:
centerline downward from the center òf
(1) Place the rectangular grid of the
the disk (fig 11-35). Read the actual
slide under the transparent disk.
wind direction (140 degrees) under the
(2) Rotate the compass rose until 125
TRUE INDEX. Read the actual wind
(wind direction) is under the TRUE
speed (38 knots) as the length of the
INDEX (fig 11-33).
(3) Draw the wind vector down from vector (C) along the centerline.
the grommet (at zero) to the 3D-knot
point (fig 11-33, A).
(4) Estimate the additional wind
component. Since the aircraft is 6 miles
1
north of the desired position after 30 \ j
minutes flying time, the wind component f
is 12 knots. The aircraft would blow off
course twice as far in 1 hour. Since the ::~-r--=:- .

aircraft is drifting to the north, the wind is ~~.,~. ,.:;~ -':;~

"...:.
from the south. ''Í,.,,,~,.":
'

(5) Rotate the compass rose until the .,.. 1"1,/ ~

"4:- '!""I""L 01' N ~
.

~;:"..I""I""!",,h\'o\>>
:fII!:~
rÞ"
,,\~..iI'I., ~..,
>10' ,~...'
,...,
~"', ~ .~
letter "5" appears under the TRUE .. .~
~

~" ""'9~'
.-'. 'O,,':,~~'.
-
.

.
r
INDEX (fig 11-34). : -...:' æ::: TC.or!! ~o"

------~~

Figure 11-34. Plotting the assumed wind

(6) From the end of the first wind

vector explained in (3) above, plot the
additional wind component verticaily
downward 12 knots to scale (fig 11-34,
B).
(7) Connect the end of this second
wind vector with the point of origin of the
first wind vector (center of the disk) (fig Figure 11-35. Plotting the actual wind
11-34, C).
11-28. Wind triangle variations
a. Many other wind problems can
be
;.- solved using the grid face of the
CPU-26A/P computer. This includes
track and ground speed, wind and
ground speed from double or multiple
drift, wind from ground speed and drift,
and correction for reported wirid. Wind
triangles may also be plotted on the
computer, using the centerline as the air
vector, by plotting the wind vector below
the grommet.
triangle
b. The mastery of the wind
problems discussed in this section is

,
1 adequate for flight planning with Army
aircraft. Therefore, a complete discussion
of the variations mentioned in 8 above is
.~ I~ -
not essential or within the scope of this
manual.

1-'~-
8'1<>-
"<::
-.'00"':
I '''''
'~
-",t- I' ~"" Chapter 12
0.". ... Radio Principles
l ...''''''~ ~~~
"
.

~'-~'
"~/'?;I.
~.
..'>1'\1'\."
os CII'A:
iIII!I"
~ ~.\~\"..'
\I\\\\\~.' ~~.."
/
"oI1nl~I'IIJI'IIIIII"I\I\Ù~\\\~""~~.''f.~Q~'' 12-1. General
,,"'. ...~ -'Ir a~.~I I

.." o"~\ ...," Radio communication and radio

~~':If., ~~ ~ '0<,\'/ navigation are necessary during
j "'" w'"
-........... 'fC -'t- ,:....--j

r--- ..,
I
-----1 instrument flight. All aviators must be
familiar with radio principles and the
capabilities and employment of Army
Figure 11-33. Plotting the reported wind
aircraft radio equipment.

94 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

12-2. Wave transmission
According to the wave theory of
radiation, sound, light, and electrical
energy are transmitted by waves.
Strength of all waves depend on their
cycles, frequencies, lengths, or
amplitudes.
a. Wave. Energy transmitted through a
substance or space by vibrations or
impulses moves in waves. When a stone
is dropped into a pond, the energy of
motion from the stone causes ripples on
the water surface. The ripples (waves of
energy) travel outward from the place
where the stone struck the water, but the
water itself does not move outward. The
rise and fall above and below the normal
undisturbed water level can be graphed
as a curved line.
b. Cycle. A cycle is an alteration of a
wave from a specific amplitude through a
complete series of movements back to
the same amplitude ("e" below). This is
one complete wave vibration. A cycle (fig
12-1) is represented by the portion of
the wave from A to E, from B to F, from
C to G. Or a cycle is between any other
two points encompassing exactly one
complete amplijude variation. A cork
floating on calm water is subjected to
cyclic wave movement when a stone is
dropped into the water. One wave cycle
occurs as the cork rises from the calm
water level (normal position) up to the
B F
w
a
::>
I-
--'
Cl..
~
<I:
A
0
Figure 12-1. Wave representation (elternatlng current)
wave crest, drops back to normal, falls
into the wave trough, and rises back to
normal. A cycle is also completed when
the cork moves from the crest of the
wave down to the normal position. It
then falls into the wave trough, rises
back to normal, and continues rising to
the top of the wave crest. Thus, a cycle
is any complete sequence of amplitude
variation in a repetitive series of wave
movements.
c. Frequency. The frequency of a
wave is measured by the number of
cycles completed in 1 second. If two
cycles are completed in 1 second, the
wave frequency is two hertz (Hz). Since
the number of hertz runs into high
figures, radio frequencies are commonly
expressed as kilohertz (kHz) (1,000
hertz) or megahertz (MHz) (1,000,000
hertz). Hertz is a unit of frequency equal
to one cycle per second.
d. Wavelength. The linear distance of
a cycle is known as the wavelength. In
figure 12-1 the wavelength from A to E
can be expressed in meters, feet, miles,
or any other suitable linear
measurement.
e. Amplitude. The amplitude of a wave
is its magnitude measured from a
specific reference level. In figure 12-1,
the peak wave amplitude is represented
by the lines BH, ID, or FJ; other
c
0 E
0 M
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
amplitudes are shown as lines LM and
NP. All representations were measured
in linear distance above
(+) or below H
reference line AD.
12-3. Direct and alternating current
An electrical current flows by the
movement of electrons through a
conductor. Direct current flows in only
one direction. An alternating current
flows in one direction for a time and then
flows in the opposite direction for the
same length of time with a continuous
movement. An alternating current (fig
12-1) can be represented as a
continuous flow of electrons with half of
each cycle being negative and the other
half being positive.
12-4. Radio waves
An electrical current builds up a
magnetic field around the conductor
through which it flows. When alternating
current flows through a wire, the
magnetic field around the wire alternately
builds up and collapses. An alternating
current of high frequency is used to
generate radio waves which are emilted
during the buildup and collapse of the
magnetic field around a conductor (the
antenna). Radio frequencies extend from
10 kilohertz to above 300,000
megahertz.
0
95
12-5. Principles of the transmitter
a. Generating and transmitting a radio
signal. A radio signal is transmitted by
generating an al1ernating electric current
of the desired frequency and connecting
it to an antenna suitable for radiating that
particular wavelength (fig 12-2). The
current frequency is determined by the
number of times per second that
alternating current changes direction of
flow in the antenna.

~
CARRIER WAVE

r RADIO fREQUENCY I úV\f\J\J\.

] (CARRIER WAVE)
.

OSCILLATOR

AUDIO fRE~UENCY
AMPLIFIER
MQDULATOR

\\\\\
1/ ) )
I

ww.
MODULATED CARRIER WAVE

/'---,\
\.~
AUDIO WAVE

Figure 12-2. Radiotelephone transmitter schematic

96 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 b. Altering the radiated signal. To
transmit intelligible data, the radiated
carrier wave (fig 12-3, A) is altered in
some manner and these alterations are
decoded at the receiver. Code is
transmitted by interrupting the carrier
A. CARRIER WAVE
wave (fig 12-3, B} into a series of dots .contJn-- unmodu_.
and dashes. Code can also transmit by
modulating the carrier wave with another
steady tone (fig 12-3, C) which is
interrupted to produce the desired code.
Voice is transmitted by molding or 8. INTERRUPTED CARRIER WAVE. for
modulating the carrier wave signal with
audio wave transmissions (fig 13-3, D)
"'-"11-.
generated through the radio microphone.
The combined carrier wave and audio
wave appear as in E, figure 12-3, if the
audio wave is superimposed by
amplitude modulation (AM) of the carrier
wave. If the audio wave is superimposed NO
I NO
by frequency modulation (FM). the TONE INOI I
OASH OOT TONE
TONE APPEARS CONTINUOUS TONE
combined wave will appear as shown in
F of figure 12-3. Both AM and FM are
used in transmitting voice to US Army C. CONnNUOU8 WAVE MODULATED WITH TONEBIGNAL.
aircraft, but AM is the most common
method. A modulated signal is commonly _10-"""''''__.
called a modulated carrier wave when
either voice or tone signals are used in +
the modulation process. (Fig 12-3, C, E,
and F represent modulated carrier
waves. Fig 12-2 illustrates voice
modulation of a carrier wave.)

12-6. Principles of the receiver

a. Tuning. Radio waves induce minute
electrical currents in receiving antennas.
This process is the same as inducing an
alternating current in one conductor by
D.
AUDlOWAVE-___lbIe_oIglI8I._.............--
the poettvo11r InCII the
C8PII8r ..ve, C8nter..ft
ernpII1:IMIe 8nd
placing it near another conductor th8Mg8t1veI.0docr 1

carrying alternating current. The method

th8--""lIJnplltudeIE_'.
of selectinn the desired signal from the
many induced signals is called tuning.
The tuning circuit in the receiver is
adjusted to resonance with the frequency
of the desired signal; other frequencies
are rejected by the tuning circuit. The
selected frequency is unintelligible at this

-I
receiving stage since it is still a E. CARRIER WAVE II. with _10 w8",,(D_'oupeoI.....-
combination of the radio wave (carrier byompilludo-IAMI.
wave) and the audio wave (voice).

CARRIER WAVE with -

11.-1
F.
fNqU8flCy madul8don (FM). -.. ID-..loupeoI.....- by

Figure 12-3. Radio waves

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 97


b. Demodula ting. Another stage of the
receiver, calied a demodulator or
detector, is used to separate the audio
wave from the carrier wave. The audio
portion of the wave is amplified and used
to vibrate the diaphragm of the headset
or a speaker. This vibrating surface
causes audible sound waves,
reproducing those which entered the
microphone at the transmitter (fig 12-4).
NOTE: Since the frequency of a carrier
wave is above the audible sound range,
a beat frequency oscillator (BFa) is used
to convert coded interrupted carrier wave
signals into audible, intelligible sound.
12-7. Classification 01 frequencies (8) Extremely high frequency (EHF),
a. Audio frequency
(AF). Twenty to 30,000 to 300,000 megahertz.
20,000 hertz.
NOTE: Although the Federal
b. Radio frequency (RF).
Communications Commission designates
(1) Very low frequency (VLF), 10 to 30
300 to 3,000 megahertz as UHF, the
kilohertz.
UHF radio frequency band in aviation
(2) Low frequency (LF), 30 to 300
communication begins at 200 megahertz.
kilohertz.
(3) Medium frequency (MF), 300 to
3,000 kilohertz. 12-8. Low frequency radio wave
(4) High frequency (HF), 3,000 to propagation (nondlrectlonal)
A radio wave leaves the transmitting
30,000 kilohertz.
(5) Very high frequency (VHF), 30 to antenna in ali directions. That portion of
300 megahertz. the radiated wave foliowing the ground is
(6) Ultra high frequency (UHF), 300 to calied the ground wave (fig 12-5). The
3,000 megahertz. ground wave is conducted along the
(7) Super high frequency (SHF), 3,000 earth until its energy is absorbed or
to 30,000 megahertz. depleted by the attenuation process,

~ /
DESIRED
MODULATED CARRIER WAVE

nJ\Jv~
.

TUNER
( ~KE.~))).
(SELECTS AND
DETECTOR
t
AMPLIFIES DESIRED
SOUND WAVE
FREQUENCY)

-
~ AUDIO FREQUENCY
-=
AUDIO WAVE AMPLIFIER

Figure 12-4. Radiotelephone receiver schematic

IONOSPHERE

~\\)/JJ ~I~
'

'\'\'\ ~
,:.'<. ,,'" /)) \ ~
0';- '\'\
~~
,,"\)))))))) \\\
\ '\'\
'\'\
~
~
.

Y'\" )~'\'\ ~
~ \\J~!)Np..\Jf.SKIPZONf.
",\<f~O,-\ .il'1r ~
~ì
A~~
J ~

~~::,:n\J.
KANSAS
CITY /J
---- -------./L
.'
~
Gf\p..I\SOf\I\f.OSKIP
...
B .... ~Ù
SKIP
------...~~A
\..05
~G~\..
po:
>ö:.-----
OISTANCE DISTANCE
'v;~ C
Þ.

Figure 12-5. Radio wave transmission

98 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

paragraph 12-10. The remainder of the range. Naturai static may be divided into Height Une-of-Sight Transmission Range
radiated energy is called the sky wave two types. Interference which originates Above the
(fig 12-5). The sky wave is radiated into Irom natural sources away from the
Ground
Feet AGL KM 8M NM
space and would be lost were it not for aircraft is called atmospheric static. 5 5.2 3.2 2.8
the refracting layers in the atmosphere. Inteference caused by electrostatic 10 7.2 4.5 3.9
These layers are in the region of the discharges from the aircraft is called 20 10.4 6.4 5.6
atmosphere called the ionosphere, the precipitation or canopy static. 40 14.6 9.1 7.9
80 20.7 12.6 11.2
region where air is ionized by radiation of
100 23.1 14.4 12.5
the sun. The relracting effect on the 12-12. General nature of high 200 32.7 20.3 17.7
waves returns them to earth and permits frequency propagation (3,000 300 40.1 24.9 21.7
signals to be received at distant points. 400 46.2 28.7 25.0
kilohertz to 30 megahertz) 500 51.8
The effect on reception distance is 32.2 28.0
The attenuation 01 the ground wave at 1,000 73.3 45.5 39.6
determined by the height and density of frequencies above approximately 2.000 103.4 64.3 55.9
3,000
the ionosphere and by the angle at kilohertz is so great as to render the 3,000 126.7 7B.7 68.5
which the radiated wave strikes the 4.000 143.3 90.9 79.1
ground wave of little use for 5,000 163.5 101.6 a8.4
ionosphere. The ionosphere varies in communication except at very short 10,000 231.0 143.7 125.0
height and density with the distances. The sky wave must be used.
seasons, The fCM'mula used to determine the line of sight
time 01 day, and latitude. Since it reflects back and forth from sky (LOS) for any attitude is as follows:
to ground, communications can be LOS =
1.25 x dh where dh = the difterence in
12-9. Skip distance maintained over a long distance (12,000 aMude between the transmitting and receiving
The distance between the transmitting statute miles, for example). Frequencies antenna in feet.
antenna and the point where the sky between LF and VHF produce the NMx1.15=SM
wave lirst returns to the ground is called greatest radio transmission range NMx1.85=KM
the skip distance (fig 12-5, AB). By between points on the earth because
e><tension, this term also includes the they are refracted by layers 01 the Figure 12-6. VHF/UHF range
distance between each surface reflection ionosphere and follow the curvature of
point in multi-hop transmission (Iig the earth. The range of low Irequencies
12-5,
BG). Tha distance between the point is reduced by attenuation and
where the ground wave can no longer be Chapter 13
atmospheric absorption, and VHF or VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
received and the point where the sky higher frequencies penetrate the
System
wave is returned is called the skip zone. ionosphere and escape to outer space.
Solar radiation changes the position and
density of the ionosphere. Therefore, a Section I
12-13. General nature of VHF and
great change in skip distance occurs at UHF propagation (30 to 3,000 Components and Operation
dawn and dusk, causing the fading of megahertz)
signals to be more prevalent than usual. Practically no ground wave propagation 13-1. General
The VOR system Is the primary
occurs at frequencies above navigational system used by Army
12-10. Effect of all matter on approximately 30 megahertz. Ordinarily
radiation aviators in the United Slates. The VOR is
there is little refraction from the a VHF faciiity which provides 360 usable
All matter within the universe has a ionosphere, so that communication is
varying denree 01 conductivity or possible only if the transmitting and
courses to or from the slation. The terms
"omni" and "VOR" are often used
resistance to radio waves. The earth receiving antennas are raised far enough
interchangeably.
itsell acts as the greatest resistor to above earth's surface to allow the use 01
radio waves. The part of the radiated a direct wave. This type of radiation is
energy that travels near the ground called line-ol.sight transmission. Thus,
13-2. Static Interference
induces a voltage in the ground that
VOR eliminates atmospheric static
VHF/UHF communication is dependent
subtracts energy from the wave. interference. VOR also eliminates other
upon the position 01 the receiver in limitations associated with the older low.
Therefore, the ground wave is attenuated relation to the transmitter. When using
(decreased in strength) as its distance frequency facilities that it has replaced.
airborne VHF/UHF equipment, it is 01
from the antenna increases. The utmost importance to be aware of the
molecules of air, water, and dust in the factors limiting communication range.
atmosphere and matter at the earth's Une of sight computed for various
surface, such as trees, buildings, and altitudes is shown in figure 12-6.
mineral deposits also absorb radiation
energy in varying amounts.

12-11. Effect of static upon low and

medium frequency reception
Static disturbance is either man-made or
natural interference. Man-made
interference can be caused, lor example,
by an ordinary electric razor. Each small
spark, whether originating at a spark
plug, contact point or brushes 01 an
electric motor, is a source 01 radiation.
All frequencies from zero to
approximately 50 megahertz are
transmitted Irom each spark and,
consequently, add their energy to any
radio reception within this frequency

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 99

13-3.\Transmltter and receiver
fundamentals
A VOR transmitter emits two
signals-the variable signal and the
reference signal. The variable signal is
transmitted in only one direction at any
given time. However. the direction of its
transmission varies so rapidly that the
signal appears to be a continuous signal
rotating clockwise around the station at
approximately 1,BOO RPM. Receivers
which are correctly tuned to a station will
receive both signals. The two signals are
in phase only at magnetic north. At all
other points around the station, there is
a definite difference between the signals
(fig 13-1). Receivers in the aircraft detect
the phase difference either by a centered
indicator needle representing an on.
course position or by a deflected needle
to the right or left of center representing
an off-course position. The signals may
also be fed to a radio magnetic indicator
(RMI) (fig 13-6) to show the magnetic
direction to the transmitting station.

13-4. VOR receivers

Army aircraft utilize several different
types of VOR receivers. Detailed
information concerning the set installed
in each aircraft and the operating
instructions are contained in the
operator's manual.

MAGr-.E T IC NORTH

..
o.

-
~ ~ 0-
31~'
v ?\ ~
45.
\J

270'
~/~
-

^O0~8
=.~I\ 18011
~
\.YJ
135'

Figure 13-1. VOR signal phase differences

100 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

13-5. VOR course Indicators
The VOR navigation signal is displayed
on an instrument called the course
indicator. Several different types of
course indicators are in use in Army
aircraft. The most common are the
1D-453 (fig 13-2) and the 1D-1347 (fig
13-3). Detailed information concerning
the course indicators installed in each
aircraft is contained in the operator's
manual.

1. COURSE ARROW (HEADI

2. FIXED COMPASS CARD

3. COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR

4. GLIDE SLOPE INDICATOR

5. GLIDE SLOPE WARNING FLAG

6. TO-FROM INDICATOR

7. COURSE WARNING FLAG

8. COURSE ARROW IT All)

9. COURSE SET KNOB

Figure 13-2. 1~53 course Indicator

ON-COURSE INDEX

VOR/ LOC WINDOW

GLIDESCOPE
FLAG WINDOW GLIDE SLOPE
INDICATOR
RECIPROCAL
INDEX TO-FROM INDICATOR

COURSE DE VIA nON

BLUE/YElLOW INDICATOR
OFF COURSE
OMNI-BEARING
INDICATOR
SElEC nON KNOB
Flgur. 13-3. 1D-1347 course Indicator

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 101


a. Course selector. The course
selector knob or omni-bearing selector is
manually operated to seiect the course
that is desired for VOR navigation. The
aviator places the arrowhead (pointer) or
arrow tail (ball) on the desired course
(10-453). The course card is moved in
order to place the desired course or its
reciprocal under the inde. on the
10-1347 (fig 13-4).
STATION
!\~) ~2100COURSE
~.
b. TO-FROM indicator. This indicator
responds automatically to any course
that is selected on the course indicator.
It indicates whether the course selected,
if flown, would take the aircraft to or
away from the VOR station (fig 13-4). if
the course selector is moved past a
course which is 90 degrees to the
station, the TO-FROM indication will
change. When an aircraft flies across a
radial which is 90 degrees to the course
selected, there may be a short period of
time when the indicator display will be
blank. The aircraft heading has no effect
on the TO-FROM indicator.
c. Course deviation indicator. The
within 90 degrees of the course indicated
by the course arrow.
(1) Needie centered. When the aircraft
is actually located on the selected
course (Figure 13-5, aircraft A. B. and
C), the deviation needle is centered
regardless of the aircraft heading.
(2) Fufi-scale needle deflection. If the
aircraft is off the course by 10 degrees
or more on VOR (fig 13-5, dashed
radials), the needle deflects full scale to
one side (fig 13-5, aircraft D). The
course indicator face is graduated
horizontally left and right from center
with dots (course deviation scale). This
represents a deviation from course of 10
degrees when using VOR and 211,

0 course deviation indicator displays

course deviation relative to the localizer
course of the instrument landing system
~------- (ILS) or to a selected VOR course.
Figure 13-5 shows the course indicator
readings with respect to a selected
VQR COURSE course of 300 degrees using the VOR.
INDICA.TOR
NOTE: The course deviation indicator is
Figure 13-4. Course selector operation directional when the aircraft heading is
de9rees when using the I LS localizer.
NOTE: Course deviation indicator
displays, associated with the localizer of
the ILS. will be illustrated in Chapter 19.
d. Course and glide slope warning
flags. These warning flags are located in
close pr6.imity to the course deviation
needle. There are two warning fla9s, one

0 0

0 0 0

A A
v
I
STATION

(~~.a
I
I 2
;::,-...
I
:--.. ""'..liOo I
,,~
"
0

Jm,......::::::-.. I 8

~~ /8 V
~-b
""~............~ I

~ruA~~ì( Ð\
~ '-...... 0

'" I --"--"..........
C
/' c
"'-......~8 -"""""':"'--

"""""',
0 0

.' C .......~
/'/'
"'8'''''
@..'Oo"----"CD-"""""""'""""
..........
V
'.' .

'- -' ..........

~
~ "

.'" D '" " '

I' "

-
"
0

0 0
'"
Figure 13-5. Deviation indicator operation

102 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

 for the course deviation indicator (VOR
or localizer) and the other for the glide
slope. The flags are usually labeled
"OFF." However, on some course
indicators, the warning flags may not be
located near the respective needle. In
this case, they will be labeled "LOC" for
localizer and "GS" for glide slope.
Appearance of the warning fiag indicates
that the respective indicator (course
deviation indicator or glide slope) is not
receiving a signal strong enough to
provide reliable information.
e. Glide slope indicator. The glide
slope indicator needle indicates whether
the aircraft is on the glidepath or is
deviating above or below the glide path.
The course indicator face is graduated
vertically up and down trom center with
dots (glide slope deviation scaie)
representing a deviation from the
glidepath up to 'h degree. The glidepath
indicator is only activated when the
receiver is tuned to an ILS frequency.
Glide slope indicator wiil be illustrated in
chapter 20.
13-6. Radio magnetic Indicator
The radio magnetic indicator (fig 13-6)
consists of a compass card, a heading
index, two bearing pointers, and a
pointer function switch. It enables
simultaneous determination of the
present magnetic heading and the
direction to and from the navigational
facility which the Number 1 bearing
pointer is coupled. It also enables
direction to and from the navigation
facility which the Number 2 bearing
pointer is coupled.
POINTER
FUNCTION
SWITCH
CAUTION: Bearing pointers will n01 function
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
a. Compass card. The compass card
is moved by the aircraft's slaved gyro
compass system. When working
properly, the card shows the magnetic
heading under the heading index.
NOTE: A preflight cross-check of the
compass card with a known heading
(magnetic compass) should always be
made.
b. Numbers 1 and 2 bearing pointers.
These two bearing pointers are moved
by either the VOR, tactical air navigation
(TACAN), or automatic direction tinder
(ADF)radio receivers. Each bearing
pointer, when coupled to a navigation
receiver, will indicate the direction to the
navigation facility being received. Based
on the number and type of receivers
installed, there are several coupling
arrangements possible. Normally the
Number 1 bearing pointer will be
connected to the ADF receiver and the
Number 2 to the VOR receiver.
I nformation or coupling arrangements for
specific aircraft types and models can be
found in each aircraft operator's manual.
A bearing pointer that can be coupled to
a VOR or ADF receiver will have this
coupling accomplished by the position of
the pointer function switch.
Section II
Flight Procedures
13-7. Operation
When the course indicator and the RMI
are in operation, the indications of either
in relation
flgùre-n~~-~ãâlo magnetic indicator'
.
or both of these instruments can be used
to accomplish VOR flight procedures.
Where the RMI is included in an
illustration, the Number 2 bearing pointer
will be coupled to the VOR receiver. This
will indicate the magnetic bearing to the
VOR which is tuned in the receiver. The
opposite end or tail of the needle will
indicate the radial from the VOR station
on which the aircraft is located. The
Number 1 bearing pointer displayed in
the figures of this chapter is
nonfunctional.
13-8. VOR positions
The set should be turned on and placed
in operation in accordance with the
instructions in the operator's manual for
the aircraft. The desired VOR station
frequency is placed on the frequency
seiector dial. Positive identification is
needed of the station by its repeated
three-Ielter Morse code group, or a
three.lelter Morse code group alternating
with a recorded voice identifier. If
required, the pOinter function switch is
moved to the VOR position.
BEARING
POINTERS
to the instrument landing system,
103

13-9. Orientation
a. Courses and radials. The desired
course is selected with the course
selector. The term "radiai" refers to a
course emanating from a VOR station.
On navigation charts, courses are
published as directions outbound from
the von stations (radials). It is frequently
convenient to refer to the position of an
aircraft in terms of the radial on which it
is located. For example, figure 13-7
shows three aircraft on the 090-degree
until the course deviation needle centers.
The position of the ball will indicate the
radial that the aircraft is on.
(2) Another orientation method is as
follows: The course selector is rotated
until the TO-FROM needle reads "TO"
and the course deviation needle is
centered. Now the course to the station
is known. The reciprocal of this course is
the radial upon which the aircraft is
located. An alternate procedure is to
center the course deviation needle with a
"FROM" indication. Now the course
with the VOR receiver, the above
orientation procedures are not required.
When the receiver is tuned to a VOR,
the bearing pointer of the RMI will
indicate the magnetic heading to the
station and the opposite end of the
needle indicates the radial upon which
the aircraft is located. Now there is
orientation made in relation to the VOR
station.
13-10. VOR stations
The procedures for maintaining a course

radial. Aircraft A is on the 090-degree away from the station is known. This to station are illustrated in figure 13-9.
a
radial following a 270-degree course course is also the radial upon which the The aircraft maintains a 360-degree
inbound to the station. Aircraft B is on aircraft is located. When an RMI is used course to the VOR station.
the 090-degree radial following a 090-
degree course outbound from the
station. Aircraft C is crossing the 090-
DASHED LINE
\
degree radial flying a heading of 320 \
degrees. In each position, the Number 2
bearing pointer indicates the course to .

the VOR station and the opposite end of

the needle indicates the radial.
b. Orientation procedure.
(1) Without moving the course selector
(unless TO or FROM is not indicated), a
compass rose should be visualized on SOLID
the face of the 10-1347 with a line drawn LINE
from the selected course to its reciprocal
(dashed line, fig 13-8). Then a line
drawn 90 degrees through this course
line (solid line, fig 13-8) should be
visualized. The position of the TO-FROM
indicator should be noted. In figure 13-8,
there is a "TO" indication. This indicates
that the aircraft is in the sector north of
the soiid line. Next, position of the
course deviation needle should be noted. EÐ
It is deflected to the right, indicating that
the aircraft is east of the dashed line. \
Therefore, the aircraft is located in the \
\
quadrant between the 345-degree radial
and the 075-degree radial. The ball is
moved to the right within this quadrant Figure 13-8. Use of course deviation indicator in orientation

0 0 0 0 0

VOR COURSE
INDICATOR

..
"fJR~
0 0

ffi'OiA , I
I
Ie
I
I
I
I
I I
0
I
A I B C I

~
STATION
090"
RADIAL 8 8 0 ..

A B C

Figure 13-7. Relationship of aircraft positions-as described by radial, course, or heading

104 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
 STATION HEADING VOR COURSE
INDICATOR INDICATOR
0 0

--------------------

Eþ
....
:.:
~
~
Q
1.1.1

Q
Z
1.1.1
~
~
1.1.1

tJ)
a::
::J
0
U
0

(
,

Figure 13-9. Maintaining a

course to a station (VOR)

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 100

 a. Position A. In position A, the aircraft
is on course. The course deviation
indicator needle is centered, the TO-
FROM indicator indicates "TO" and the
bearing pointer indicates "360 degrees."
b. Position B. In position B, the aircraft
has been blown off course approximately
5 degrees. The crosswind is from the left
and the course deviation indicator is
deflected to the left. The bearing pointer
indicates "355 degrees." To return to the
course, the heading must be corrected to
the left. The standard correction under
normal wind conditions is 20 degrees for
aircraft with airspeed at or above 90
knots and 30 degrees for aircraft
operating below 90 knots.
c. Position C. In position C, a heading
change of 20 degrees is applied. The
aircraft heading is now 340 degrees.
d. Position D. In position D, the aircraft
has returned to the course-the course
deviation indicator needle has
recentered. The bearing pointer again
indicates "360 degrees." If the present
degree drift correction is applied for NOTE: Course maintenance procedures
flying below 90 knots). The heading of discussed here are for guidance only. In
the aircraft is now 355 degrees. If this flight, these procedures are refined to
heading maintains the course, no further suit specific flight conditions.
heading change is required.
(3) Correction for unusually strong
wind. On some occasions, unusually
strong winds will prevent the aircraft from
returning to the course even when a 20-
degree or 30-degree correction is used.
If, after applying a 20-degree or 30-
degree correction, the course is not
reintercepted in a reasonable period of
time. a correction of 40 degrees or more
may be required in order to return to the
course. It must be assumed that if 40
degrees is required to return to the
course, approximately half of the
correction (in this example 20 degrees)
mey be required to stay on course.
HEADING
STATION VOR COURSl
~ INDICATOR INDICATOR

~~ui
heading of 340 degrees is maintained,
the aircraft will fly through the course. If ~I
the aircraft is returned 10 the original
heading of 360 degrees, the aircraft will
be blown off course again.
e. Trial drift correction. To avoid both
1----------------- W' :
situations, the heading is changed by
turning toward the course by half the
amount of the initial correction. An
example would be turning toward the
course 10 degrees (15 degrees if flying
below 90 knots). The aircraft heading is
now 350 degrees. This results in the first
trial drift correction for the crosswind.
0
This drift correction may later prove to 0

be either C0rrect, too small, or too large.

;i -~': H H

~~G---~_____m__
(1) Correction too small. If the first trial
drift correction (10 degrees) is too small
(wind is stronger than anticipated), the
aircraft will again be blown off course
from point E to point F (fig 13-10). The
~
heading must again be changed to 340
degrees (fig 13-10, G) in order to
intercept the course. The aircraft
\ : 1j' G
0

~- 00
reintercepts the course at point H. A
heading correction (fig 13-10, I) is made
by turning toward the course 5 degrees
to a heading of 345 degrees. (The
aircraft is now using a total drift
CDF---~~_nm--!tJ-
correction of 15 degrees.) This
.~~.
bracketing procedure will be repeated
until a heading is selected that maintains
the aircraft on course.
(2) Correction too large. If the first trial
\ GD F
.

drift correction (10 degrees) is too large

(wind not quite as strong as expected),
the aircraft will fly off course upwind. In
figure 13-11, the aircraft is
overcorrecting at point U and flies off
course into the wind at point V. The I .
%( E
0
'~. /
0

aircraft is returned to the course by

returning to a heading of 360 degrees
(point W) and allowing the wind to blow
the aircraft back on course at point X.
When back on course, a 5-degree drift
correction (not as large as the initial
correction) is applied into the wind (a 10- Figure 13-10. Trial drift correction too small (VOR)
106 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 VOR COURSE
INDICATOR STATION

f
-----------
0

y ---------------- y
0 0

-- --------- ---- 1
x
----------- X

-- ----
------------------ w
..J
c(
õ
~

0
w
-
-
-
\ 0
0
!9

-
- -

--
-
-
-

--- v

---- -- --
-

v
0

0
--- -------- ---
u

Figure 13-11. Trial drift correction t DO large (VORl

....
.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 107

13-11. Sialion passage the selected Course to the station of 045
Recognition of station passage is very
degrees. The aircraft continues on the
important because VOR stations are
same heading and flies past the station
used to fix an exact position, These (point B), At the time the aircraft is
stations are also used as holding points
abeam the station, the TO-FROM
for ATC and are often the destination indicator will momentarily have
point of an IFR flight to be used during no
indication, then wiil change to read
the instrument approach to the airfield, "FROM:" This "FROM" reading will
Station passage is determined as
remain in the indicator as the aircraft
follows: flies away from the station (point
C),
a, Since the approximate arrival time
over a station is known, the clock shouid
be watched, As this time approaches,
the reaction of the TO-FROM indicator
should be observed,
(1) While inbound to the station, the
indicator will read "TO,"
(2) As the aircraft passes over the
station, the TO-FROM indicator will
fluctuate momentarily, then indicate
"FROM," The time that this occurs is
station passage time, Also, when flying
over the station, fluctuations of the
deviation needle and the momentary
appearance of the warning fiag will
occur. At this time, station passage will
also be indicated by the RMI bearing
pointer moving to the reciprocal of the
course.
b, If the flight is to be continued on
the same course, the procedures for
maintaining a course should be followed,
The only indicator change is the reversal
of the TO-FROM indicator and the
reversal of the RMI bearing pointer, If
there is a course change (fig 13-12), the
course selector is set to the new course
and the aircraft is turned to a heading
that will piace it on the new course,
c. Figure 13-13 illustrates another
important consideration when the TO-
FROM indicator reading changes, The
aircraft is flying a heading of 045
degrees (point A), but is not inbound on

@ COURSE SELECTOR SET

FOR OUTBOUND COURSE

0 0
(IDA
STATION

'8
0900

0 0

0 COURSE SELECTOR SET

FOR INBOUND COURSE

figure 13-.12. Course selector reset to fly outbound ,on a different course
108 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 STATION

~<v / B
.;)<f-~ ' /
Q
C
CP()~ /

Ø/~~ /:~
INDICATOR
CHANGING WHEN
ABEAM THE
STATION
/
A
/ B

Figure 13-13. TO-FROM Indicator changea abeam the station

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM , -240 109


13-12. Position checkpoints
a. The Victor airways system (see
note) is based on operation of several
hundred VOR stations. In addition to the
stations themselves, it has numerous
other flight checkpoints (intersections).
An intersection is a point where two or
more radials from different VOR stations
intersect. Checkpoints can be
established at these intersections for
position fixing. The procedure for fixing
position over intersections by using one
VOR course deviation indicator, RMI
bearing pointer, or both, is illustrated in
figure 13-14.
NOTE: Established routes for the
purpose of air route traffic control
(ARTC) of enroute IFR traffic have been
designafed and charted. These routes
are called airways in the low altitude
route structure which is below 18,000
feet MSL. These routes are jet routes in
the high altitude route structure. Victor
airways use VOR facilities and are
labeled with a "V" and a number such
as "V-241." The north-sourth airways
have odd numbers and the east-west
airways have even numbers. Jet routes
are similar to airways except that they
are labeled with a "J" and a number
such as "J-80."
(1) The aircraft proceeds outbound (fig
13-14, W) from station A with the
receiver tuned to station A. During this
outbound flight, the correct heading for
remaining on the course (090 degrees) is
determined by the procedures outlined in
paragraph 13-9.
STATlnN
I~
..~,
~090';~
STATION
/
/
/
/
/ w
w x
Figure 13-14. Position fixing at an intersectlon,-çourse selector reading ~'FROM"
110
(2) After establishing the desired 8, the aircraft is to be turned inbound to
heading to remain on a 090-degree station 8 when it arrives over the 81unk
course, station 8 is tuned and identified. intersection.
(3) The 130-degree radial from station
8 crosses the 090-degree radial from
station'A to establish the intersection
(open triangle symbol). The course
selector is set on 130 degrees, and since
this is the radial from the station, the TO-
FROM indicator will read "FROM" (fi9
13-14, X).
(4) At the time the aircraft is exactly
over the intersection (fig 13-14, Y) the
deviation indicator will center since the
aircraft will then be on the 130-degree
radial from station 8. Also, the Number 2
bearing pointer will indicate 310 degrees
at the intersection. After the intersection
is determined, the course selector is
reset to 090 degrees, station A is tuned
and identified, and course maintenance
procedures resumed.
b. In performing the procedure
discussed in "a" above, it is important to
be able to interpret the direction of
needle deflection. In the situation
depicted in figure 13-14, the needle is
deflected to the left while the aircraft is
at point X. Prior to arrival at the
intersection, the deviation indicator may
be deflected to the same side on which
the station is located. This will occur if
the course selector has been set on the
published radial which causes the TO-
FROM indicator to read "FROM."
c. It may be convenient or necessary
to fix an intersection by setting the
course selector for a "TO" reading (fig
13-15). In flying from station A to station
m
,~
.
~ /
''If
0
-B -~"" I
I
I
I
X
y' \
\
\
Z
\
\
\
,
y z
15 DECEM8ER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
 Z I
I
I STATION B

I ?!:JJ.O

y' , ,
,
,

BLUNK INTERSECTION
z

B
I~
--------
Q)
x

x (TUNED TO STATION B)

(j)w"""""" 0

......
......
......
....

w (TUNED TO STATION AI
STATION A

Figure 13-15. Position fixed at an Intersection; course selector reading "TO"

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 111

 (1) The aircraft departs station A
outbound with the course selector set on
010 degrees. The deviation indicator is
centered (on course) and the TO-FROM
indicator reading "FROM" (fig 13-15, W),
(2) Prior to reaching the Blunk
intersection, station B is tuned and
identified (fig 13-15, X), The published
radial for station B is 250 degrees, but
this radial is the direction outbound from
B. Since it is desirable to go inbound, the
course selector is set to 070 degrees,
the reciprocal of 250 degrees, The
resultant reading on the TO-FROM
indicator is "TO" because a course of
070 degrees will take the aircraft to
station B. Station B is to the right of the
aircraft from point X to Blunk
intersection, but the needle deflects to
the left. Since the course selector is set
on the reciprocal of the published radial
to produce the "TO" reading in the TO-
FROM indicator, the needle deflects to
Figure 13-16. Course Interception at 45 degrees or 90 degrees from
112
the ieft, Compare with the deflection
described in "b" above, The needle
centers when the aircraft arrives over
Biunk intersection, (fig 13-15, V), and
remains centered inbound to station B
(fig 13-16, Z) after the aircraft is placed
on the 070-degree course.
d. if the aircraft in figures 13-14 and
13-15 were equipped with two VOR
receivers, one would be tuned to station
A to maintain the course. The other
would be tuned to station B to determine
the intersection. '
13-13. Courseinterceplion
It is occasionally necessary to intercept a
course that is located at some distance
from the position of the aircraft. Several
procedures can be applied, as explained
below.
a. From a known position-45-degree
or 90-degree interception. At point A in
STATION
-
C
--
,.,
>
15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE. FM 1-240
figure 13-16, the aircraft is flying a
heading of 350 degrees while crossing
the 200-degree radial. The aircraft has
been cleared to intercept Victor airway
13 (V-13) which is the 1 BO-degree radial
from the station. Since the position of
the 200-degree radial with respect to the
1 BO-degree radial to be intercepted is
known, proceed as follows:
(1) Determine the direction of turn to
intercept the 1 BO-degree radial. This can
be determined by setting the course
arrow on the inbound course of 360
degrees. This is the reciprocal of the
published radial from the station (1BO
degrees). With the course of 360
degrees set in the course indicator, the
deviation indicator will move to the right,
indicating that the V-13 airway is to the
right of the aircraft.
(2) Select a heading which will
intercept the desired course at an angle
0 0
0
-......
-- --
-- ......
c
a known position (VOR)
of 45 degrees. In this case, since the
desired course to the station is 360
degrees, a heading of 045 degrees
would intercept the course at a 45-
degree angle.
NOTE: The standard interception angle
is 45 degrees; however, others may be
used. II ATC requests that you
"expedite," a 90-degree interception
angle should be used.
(3) Turn to the selected heading and
set the course arrow on the desired
course-360 degrees.
(4) Tum to the inbound heading of
360 degrees when the course deviation
indicator centers (fig 13-16, B). The
bearing pointer of the RMI will indicate
360 degrees at this time.
(5) Use course maintenance
procedures to fly to the station on V-13.
(6) Use procedure (2) above which
can be changed to intercept the track at
a 90-degree angle (fig 13-16, C) to reach
the track in the least possible time.
b. From a known position-double-
the-angle interception. The double-the-
angle method of intercepting a desired
course tram a known position consists of
the following procedures (fig 13-17).
(1) Determine the angular difference
..
0 0
B
0
Figure 13-17. Double-the-angle course Interception from
between the radial on which the aircraft
is presently located and the radial which
represents the desired course. At point A
of figure 13-17, the aircraft is on the
150-degree radial and the desired course
to the station is 360 degrees. (This is the
180-degree radial, so the angular
difference is 30 degrees.)
(2) Double the angular difference and
this will give a desirable interception
angle. In this case, the interception angle
will be 60 degrees.
NOTE: When using this procedure, initial
interception angles of less than 20
degrees are usually not practical. Also,
an interception angle of 90 degrees is
the maximum; thus, an angle greater
than 45 degrees would not be doubled.
(3) Seiect the heading which will
cause the aircraft to intercept the desired
course at the desired interception angle.
In this case, a heading of 300 degrees
will intercept the 360-degree course at
the desired 60-degree angle.
(4) Turn the aircraft to the selected
heading and reset the course selector for
the 360-degree course.
(5) At the time the deviation indicator
centers (fig 13-17, B), the aircraft has
reached the course. The bearing pointer
STATION
"@ ~,
, A
,
0
Ii!
~
"
"r
'CD
I 1\
a known position (VDR)
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
of the RMI will indicate 360 degrees.
NOTE: When using this technique, the
leg flown to intercept (from point A to
point B) is equal in length to the leg
remaining to the station (from point B to
the station). Consequently, the time
required to fly the interception leg (point
A to point B) is the approximate time
remaining to fly to the station from point
B.
Leading the needle. if the turn onto
c.
the intercepted course is delayed until
the deviation needie is fully centered,
there is the risk of overshooting the
course. If the turn to the heading of the
course is started too soon, the aircraft
may roll out of the turn short of the
course. During initial course interception
or reinterception, the technique of
leading the deviation indicator must be
used. The rate of movement of the
deviation indicator and the size (degree)
of the interception angle must be
considered in determining when to start
the turn in order to place the aircraft on
the course.
d. Interception of a course from an
unknown position. The requirement
exists to intercept a specific course at a
time when it is uncertain on which radial
0 0
0
A
...
113
the aircraft is located. A simple method Time Remaining to Station = (8) Substituting the data from figure
to become oriented with respect to a Minutes Flown x 60 Seconds Flown
13-8, assume the true airspeed is 120
desired track is as follows: knots.
Degree Change Degree Change
(1) Tune and identify the station.
Time Remaining to Station
Distance to Station =

(2) Turn the shortest way from the =

present heading of the aircraft to a 2Min5Secx60 125 Seconds

120 x 2 Min 5 See
25 Nautical Miles
heading that is parallel to either the =
12.5 Minutes 10
10' 10'
course heading or its reciprocal.
NOTE: Seconds must be changed to
(3) Set the course selector to the NOTE: If aircraft is turned 80 degrees
fractional or decimal parts of a minute.
course or its reciprocal depending upon right (1) above), move course selector
which heading the aircraft is flying. from 020 degrees to 010 degrees in (2) d. The following iimiting factors should
(4) Observe the deflection of the above and from 010 degrees to 360 be kept in mind when applying the above
deviation indicator. The course lies to the degrees in (4) above. time-and-distance formulas:
same side as the indicator is deflected. (7) The approximate distance to the
The TO-FROM indicator will now indicate
station may be estimated by using the
if the station is ahead or behind the
following formula.
aircraft.
(5) Turn toward the course to a
Distance to Sta tion =

heading which will intercept the course

at an appropriate angle. True Airspeed x Minutes Flown

Degree Change
NOTE: This procedure is true only when
the heading of the aircraft is within 90
0
degrees of the course indicated by the STATION
course arrow.

13-14. Estimating time and distance

to a station

a. In most situations, an aircraft will be

flying in a region where two VOR
stations are within reception distance.
The position of the aircraft and an
estimate of time and distance to either
station may be determined by plotting 0 0

the course or bearing to each station on

a navigation chart. The aircraft will be
located at the position where the
courses or bearings cross.
0

b. In some isolated cases, it may be

necessary to estimate the time or
distance to a station by using the signal
from a single station. One technique of
doing this is pointed out in the note in C
"
"
paragraph 13-13b. "
c. A different method is Illustrated in
"
figure 13-18. The aircraft is inbound to
.1;;'" 0

00 B
the station on the 200-degree radial.
Estimating the time and distance to this
station is shown in figure 13-18.
(1) Turn the aircraft through 80
degrees (left in fig 13-18).
(2) Move the course selector 10
degrees (from 020 degrees at point A to
030 degrees at point B) to a known
radial ahead of the aircraft.
(3) WaiUor the deviation indicator to
center and take a time check (1412:50
for example).
"

(4) Move the course selector an ,

additional 10 degrees (from 030 degrees
""',
at point B to 040 degrees at point C). ,
"
(5) Wait for the deviation indicator to
center and take a second time check
such as 1414:55, or 2 minutes and 5
seconds elapsed during the 10-degree
bearing change.
(6) Turn inbound to the station (D) and
.,
estimate the time to the station by
applying the formula below. (The data is
taken from situation in fig 13-18.) Figure 13-18. Estimating time and distance (VOR)
114 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
 (1) They are based on the assumption
that a 1-degree angle is 1-mile wide 60
miles away from the station. This is an
approximation.
(2) They do not take into account wind
conditions that may cause ground
speeds to vary considerably on headings
which differ by 90 degrees.
(3) To determine time-distance
required, the aircraft must turn so that it
will fly abeam the station during the time
required for the aircraft to fly through a
10-degree change in the course selector
reading.
(4) The bearing change selected
(change in the course selector setting)
may vary from 5 degrees to 15 degrees.
Ten degrees is used as a mathematical
convenience in the above problems.
Section J II
Receiver Checks
13-15. Accuracy
VOR receivers and their associated
indicators must be checked periodically
for accuracy. There are several types of
checks which can be performed to
ensure equipment accuracy- In
performing these checks, current data for
designated station frequencies, specific
VOR radials, and station identifications
are contained in current navigational
publications.
13-16. Radiated test signal
Equipment installed at many airports
transmits a continuous test signal
receivable at any point on the airport.
Although designed primarily as a ground
test system, this equipment is also
usable at relatively low altitudes in flight
over the airport. The procedure for using
the radiated test signal VOR receiver
testing facility (VOT) to check receivers
is as follows:
a. Tune the frequency of the VOT.
b. Listen for the proper identification,
either a continuous series of dots or a
continuous 1,020-cycle tone.
c. Check for the disappearance of the
warning flag.
d. Set the course to either 160
degrees or 360 degrees.
e. Check the reaction of the TO-
FROM indicator. If the course is set on
160 degrees, the indicator should read
TO. If the course arrow is set on 360
degrees, the indicator should read
FROM.
f. Check the course deviation
indicator. II should be centered. II the
needle is not centered, rotate the course
selector until the indicator centers. If the
course selector does not have to be
rotated more than 4 degrees in order to
center the needle, the equipment is
within tolerance for flight under IFR. If
the needle will not center within a 4-
degree tolerance, the equipment is
.
unreliable for flight under IFR. Should the
VOR receiver be coupled to a radio
ma~~etic indicator, the bearing pointer
will indicate 180 degrees regardless of
the course selector setting.
13-17. Other ground checks
Not all airports have equipment for
radiated test signals. However, many
airports have VOR stations situated
nearby from which selected radials can
be used for checkpoints. In the
illustration (fig 13-19). the 120-degree
radial from a station passes directly over
the end of runway 27. An exact spot is
marked on this runway. The aircraft is
taxied to this spot and the receiver
check is performed in the following
manner:
a. Tune to the frequency of the
station.
b. Listen for the correct station
identification.
c. Check for the disappearance of the
warning flag.
d. Set the course selector to the
specific radial for the check.
e. Check the reaction of the TO-
FROM indicator. It should indicate
FROM.
f. Check the course deviation indicator
for a centered posflion. Plus or minus 4
degrees tolerance is allowed on the
course selector setting for centering the
needle. If movement of the course
selector within 4 degrees of the
published radial will cause the deviation
needle to center, the equipment is
usable. Equipment that does not meet
these tolerance limits is unreliable for
flight under IFA.
13-18. Airborne check
a. At airports where radiated test
signals or other ground check radials
have not been established, an airborne
check radial may exist. Airborne checks
are performed like ground checks except
that an airborne checkpoint is specified
instead of a designated spot at the
airport. For example, if a prominent water
tower exists within a few miles of the
VOR STATION
I~Oo
Figure 13-19. Ground receiver check (VOR)
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
VOR station, a certain radial can be
selected that passes over this tower. As
the aircraft flies over the tower, the
accuracy of the equipment can be
checked. A published airborne check
over the tower may appear in
navigational publications as
"KIRKSVILLE, MO-138", 8.2 NM; over
water tower at La Plata; 2500'."
b. To perform the airborne check-
(1) Tune and identify the Kirksville,
MO, VOR.
(2) Set the course on 138 degrees
and check for a "FROM" reading.
(3) Fly over the water tower described
at an altitude of 2500 feet.
(4) When over the water tower, check
the deviation indicator for a centered
position with a FROM indication. If the
needle is within 6 degrees of center, or if
a course selector movement of 6
degrees or less from the published radial
will cause the needle to center, the
equipment is within tolerance. Equipment
that does not meet these tolerance limits
should not be used for flight under IFR.
c. The list of VOR airborne check
points is published in the area planning
documents (AP1, AP2, and AP3) under
country listing (000 FLIP).
13-19. Dual VOR receivers
If an aircraft is equipped with dual
receivers, one receiver may be checked
against the other. If receivers are within
4 degrees of each other, both may be
considered reliable. To perform this
check, do the following:
a. Tune and identify the same VOR
station with both VOR receivers.
~.qOI.ql
115
 b. Using dual course indicators, rotate
the course selectors of each until the
deviation indicator is centered.
c. Check to determine that the TO-
FROM indicators on each instrument are
in agreement.
d. Check the course settings. These
seltings must be within 4 degrees of
each other. If receivers do not meet
these limits, one or both are unreliable.
Each will have to be checked with a VOT
or a ground checkpoint to determine if it
is within the allowance tolerance for
flight under IFR.
13-20. Unpublished receiver check
In a location where no receiver checks
are published, a checkpoint from a
nearby VOR station may be established.
To accomplish an unpublished receiver
check, do the following:
a. Select a VOR radial that lies along
the centerline of an established VOR
airway.
b. Select a prominent ground paint
along the selected radial, preferably
more than 20 nautical miles from the
VOR ground facility and maneuver the
aircraft directly over the checkpoint at a
reasonably low altitude.
c. Note the VOR course indicated by
the receiver when over the ground point.
The maximum permissible variation
between the published radial and the
indicated course is 6 degrees.
13-21. Course deviation Indicator
sensitivity check
At the same time that the VOR receiver
is checkec for accuracy, the deviation
indicator can be checked for sensitivity.
The face of the course indicator (fig
13-20) is graduated in 2-degree
intervals. Moving from center to either
side, the edge of the small circle is 2
degrees and each dot (aligned
horizontally) represents 2 degrees. When
the deviation indicator is fully deflected
to one side, the aircraft is off the
selected course by at least 10 degrees.
Consequently, if the receiver is checked
for a centered indicator with the course
selector set on a given radial (for
example, 140 degrees) (fig 13-20, A), a
full swing of the indicator can be
checked by setting the course selector
on 130 degrees (fig 13-20, B) and then
on 150 degrees (fig 13-20, C). Normally,
a 1 O-degree change in the course
selector setting will cause a full scale
movement of the course deviation
indicator. However, in all cases a full-
scale swing (10 degrees) should require
no more than an 8- to 12- degree
movement of the course selector.
NOTE: Pertinent information for VOR
receiver checks shouid be verified from
current navigationai publications and
reguiations. This information is subject to
change.
116
Section IV SectiQI'I V
Area Navigation
VOR station classification
13-24. Components
13-22. Classes Area navigation (RNAV) allows the
The classes of VOR stations are as aviator to fly a selected course to a
follows: predetermined point without the need to
T (Terminal). (T) VOR. overfly ground-based navigation facilities.
a.
RNAV systems include doppler radar,
b. L (Low Altitude). (L) VOR.
inertial navigation system (INS), very low
c.
H (High Altitude). (H) VOR.
frequency, and the course line computer.
The course line computer is the RNAV
13-23. Classification by reception system that the Army aviator is most
capabilities likely to use.
Stations are also classified by their
jnterference~free reception capabilities
with respect to distance and altitude.
This classification is the basis for
establishing the interference-free
reception range of transmitter
frequencies. The following data shows
station classification with normai usable
radial distances and altitudes:
ClassIfication: T (Terminal)
Altitude and Range Boundaries: From 1000 feet
above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000
feet AGL at radial distances out to 25 NM.
Classification: l (Low Altitude)
Attitude and Range Boundaries: From 1000 feet
AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial
distances out to 40 NM.
Classification: H (High Altitude)
Altitude and Range Boundaries: From t 000 leet
AGL up to and including 14,500 leet AGL at radial
distances out to 40 NM. From 14,500 feet AGL up to
and including 60,000 feet at radial distances out 10
100 NM. From 18,000 feet AGL up to and including
45,000 feet AGL at radial distances oullo 130 NM.
NOTE: Classification of stations is subject to change. Current
operational publicationsshouid beconsul1ed for latest
Information.
. .
.
A
LEFT RIGHT
. . . . . . . .
100 80 60 40 20 20 40 60 80 100
0 0
CENTERED
NEEDLE
0 0
B C
- -
Figure 13-20. Course deviation Indicator sensitivity chec_k
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
13-25. Operallon
The course line computer is based on
azimuth and distance information
generated by the present VORTAC
system. It is also called the "Rho.Theta"
system. Rho (distance) is derived from
the distance measuring feature of the
VORTAC and Theta (bearing) information
is derived from the azimuth feature. As
shown in figure 13-21, the value of side
(A) is the measured OM E distance to the
VORTAC. Side (B), the distance from the IS)

8/'"
VORTAC to the waypoint, and angle (1),
the bearing from the VORTAC to the
waYPoint, are set in the cockpit control.
The bearing from the VORTAC to the
aircraft, angle (2), is measured by the
VOR receiver. The airborne computer
(CJ
~~ WAY POINT
compares angies (1) and (2) and
determines angle (3). With this
infonmation, the computer, by means of Figure 13-21. Course line computer geometry
simple trigonometric functions, ,

continuously solves for side (C), which is

the distance in nautical miles and
magnetic course from the aircraft to the
waypoint. This is presented as guidance
information on the cockpit display.

13-26. Waypolnts
A waypoint is defined as a
predetermined geographical position
used for route-definftion or progress-
reporting purposes that is defined
relative to a VORTAC station position.
Waypoints are also defined by latitude
and longitude coordinates for the use of
airborne self -contained systems not
dependent on VORTAC inputs. Wfth the
course line computer, the aviator
effectively moves or off-sets the
VORTAC tn a desired location. A
"phantom station" is created by setting
the distance (Rho) and the bearing
(Theta) of the waypoint from a
convenient VORTAC in the appropriate
windows of the waypoint selector or "off-
set control" (fig 13-22).
Figure 13-22. Waypolnt selector
or "off-set control"
13-27. RNAV routes
The advantages of the VORTAC area
navigation system stem from the ability
of the airborne computer to, in effect,
locate the VORTAC wherever convenient
if ft is within reception range (fig
13-23). .

'\
A series of these "phantom stations" or
waypoints make up an RNAV route. A
number of RNAV routes have been
,
established in the high altitude structure.
High altitude R NAV routes are depicted
on the "RNAV Enroute High Altitude
Charts." In addition to the published
~... ~' .. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
routes, the aviator may fly a random ,
.
,
RNAV route. under IFR if it is approved .

by ATC. RNAV Standard Instrument

Departures (SI08) and Standard Terminal
Arrival Routes (STARs) are contained in
""Æ
the SID and STAR booklets. POINT'
WAY
.
"
,
.
"
,
,
,

Figure 13-23. Alrcraft/VORTAC/waypoint relationship

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 11ï

13-28. RNAV approaches
RNAV approach procedure charts are
also available. Waypoint identification
boxes contain the following information:
waypoint name, coordinates, frequency,
identifier, radial-distance (facility to
waypoint), and reference facility
elevation. The initial approach fix (IAF),
final approach fix, and missed approach
point are labeled. Since these are
non precision approaches, minimums
appropriate to such approaches apply.
Chapter 14
Automatic Direction Finder (AD F)
and Manual Loop Procedures
14-1. General
The radio direction finder (RDF),
sometimes referred to as a radio
It
compass, is a radio receiver. is used to
the bearing to a radio
determine
transmitter from the aircraft. This
receiver has a loop antenna that is used
to determine this bearing. Sometimes the
loop antenna is placed in the signal
pattern of a radio transmitter. If so, no
, signal will be heard when the plane of
I
the loop is perpendicular to a line from
the aircraft to the transmitter. This
position of the loop is called the .null.
Navigation with the radio direction finder
0
i uses the null for determining the
the trensmitting facility. This
i direction to
can be done manually by using the ADF
0
or loop procedures.
Section I
Characteristics and Components
14-2. Receiver spectrum
The Army uses several different
receivers, usually referred to as ADF
receivers, for radio direction finding. The
is
frequency spectrum of these receivers
(190 kilohertz) to
from 0.19 megahertz
1.75 megahertz (1,750 kilohertz). In this
frequency range are the nondirectional
radio beacon (NDS) and the low/medium
frequency radio ranges.
14-3. Classification
radii of
a. Classification and usable
NDSs are as follows:
Nondirectlonal RadIo Beacon
Uøable RadII
Class Power (watts)
(LI .Under 25
.. ..
MH.. .
.Under50...
.50 -
1999.....
H...
."
HH. .2000 or more
. . .
NOTE: Service range of Individual facilities will be less then
stated when flight is conducted at low altitudes
118
it is best to
b. For navigating by RDF,
nondirectional radio beacons. These
use
beacons are listed in flight information
publications and are designated on air
navigation charts. They are designed and
maintained for air navigation. For best
results, they should be used only within
the usable distances as listed in the
chart above. If the airborne RDF receiver
and associated equipment are not
operating at their optimum level, the
usable distances may be further reduced.
Radio beacons are sometimes subject to
fading signals and signal interference
from distant stations at night. During
periods of thunderstorm activity, the
atmospheric static may interfere with
tuning and identifying a radio beacon.
This will cause erratic operation of the
bearing needle. Commercial broadcast
stations should be used only if an NDS is
not available. These stations have
irregular hours of operation and are
subject to signal interference from other
stations. Identification is not broadcast at
frequent or regular intervals. The stations
also frequently have highlydirectional
signal patterns that may cause umeiiable
indications while using ADF procedures.
If a commercial broadcast station must
be used, select a station that is
designated on an air navigation chart.
14-4. Receiver components
Components of an ADF receiver are as
follows:
a. Receiver.
b. Loop antenna.
c. Sensing ,antenna.
d. Radio control panel.
RDF problems for
e. Indicator to solve
navigational purposes. The most
commonly used indicator, the radio
magnetic indicator (fig 14-6), has a
rotating compass card. This card
dispiays the magnetic heading of the
aircraft under the index at the top of the
dial and needles or bearing pointers.
When the signal from an ADF receiver is
switched to one of these needles, it will
align itself on a heading on the compass
card. This heading will correspond to the
magnetic course to the station being
received.
Section II
Automatic Direction Finder Flight
Procedures
Distance
(nautical 14-5. Orientation procedure
RMI function switch is set to
miles a. The
(NM)) the ADF position. This will cause the
.
..15 number 1 bearing pointer to respond to
.
.25 the signals from the ADF receiver. The
.50
receiver is set and the desired radio
.
.75
.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
station is identified. The receiver should
be tuned to receive the strongest signal
possible. This is accomplished by
adjusting a tuning meter to its greatest
sensitivity or by determining the best
audio signal with the ear. Weak reception
or off-frequency tuning of a signal will
cause the bearing pointer to either
fluctuate or indicate an incorrect
magnetic bearing to the station. Correct
tuning of the receiver may be made
difficult by atmospheric static being
received. Sy switching to the antenna
position on the receiver, a clearer signal
can be received for tuning using the
audio signal. When using this procedure,
be sure and switch back to COMP/ADF
position after tuning is completed. The
response of the bearing pointer to the
signal may be tested by moving it left or
right on the RMI with the LOOP switch.
This is to determine if it will return to the
original bearing when the LOOP switch is
released. After tuning the radio receiver
and identifying the station, the function
switch on the radio control panel is in the
COMP / ADF position. Also, the RMI
function switch is in the ADF position.
b. If the ADF is being used as the
primary means of navigation, the receiver
volume should be adjusted. It should be
adjusted so that the signal is just barely
audible. Then, if the signai is no longer
heard, it is possible that the receiver has
failed. The receiver itself and the RMI
have no warning devices to indicate
failure. The bearing pointer may remain
in what appears to be a normal operating
position and a failure is not detected until
changing the desired course. During
flight in heavy precipitation or near a
thunderstorm where iightning is
occurring, the indication of the bearing
pointer may become erratic. It may
become so erratic that accurate
navigation cannot be accomplished. If
the flight is being conducted under IFR,
ATC should be advised that the flight
cannot be continued using the ADF
receiver as the primary means of
navigation. The bearing pointer always
indicates the magnetic bearing to the
station. If the requirement exists to
proceed to the radio station, the aircraft
should be turned toward the bearing
pointer until it is aligned with the index at
the top of the RMI. "Homing"
procedures to the station can be used by
keeping the bearing pointer aligned with
the index. A track maintained to the
station along a desired course, applying
wind drift corrections, is another
"homing" procedure. Using homing, the
aircraft will fly a curved track to the
station if any crosswind exists (fig 14-1).
When maintaining a desired course, the
aircraft's ground track to the station wili
be a straight line (fig 14-2). ATC
clearances thai specify "direct" to a
named radio facility require that a direct
course be maintained to that facility.
 ~ 1
<H;. Courses to a station
The procedures for maintaining a course
to a station are illustrated in figure 14-2.
These procedures are outlined as
follows:
a. Posit,on A. At position A, the aircralt
is on course with the bearing
pointer
aligned with the heading index. The
magnetic course is 350 degrees.
b. Position B. At position B, the
bearing pointer is deflected 5
degrees to
the left of the course, indicating that the
aircralt has been blown to the right of
course. To return to the course, a drilt
correction must be applied to the lelt of
the aircralt heading. This initial cOrrection
should be 20 degrees for aircralt flying

~~r
j~ an airspeed of 90 knots or above. The
correction should be 30 degrees for

\J;j aircralt flying at airspeeds below 90

knots. If these corrections do not readily
bring the aircralt back to
course, larger
corrections may be used.
c. Position C. At position C, 20
degrees lelt cOrrection has
been applied
to a heading of 330 degrees. The
bearing pointer will continue to indicate 5
degrees lelt drift throughout the turn.
d. Position D. At position D, the
aircraft has returned to course. The
Figure 14-1. Homing (ADF) bearing pointer indicates the magnetic
. heading of the desired course.
STATION
e. Position E. At position E, the
heading of the aircraft is 340 degrees.
One-half of the drift correction has been
removed. This heading should
compensate for the wind effect and
allow the aircraft to remain on course. If
this correction is too

t much, the aircralt

will fly off course to the left. To COrrect
for this condition, the aircraft is returned
to the heading of the desired course.
Then the aircraft is allowed to (,kilt back
on course (bearing pOinter reads 350
degrees). When on course, apply less
drift cOrrection than before and
determine if the aircraft will remain on
course. These procedures will be
followed untii a heading has been
....
1) determined that will maintain the aircraft
t;~ on course.

14-7. Station passages

~ Passage of the station will be indicated
by the bearing pointer moving from the
magnetic heading of the course to a
magnetic heading. The magnetic heading
is the reciprocal of the
course. If the
aircraft passes directly over the stalion,
the bearing pointer will rapidly reverse its
position as stated above. If the aircralt
Figure 14-2. Maintaining station (ADF) passes to one side of the station, the
a course to a
bearing pointer will move more slowly
and give an indication on which side the
station is being passed. As the aircralt
passes the station, the bearing pointer
will move to a magnetic bearing which is
somewhere near the reciprocal of the
course. For timing purposes, station

15 DECEMBER 1 984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 11~

 passage occurs when the bearing pointer
passes through a position 90 degrees to
the desired course.
14-8. Courses from a station
When maintaining a course from a
station, the bearing pointer will be
indicating a magnetic bearing which is
the reciprocal of the course. This
indicates that the aircraft is flying away
from the station. Sometimes the bearing
pointer later begins to point to a
magnetic bearing which is to the left of
the course reciprocal. If this occurs, the
aircraft has been blown to the right of
the course by the wind. The aircraft can
then be returned to the course and the
course maintained by using the
procedures described in paragraph 14-6.
The tail of the bearing pointer may be
used to determine the position of the
aircraft in relation to the desired course.
However, it is nondirectional and
corrections must be made in the
opposite direction to the tail of the
needle.
14-9. Identification of fixes
While maintaining a course, a
I
requirement may exist to determine a fix
which is located along that course. This
may be an intersection on an airway
chart, an approach chart, or some point
: along the course requested to be
identified by ATC. At times, another
navigational receiver, VHF
omnidirectional renge, or instrument
landing system is being used to maintain
! the desired course. When this occurs,
I the ADF receiver may be tuned to the
,
low or meriium frequency station from
which the reporting point is to be
! identified. In figure 14-3 the aircraft is
maintaining a course of 090 degrees.
The fix is formed by a course to the
beacon of 120 degrees and the present
course of 090 degrees. When the
bearing pointer indicates a magnetic
bearing of 120 degrees, the aircraft is
over the fix. For position fixing when the
ADF is being used to maintain a course,
two ADF receivers may be required. Or,
alternate tuning of the one receiver from
one station to the other is required. This
procedure is necessary to ensure that
the aircraft does not drift off course while
identifying the fix.
14-10. Interception Inbound
Course interceptions inbound to a station
are illustrated in figure 14-4. At point A,
the aircraft is maintaining a course of
050 degrees to the beacon. A
requirement arises to intercept and track
inbound on a course of 080 degrees.
Visualize that the 080-degree course is
to the left or .use the parallel method of
determining the position of the aircraft in
relation to the 080-degree course. Using
the paraliel method, the aircraft is turned
to a heading of 080 degrees. The
bearing pointer is observed to the left of
120
the aircraft heading. This means that the
080-degree course is to the left. The
standard interception angle (45 degrees)
is applied and a ieft turn to a heading of
035 degrees is made. A smaller
interception angle may be used if the
difference between the present course
and the desired course is 20 degrees or
less. A smaller interception angie may be
used when the position of the aircraft is
known to be close to the station. When
these conditions exist, the intercept
angle should be double the difference
between the courses so as to ensure
course interception without deiay. When
the bearing pointer approaches the
bearing of 080 degrees, a turn to this
heading should be made, adjusting the
degree of bank so as to roll out on the
inbound course (point B). Determination
of when to start this turn will be based
on the following factors:
a. Movement speed of fhe
bearing
pointer. A rapid movement of the bearing
pointer means that the aircraft is close to
the beacon. The turn must begin prior to
the bearing pointer's reaching the
desired course. A delay will result in
overshooting the desired course. A siow
movement of the needle requires that
the turn to course be del eyed untii the
bearing pointer is close to the desired
course.
b. Speed of the aircraft. The speed of
the aircraft requires that the turn be
delayed or started sooner. This is to
avoid undershooting or overshooting the
desired course.
c. Angle of intercept. Large angles of
intercept require that the turn be started
earlier than for small angles. Once the
aircraft has rolled out of the turn, the
procedures for maintaining a course as
outlined in paragraph 14-6 will be
followed.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
. . . .

AIRWA Y

8 0900 ..

STATION C

Figure 14-3. Position Ilxlng (ADF)

~
tr;"l''''
.,,-:;. ~
"'~
:~ ,;~;.:-
B ~.~ / '>'

"-':"~~..!~"~'~:-:

BEACON

0800-
-

<<':"'1;');'1'
~.;!;
f:'
(~,., i'
'I.,
-.
=0- ...:
A -" 'It
.~
.

.:;:>
\1.",.:)1
"'",,"
"",1.,,1'

INBOUNO WITH STATION 460 RIGHT OF

NOSE AT TIME OF TRACK INTERCEPTION.
HEADING 103S") PLUS INTERCEPTION ANGLE
10460) EQUALS DESIRED INBOUND TRACK 1lIIIO").

Figure 14-4. Course Interception Inbound (ADF)

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE

'FM 1-240 121
14-11. Interception outbound
In figure 14-5, the aircraft at point A is
maintaining a course of 230 degrees
from a beacon. The requirement arises
to intercept and maintain a course of 260
degrees from the beacon. Either the
visualization or the parallel method
discussed in paragraph 14-10 can be
used to determine the direction of turn to
intercept the desired track. If the parallel
method is used, the aircraft is turned to a
heading of 260 degrees. The bearing
pointer indicates to the right of the
reciprocal of the desired course (080
degrees). To intercept the 260-degree
course, the aircraft is turned to a heading
of 305 degrees (45-degree intercept
angle). When the bearing pointer
approaches the reciprocal of the course
(bearing of 080 degrees). a turn is begun
to roll out on the 260-degree course
from the beacon (point B). Determination
of when to start this turn may be made
using the factors set forth in paragraph
14-10. After the turn has been
14-12. Time and distance from an
ADF station
To compute the time and distance to an
LIMF station. the station is tuned and
identified. Also, the aircraft is turned until
the bearing pointer is displaced 90
degrees to the aircraft heading (90
degrees index of the RMI). The time is
noted and this heading is maintained.
When the bearing pointer moves 10
degrees frem the 90-degree index. the
time that has elapsed is noted and the
following formulas apply:
Ti~e in
Time in seconds between bearings
= mmutes f rom
Degree o! bearing change the station
EXAMPLE:
120 seconds
12 minutes from the station
10.
EXAMPLE:
120 seconds
24 NM from the station

--
x 12 =
completed, the procedures for 60.
maintaining a course, as outlined in
paragraph 14-6, will be followed.

A BEACON 0

VB ---

-~ ~. -c/$O~('

Figure 14-5. Course interception outbound (ADF)

122 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240
 Section III
Automatic Direction Finder Flight
Procedures Using Relative Bearings
14-13. Relative bearing
When the slaved gyro compass of the
RMI system fails and the LIMF radio
station is the only navigational aid
(NAVAIO) available, AOF procedures
using relative bearings must be
used. For
the purpose of this section, it will be
assumed that the compass card remains
motionless (referred to as "fixed card").
The card has the figure of 060 degrees
under the index at the top of the RMI.
The pos~ion of the bearing pOinter will
no longer indicate a magnetic bearing.
The indication of the bearing pOinter will
be read in relation to the index at the top
of the RM I. The index represents the
nose of the aircraft. For this reason, the
bearing is called a relative
bearing. The
relative bearing to the L/MF station is
measured clockwise. from the nose of
the aircraft to the position of the bearing
pointer. Also called a reiative bearing,
the position of the bearing pointer may
be referred to as being
so many degrees
left or right of the nose. For exampie, a
relative bearing of 270 degrees may be
referred to as a bearing of gO degrees
left of the nose of the aircraft. I n figure
14-6, the relative bearing to the beacon
at positions A, B, and C is 060 degrees.
The beacon is 60 degrees right of the
nose of the aircraft. To determine the
magnetic course to the beacon from
each position, add 60 degrees to the
C
G1GIJ
ø ~o-
(0 B
CLJ
Figure 14-6. Relative bearing 01
060 degrees with three dlflerent aircraft headlnga
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM
magnetic heading of the aircraft
as read
from the magnetic compass.
14-14. Orientation (fixed card)
The procedure for AOF orientation using
relative bearings is as follows:
a. The station is tuned and identified.
b. The number of degrees the bearing
pointer is deflected to the right or to the
ieft of the nose of the aircraft is
determined from the RMI.
c. If the bearing is to the right of the
nose, the number of degrees determined
in b above is added to the
aircraft
heading. This is to determine the
magnetic course to the station. If the
bearing is to the left of the
nose, the
number of degrees determined in b is
subtracted from the aircraft heading. This
is also to determine the
magnetic course
to the station.
14-15. Station passage (lixed card)
Station passage is indicated by a
movement of the bearing pointer from its
position at the index at the top of the
RMi (if homing). Otherwise, it is indicated
from its position at or near that index (if
maintaining a course) to the reciprocal of
that position.
N
0
BEACON
\
'"
..
00
[ïiliJ
1-240 123
 (fixed
14-16. Courses to a station
card)
BeACON
The procedures for maintaining the :::.::~<:
course to a station using relative
bearings are illustrated in figure 14-7.
These procedures are outlined as
follows:
is inbound to
a. Point A. The aircraft E
the station on a course of 350 degrees, ...
the heading is 350 degrees, and the
bearing pointer is indicating a O-degrees
relative bearing.
D
b. Point B. Wind from the left has
caused the aircraft to drift off course to
the right. The bearing pointer indicates a
5-degree bearing to the ieft of the nose.
The course is now 5 degrees to the left.
20
c. Point C. To return to the course,
degrees of ieft correction must be
appiied. The new heading is 330
...
degrees. The bearing pointer indicates a
bearing of 015 degrees to the right of the
.:"1'..'
nose of the aircraft. ..-I'... \~.. C
,.~
d. Point D. The aircraft has returned to
the course when the bearing pointer
indicates a bearing of 20 degrees to the lli!:iJ
right of the nose.
e. Point E. The aircraft
is turned right
to a heading of 340 degrees (drift
correction of 10 degrees has been
applied). (The bearing pointer indicates
IWINþ
,~
10 degrees has been applied.) The
bearing pointer indicates 10 degrees to
the right of the nose. if the bearing
pointer remains in this position, the drift
correction is sufficient and the aircraft
will remain on course. If not, further A
corrections to course will have to be
made and different drift corrections must
be applied until the course is maintained. OIW
Figure 14-7. Maintaining a course to a station (fixed card)
14-17. Homing
Homing when using relative bearings is
done in the same manner as described
in paragraph 14-5. The aircraft is turned
until the bearing pointer is aligned with
; the index at the top of the RMI. The
I aviator liies to the station by turning the
aircraft as necessary to keep the bearing
pointer on the nose of the aircraft.

124 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

14-18. Courses from a station (fixed
card)
The procedures for maintaining a course
outbound are illustrated in figure 14-8.
These procedures are outlined as
follows:
a. Point A. The aircraft is outbound
from the station on a course of 350
degrees, and the aircraft heading is 350
degrees. Also, the bearing pOinter is
indicating a relative bearing of 180
degrees from the nose of the aircraft. On
the lower heading index of the RMI, the
taii of the aircraft is
considered.
b. Point B. Wind from the left of the
course has caused the aircraft to drift to
the right of the course. The bearing .
pointer indicates a position 5 degrees to
the ieft of the tailor lower index on the
RMI.
c. Point C. A 20-degree heading
change to the left is applied. The
heading is 330 degrees. The bearing
pointer indicates a bearing of 25 degrees
to the left of the tail. c.:t WIW
d. Point D. The aircraft has returned to
the course when the bearing pOinter
indicates a bearing of 20 degrees to the
left of the tail.
~ UO
q,

e. Point é. The aircraft Is turned to a

heading of 340 degrees (drift correction
of 10 degrees has been applied). The
bearing pointer indicates a bearing of 10
degrees to the left of the tail. If this drift
correction is sufficient, the bearing
pointer will remain in this position and
the aircraft will remain on
course. If not,
further corrections to course will have to
be made and different drift corrections
will have to be applied until the
course is
maintained CJIlJ
NOTE: Maintaining a course from a v
station can also be accomplished using
the tail of the bearing pointer. BEACON
However,
the tail of the bearing pointer is Figure 14-8. Maintaining a course from a station (fixed card)
nondirectional and corrections must be
made in the opposite direction to the tail
of the bearing pointer.

15 DECEMBER 1 984 UPDATE. FM

1-240 125
14-19. Positions (fixed card)
The procedures for determining a fix are
illustrated in figure 14-9. The aircraft is
maintaining a course of 090 degrees.
The ADF receiver is tuned to the
beacon. A fix must be identified where
the 120-degree course to the beacon
crosses the 090-degree course. The
course. the heading of the aircraft will
always be used to determine the relative
bearing to a fix. Example: The heading of
the aircraft is 080 degrees (10-degree
drift correction to the left) and is
maintaining a 090-degree course. When
the fix is reached. the bearing pointer will
indicate a position of 40 degrees to the
right of the nose (120 degrees 80 -

aircraft will be at this position when the
bearing pointer indicates 30 degrees to
the right of the nose (120 degrees 90 -
degrees ~ 30 degrees difference
between the two courses). When drift
degrees = 40 degrees). In the same
drift
example. a 10-degree right
correction will result in the bearing
pointer indicating 20 degrees right of the
nose at the fix (120 degrees 100 -

degrees 20 degrees).
correction is required to maintain a ~

lDLJ
~

0900 ~
~
300

I~ ,/
00
~

BEACON

Figure 14-9. Position fixing (fixed card)

126 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

14-20. Interception Inbound (fixed
card)
The procedures for course interception
to a station are illustrated in figure
14-10. These procedures are outlined as
tollows:
a. Point A. At point A, the aircraft is
inbound to a beacon on a course ot 050
degrees. The aircraft heading is 050
degrees and the bearing pOinter is
indicating a zero-degree relative bearing.
The requirement exists to intercept a
course of 80 degrees to the beacon. The
80-degree course can be visualized to
the ieft. Or, it can be determined by
turning the aircraft parallel to a heading
of 080 degrees and noting that the
bearing pointer is indicating a bearing to
the left of the nose. Since there is a 30-
degree difference between the two
courses. a 45-degree intercept angle is
applied. The aircraft is turned left to a
heading of 035 degrees.
b. Point B. At point B, the aircraft has
intercepted the 080-degree course. The
bearing pointer indicates a bearing of
045 degrees to the right of the nose of
the aircraft. The turn to course must be
started before the bearing pOinter

QLJ
'Y

0800 -

~ Q
-<,,'\
1.,,-

;~
:--1")
=."
'So
~(/ 6
~",",'/}
..'"-
Lit-:-

~.:;-
-
A

",#, "

Figure 14-10. Course Interception Inbound (fixed card)

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

127
 (See
reaches the 045-degree bearing.
para 14-10 for a discussion of how to
plan a turn to intercept a course.)
14--21. Interception outbound (fixed
card)
The procedures for interception of a
in
course from a station are illustrated
figure 14--11. These procedures are
outlined as follows:
8. Po;nt A.
At point A, the aircraft is
maintaining a course of 270 degrees
heading is
from the station. The aircraft
270 degrees and the bearing pointer is
indicating a relative bearing of 180
degrees. The requirement exists to
300 degrees from
intercepta course of
the station. The parallel or visuai method
can be used to determine the direction
of the 300-degree course from the 270-
degree course. On a heading of 300
degrees, the bearing pointer will indicate
to the right of 240 degrees or tail of the
aircraft. The 300-degree course is to the
right of the present position of the
aircraft. To intercept the desired course
of 300 degrees, the aircraft must be
turned to the right to a heading of 345
degrees (300-degree course + 45-
,
degree intercept angle).
,
b. Point B. At point B, the aircraft has
intercepted the 300-degree course. The
bearing pointer indicates a bearing of
045 degrees to the right of the 180-
degree index or tail of the aircraft. The
prior to
turn to course must be started
the bearing pointer reaching the 045-
degree bearing. (See para 14-10 for a
,~/\
~c~~ i9.s'~
B
~ the signal is heard. At some point, the
~ null position. Ideally, the null should be
\ face of the azimuth indicator. For
'III 270
.
COURSE
Figure 14-1-1. Course inter-ceptionoutbound (fixed card)
128
discussion of how to plan to intercept a b. BFO. Certain types of radio
course.)
14-22. Determination of time and
distance from a station (fixed card)
The procedures for determining the time
and distance from a station using a fixed
compass card are the same as those set
forth in paragraph 14-12. This paragraph
provides the time and distance formuias.
Section IV
Manual (Loop) Operation of the ARN-
59
14-23. Operation
The radio compass may be operated
manually for navigational use with the
seiector switch in the LOOP position.
Manual operation may be necessary
when the signai or indicator readings
received in the COMP position are
unreliable.
Navigationa; procedures. Naviga-
a.
tional procedures are the same in the
LOOP position as when using the COMP
position. However, the azimuth indicator
is positioned manually by the loop drive
switch to locate the null by sound. If the
switch is moved to the right, the indicator
(clockwise). if
arrow moves to the right
the switch is moved to the left, the
indicator moves to the left
(counterclockwise). An aural null
(minimum reception) results when the
plane of the loop antenna is
perpendicular to a line from the beacon.
GYm
e STATION
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
beacons transmit an interrupted, but
unmodulated radio carrier wave, which is
inaudible unless the BFO switch is
turned on. The beat frequency oscillator
converts the inaudible carrier wave into
an audible sound. On some ADF
receivers, the BFO switch is labeled
"CW." Other radio beacons transmit a
continuous repetition of the identifier
code or transmit a tone interrupted at
intervals by the identifier code. These
beacons are difficuit to identify in manual
ioop operation unless the BFO is turned
to the ON position. The BFO will
combine with the incoming signai and
produce a continuous audible tone. This
will aid in determining the nuil by
ensuring a better signal. Therefore, the
BFO switch must be on during all manuai
loop operations.
14-24. Orientation
There are orientation procedures used in
determining the direction fa the radio
transmitter. These procedures are
explained beiow.
is tuned and
a. The radio beacon
identified in the ANT position. If it is
difficult to identify the beacon, the switch
should be moved from the antenna to
the loop position to receive the identifier.
If it is not heard, the loop is rotated with
the loop drive switch until the identifier is
heard. The loop may have been in the
null position when the receiver was
switched to LOOP. The reception of the
station being tuned may be improved by
turning on the BFO switch. Best
reception is attained by moving the
tuning dial slowly back and forth. This is
done over the station frequency until the
position is located where the lowest
pitched tone is heard. The monotone or
aural signal caused by the BFO will be
heard on either side of the highest tone.
b. The selector switch
is moved to
LOOP if the selector switch is not
already positioned in this mode.
c. The loop drive switch
is moved and
signai will fade at the null position. As
the aviator rotates the azimuth indicator,
the signal will build on each side of the
no more than 5 degrees wide on the
example, if the signal begins to fade
when the indicator reaches 120 degrees
and immediately builds up again at 125
degrees, the null is reasonably narrow.
After the null is located, the azimuth
 indicator points toward the beacon, but
the indication is ambiguous. As an
example, the correct relative bearing may
be at either end of the indicator. II the
null is more than 5 degrees
wide, the
volume is increased with the volume
control until the null is 5 degrees
wide. If
the null is too narrow
or cannot be
definitely located, the volume is
decreased.
d. The loop is manually rotated until
the bearing pointer indicates 090
degrees or 270 degrees from the nose of
the aircraft to resolve the ambiguity.
The
aircraft is turned right or left until the
signal again fades to a null. The
beacon
is then either to the left
or to the right of
the aircraft. A constant heading is
maintained while using the loop drive
switch to maintain the null position. the
II
loop (bearing pointer) is rotated to the
right to maintain the
null, the beacon is
to the right (clockwise) of the aircraft. If
rotated to the left to maintain the null,
the beacon is to the left of the aircraft.
(Procedures for resolving ambiguity are
illustrated in fig 14--12.)
(1) Point A. At point A, the aural null is
received on a compass heading of 270
degrees, with the bearing painter in the
O-degree to 180-degree position. The
beacon is either directly ahead of or
behind the aircraft.
(2) Point B. At paint B, the bearing
pointer is rotated to the
090-degree/270-
degree (wingtip) position, which causes
the signal to rebuild.
(3) Point C. At point C, the aircraft is
turned until the null reappears at the
wingtip position (heading zero degrees).
This indicates that the beacon is either
to the left or right of the aircraft. This
COULD
BEACON Y
BE HERE 1
AIRCRAFT TURNS
UNTIL NULL IS
SO" TO THE NOSE
15 DECEMBER 1984
heading is flown for a short time and the
signal rebuilds. This indicates that
the
aircraft has flown out of the wingtip null.
(4) Point D. The null is relocated at
point D by rotating the bearing
pointer
clockwise to 110 degrees. Therefore, the
beacon is at point X, 110 degrees right
of the aircraft heading of zero.
14-25. Null
Aural null tracking procedures are
identical to those used for ADF tracking.
In this instance,
however, the loop must
be manually rotated to determine the null
position and relative bearing. In tracking
toward or away from a beacon (null at 0
degrees or 180 degrees), drift is
indicated by movement of the null. The
null moves either to the left or right of
the nose or tail position. For
example, if
the aircraft drifts off course to the left, a
20-degree heading correction may be
made to reintercept the null. Procedures
are as follows:
a. With the heading indicator, there is
turn of
a 20 degrees right to intercept
the course. The indicator (loop) is set to
20 degrees left of the nose.
b. The same heading is continued until
the null reappears at this new setting (20
degrees left of nose). Aircraft is back on
desired course.
There is a turn back toward original
c.
heading by 10 degrees and the null
indicator is relocated 10 degrees left of
nose.
d. If correction of 10 degrees is
excessive or inadequate, make additional
corrections of 5 degrees.
NEEDLE MOVED
TO RIGHT-
NULL LOCATED
AT110"
e e
B A
NULL IS
LOCATED
Figure 14-12- Resolving ambiguity (loop)
UPDATE. FM 1-240
14-26. Determination of time and
distance from a station
To compute the time and distance to an
LlMF station, the station is tuned and
identified and the bearing pointer is
placed on the 90-degree or 270-degree
position with the loop switch. The
aircraft
is turned until the null is
located. The
time is noted and this heading is
maintained. The loop is moved and kept
in the null position
as the aircraft
continues to advance. When the bearing
pointer has been moved 10
degrees, the
elapsed time is noted and the formulas
are applied from paragraph 14-12.
14-27. Beacon
a. Homing to a beacon with the
receiver operating in the lOOP position
is accomplished by first locating
the
beacon (para 14-24). Then the aircraft is
turned until the null is on the nose
position. If the aircraft drifts out of
the
null position, the direction of drift is then
determined. Determination is by rotating
the bearing pointer left or right to
relocate the null (para 14-24d). The
aircraft is turned unfil the null is again on
the nose position. This procedure is
repeated until in the immediate vicinity of
the beacon.
b. Determining arrival Over the beacon
are the following:
(1) The time of arrival is estimated
accurately.
(2) Prior to arrival, the bearing painter
is set
on the wingtip position (090
degrees to 270 degrees) with the loop
drive switch to receive a strong signal.
BEACON
X
.
129

(3) As the aircraft flies over the
sharp
beacon (or abeam the beacon), a
null of short duration will be detected.
Chapter 15
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
15-1. General
Although VOR was a great improvement
over earlier navigational systems, gap
a
still existed in the information availabie
when navigating. The TACAN system
fill this gap by
was developed to
providing information needed for precise
geographical fixing of the aircraft's
position. In addition to the dispiayed
bearing information, TACAN adds a
continuous dispiay of range information.
Like VOR, TACAN provides 360 courses
radiating from a station. Distance
measuring equipment (DME), an integral
part of TACAN, provides continuous
slant-range distance information. An
additional advantage is that TACAN
ground equipment is compact and
provides
relatively easy to transport. This
great versatility in beacon installation and
mobility. Stations that have VOR and
TACAN systems collocated are called
VORTAC stations.
of the signai goes from maximum to
undergoing tests or repairs which might
signals, its minimum and back to maximum at the
cause it to transmit erroneous
identification is silenced. Therefore, rate of 15 times per second.
b. Fine azimuth pattern.
To produce
identification signals can be heard during
the fine pattern, another larger plastic
flight.
cylinder containing nine wires is mounted
around the central element and the
15-3. Signal pallerns smaller cylinder, and also rotates at
15
The signal pattern for bearing information
is formed by varying the nondirectional
pattern sent from the stationary central
element of the TACAN transmitter
of
antenna (fig 15-1). The two types
bearing signal patterns are the coarse
and fine azimuth patterns.
This
a. Coarse azimuth pattern.
rotating a plastic
pattern is created by
cylinder around the central element of
the antenna at 15 revoiutions per second
(RPS). A metal wire embedded vertically
in the cylinder distorts the radiated signal
into a cardioid (heart-shaped) pattern. Its
rotation causes the cardioid pattern to
also revolve at 15 RPS. This
resulting
rotating pattern (fig 15-2) is referred to
this. the
as the coarse pattern. From
aircraft receives an amplitude modulation
strength
of 15. hertz. This means that the
WIRES
ON OUTER
ROT A TING
CYLINDER

15-2. Frequencies and ground STATIONARY

equipment CENTRAL
TACAN operates in
a. Frequencies.
ELEMENT
the UHF (1,000 megahertz) band with a
total of 126 two-way channels in the
operational mode (X or V). The DME air.
to-ground frequencies for these channels
are in the ',025 to 1,150 megahertz
ground-to-air
range and the associated
frequencies are in the 962 to 1,213
megahertz range.
b. Ground equipment.
TACAN ground
REFERENCE
equipment consists of a rotating type PULSE DISK
antenna for transmitting bearing
information and a receiver~transmitter
(transponder) for transmitting distance design (azimuth)
is Figure 15-1. TACAN ground beacon antenna
information. The TACAN station
identified by an international Morse- MAGNETIC NORTH
coded tone modulated at 1,350 hertz
with a reception interval of approximately
1\11 ~ ",' I.' I,' I I'
30 seconds. Permanent TACAN ground ':.'.'. \', ~, ,I,.'.'" ,
,,\ ,', .-
stations are usually dual transmitter ",,'~:"\\:'\\"\ 11'1','//1 ~'" ,

.,~:~:{~:,\\:"\',, r'I':'I.'/~;" ",/,'

equipped (one operating and one on ""
r' , ~'~" ~ "'..'-:: ...
FiXED CENTER ..."..",',::.....
i. ;,,:~t~\~'.
standby), fully monitored installations ......~:~..: ,"'('" :/" "'..:'~ -;.
which automatically switch to the
ELEMENT "':~:;~~~~~:"\.'\
:~f.ii ~~~:i:-~,
E
standby transmitter when a malfunction w
to alarm
occurs. The ground monitor, set
1
at any radial shift of plus or minus INNER PARASITIC
degree, is usually located in the base ELEMENT
control tower or approach control and
sets off a light and buzzer to warn the
ground crew when an out-of-tolerance
condition exists. Sometimes TACAN S
COARSEPATTERN
reception might be suspected of being in
error or bearing/distance unlock
conditions might be encountered in flight. CARDIOID PAnERN REIULTINO
When this occurs, the status of the FROM INNER PARAlmC ELEMENT
ground equipment can be checked by
Figure 15-2. Coarse azimuth pattern
calling ATC. When ground equipment is
130 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240
RPS. This is the fine antenna which
superimposes nine lobes on the already
formed coarse pattern (fig 15-3). This
forms a 135-hertz signal.
c. Determination for bearing. To
determine the aircraft's bearing from the
station, a phase angle must be
electronically measured. To measure the
phase angle, a fixed reference is
established. This fixed reference is a 15-
pulse-per-second nondirectional signal
normally referred to as the main
reference bearing puise. One main
reference pulse Occurs with each
revolution of the antenna when the peak
of the cardioid is at a magnetic direction
of 090 degrees. In addition to the main
reference pulse, eight auxiliary reference
pulses also Occur during one revolution
of the ground beacon antenna.
Therefore, a reference pulse occurs
each 40 degrees of antenna rotation
(360 degrees -;- 9 pUlses). The airborne
equipment electronically measures the
time lapse between the main reference
pulse and the maximum amplitude
(signal strength) of the 15 hertz rotating
signal pattern (fig 15-4). This determines
the aircraft's bearing from the station
within a 40-degree sector. Then, the time
lapse between the auxiliary reference

T ACAN

. LOBE PATTERN
ROTATES
1& RPS. RECEIVES
AIRCRAFT
SIGNAL AS A 1. CP8 SINE
WAVE SUPERIMPOSED UPON w
E
A 16 CPS SINE WAVE

N Figure 15-3. Fine azimuth pattern

W?E 9 9 Q 9 9
: SEARINGTOSTATIoN! GROUND
~ I
Q
ROTATING:
0
15 : DETERMINES THIS TIME INTERVAL
RPS: ANTENNA: PARASITIC:
TO POINT OF MAXIMUM SIGNAL STATIONARY: ELEMENT:

A~: :
.
:

-, -L SIGrLS
!=LEMENT :
I,i + "-

Aux-LI:ILIARY~+
1 i i
V I I
MAIN REFERENCE: .
.

.:
I :~~~~~~~~GNALS 11~
CyL::~:~:: I
1i9Ãlv.
-l

ii'
I ì i .

tõ', :Ó', : 0"'. ~O\ '0' /0\ '0,' .to} "Ò\ '0'
'-"
15
...-' ....,..' ....,4
: ~~~~~~~J~s \..,'
VH~~I~I~EINT~RVAL
T'O
'.....1 ~... '--.... \...../ \..,'
RPS POINT OF

::
.

~' ~
I
: MAXIMUM
t
I
SIGNAL:
, I

I':
I I
,
15CYCLE
I
1/13 -40:.10- SIGNAL
PER SEIC. 7400 M. SEC I
I I
135 CYCLE SIGNAL

COMBINATION OF SIGNAL RECEIVED BY AIRCRAFT

Figure 15-4. Bearing determination

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

131

pulses and the maximum amplitude of
the 135-hertz signal is measured to
determine the aircraft's position
within
of
the 40-degree sector. The accuracy
this measurement determines the
position of the aircraft relative to the
station within plus or minus 1 degree.
.
15-4. Distance measuring equipment
Distance between the aircraft and the
ground station is determined with TACAN
equipment by measuring the elapsed
time between transmission of
interrogating pulses of the airborne set
and reception of corresponding reply
pulses of the ground station (fig 15-5).
The aircraft transmitter starts the
process by sending out the distance
interrogation pulse signals. Receipt of
these signals by the ground station
receiver triggers its transmitter which
sends out the distance reply pulse
signals. These pulses require
approximately 12 microseconds round
trip travel time per nautical mile of
132
distance from the ground beacon. The
range Indicator displays slant-range
distance (fig 15-6) to the TACAN beacon
in nautical miles. Since a large number of
aircraft could be interrogating the same
beacon, any particular airborne set must
replies
sort out oniy the pulses which are
to its own interrogations. Interrogation
puises are transmitted on an irregular,
random basis by the airborne set which
then "searches" for replies synchronized
to its own interrogations. If the signals
are interrupted, a memory circuit
maintains the last distance indication on
the range indicator for approximately 10
seconds to prevent the search operation
from recurring. The searching process
starts automatically 10 seconds after the
airborne set is tuned to a new beacon or
when there is a major interruption in
beacon signals. Depending upon the
aircraft's actual distance from the
beacon at the time, the searching
process may require up to 22 seconds.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
15-5. TACAN characteristics
Bearing/distance uniock. TACAN
a.
bearing and distance signals are subject
to line-of-sight restrictions because of
their utilization of UHF frequencies.
Because of the transmission/reception
principles, unlock (indicated by rotating
of bearing pointer and/or range
indicator) will occur if these signals are
obstructed. Temporary obstruction of
TACAN signals can occur in flight when
aircraft fuselage, wing, or gear; external
stores; or wingmen get between the
ground and the aircraft antenna. Aircraft
receiver memory circuits prevent unlock
for short periods (approximately 10
seconds for DME and 2 seconds for
azimuth). But beyond this, unlock occurs
and will persist until the obstruction is
removed and search cycles are
completed. Unlock may occur during
maneuvers, such as procedure turns,
which cause the aircraft antenna to be
obstructed for longer than 2 to 10
seconds.
 INTERROGATION AND PULSE REPLY FOR DME

þ REPLY

X
INTERROGA
TION- 1-~
>ì
,
-X

Figure DME principles

t~.

SLANT RANGE DISTANCES

I
SLANT
RANGE
I

ACTUAL RANGE ACTUAL RANGE

~
-

......

Figure DME distances

tH.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 133

The
b. Azimuth cone of confusion.
the azimuth of
structure of cone
confusion over a TACAN station (fig 15-
7) is considerably different from other
NAVAIDs. The azimuth cone can be up
to 100 degrees or more in width
(approximately 15 nautical miles wide at
40,000 feet). indications on the aircraft
instruments make it appear even wider.
Approaching the TACAN station, usable
,
azimuth information is lost before the
actual cone is reached. This is correct
is
even though actual azimuth unlock
prevented by the memory circuit until
after the aircraft has entered the cone.
After the cone is crossed and usabie
signals are regained, the search cycle
extends the unusable area beyond the
is
actual cone. Only azimuth information
unusable in the cone of confusion; siant-
range distance information continues to
be displayed on the range indicator.
fluctuations. Siight
c. Range indicator
oscillations up to approximately one-
fourth nautical miles are normal for range
indicator operation. When a usable signal
is lost, the memory circuit maintains the
indicated range for about 10 seconds.
If
this period,
the signal is regained during
CONFUSION
~
;'
Figure 15-7. TACAN azimuth cone of confusion
134
the indicator will "jump" to the correct
reading.
d. Erroneous
TACAN indications.
Several forms of malfunction of airborne
equipment or interference between
ground stations can give false or
erroneous TACAN navigational
information to an aviator. These
discrepancies are easier to recognize
and guard against if the aviator is aware
they can occur. The more common
erroneous indications are-
(1) A 40-degree azimuth error lock-on.
The construction of the TACAN ground
antenna is such that it transmits a series
of nine signai lobes (eight auxiliary and
one main reference pulse) 40 degrees
working
apart. With the airborne receiver
the main reference puise
correctiy,
(which occurs when the peak of the
rotating cardioid pattern is at the 090-
degree magnetic direction) locks on at
the 090-degree slot of the receiver. With
a weak airborne receiver1 the main
reference pulse may "slide over" or miss
the 090-degree slot and lock on at one
of the auxiliary positions. When this
40
occurs, azimuth indications will be
degrees or some muitiple of 40 degrees
CONE
OF
~ NAVAIDs to be used.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
in error. Rechanneiing (retuning) the
airborne receiver to deliberately cause
unlock may cause the receiver to lock on
properly. When other
bearing information
it
such as VOR or ADF is available,
should be used to verify the position
periodically. This type error is unusual,
but possible in present day TACAN sets.
(2) Co-channel interference. Co-
channel interference occurs when an
TACAN
aircraft is in a position to receive
signals from more than one ground
station on the same frequency. Normally
this occurs only at very high altitudes
when distance separation between like
frequencies is inadequate. DME, azimuth,
ground
or identification from either
station may be received. This is not a
malfunction of either air or ground
equipment, but a result of interfering
signals of two ground facilities.
(3) False or incorrect lock-on. False or
incorrect lock-on indications in the
aircraft can be caused by
misalignment
or excessive wear of the airborne crystal
selector assembly. Selection of a
numbered TACAN channel activates a
drum and wiper arrangement which
rotates until the wiper contacts the
proper crystal on the drum. These crystal
contact points are very small and close
together. Wear or misalignment can
cause the wiper to miss the proper
crystal and contact the wrong one. This
in or
can result in no station being tuned
the wrong station. When this occurs,
rechanneling of the receiver may result
in the correct channel being selected.
e. Precautionary actions.
The following
precautionary actions should be taken to
guard against in-fiight use of erroneous
navigational signals:
(1) ALWAYS check the identification of
it during
any NAVAID station and monitor
fiight.
(2) ALWAYS use all suitable
navigational equipment aboard the
aircraft and cross-check heading and
bearing information.
(3) NEVER overfly preplanned
estimated time of arrivals without careful
cross-check of NAVAIDs and ground
checkpoints.
(4) CHECK notices to airmen
(NOTAMs) and FLIP before flight for
possible malfunctions or iimitations on
(5) DISCONTINUE USE of any
suspected NAVAID and confirm aircraft
position with radar or other equipment.
 15-6. AN/ARN-103 TACAN
The ANI ARN-1 03 TACAN control panel
consists of an operabon mode-select
control, a mode switch, volume control,
channel select control and indicator,
built-in-test (BIT) capability, BIT
indications, and an ECM indicator (fig
15-8). Refer to the aircraft operator's
manual if a different set is installed in the ECM WARN
aircraft. LAMP

15-7. Navigational procedures

Since TACAN presents bearing
information in the same manner as VOR,
there is no change in the procedures ".-vol;
used for orientation, track interception, or
tracking. The procedures
presented in
this chapter will be those used to take T
G
advantage of range information
presented by TACAN.
A
C ~
A
N
MODI
r/R~
15-8. Station passage )!
Because of the large TACAN azimuth
cone of confusion, an inaccurate
determination of station passage will
result when using the TO-FROM
indicator reversal or RM I needle reversal.
The most accurate method of
determining passage is by nobng when
the range indicator stops CHANNEL MODE OPERATION MODE
decreasing. SELECT CONTROLS
Flying directly over the station, the SWITCH SELECT CONTROL
range
indicator will stop decreasing when it
indicates the approximate aircraft albtude Figure 15-8. TACAN control panel (AN/ARN-103)
above the station in nautical miles. For
example, an aircraft flying at 12,000 feet
above ground level (AGL) is at an
altitude of approximately 2 naubcal miles
(6,000 feet approximates 1 nauticai mile).
Therefore, the range indicator should
stop decreasing when it indicates
approximately 2 nautical miles (fig
15-9).
At altitudes of 5,000 feet AGL
or less,
the reversal of thé
sense indicator is
accurate enough at ATC estimates.

15-9. Ground speed checks

8
A ground speed check

.'
can be made

8
while maintaining a
course to or from a
TACAN station. As a guide,
however,
ground speed checks should be
performed only when the aircraft's slant-
range distance is more than the aircraft
altitude divided by 1,000. For
example, ~
the aircraft is at 10,000 feet, ground
speed checks should be performed only ;:;------ ""'""""".,
.~ .-.'"
.
,

::r----
.,co

when 1 0 or more naubcal miles from the .

.
.
.

stab on. Checks made

.

below 5,000 feet .

,-
--
-
-

..,,-
can be considered accurate at any
distance from the stabon. To perform the
ground speed check, begin bming when
the range indicator shows a whole
number. After a predetermined time has
elapsed, check the range indicator and
note the distance flown. On a computer,
set the distance flown over the elapsed
Figure 15-8. Indication of station passage

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM

1-240 135
 15-10. Intersections
time in minutes and read the ground
speed above the 60 index (fig 15-10). When using TACAN, intersections can
The longer the elapsed time, the more easily be established without cross-
accurate will be the computed ground tuning different stations by placing the
speed
speed. To determine ground course depicted on the emoute chart
in
the multiply
without using computer, the course selector and observing the
distance flown in 2 minutes by 30, 3 published DME reading for the desired
minutes by 20, 6 minutes by 10, and 12 intersection. For example, assume
minutes by 5. tracking is outbound from Wiregrass
VORTAC on V-241 (fig 15-11) and
Hound and Dared intersections must be
established. With 230 degrees set in the
course indicator and a centered needle,
the aviator will be over Hound
intersection when the distance indicator
reads 20 nautical miles and Dared
interseGtion when the reading is 27
nauticai miles.
15-11. TACAN arcs
TACAN arcs are lines of
a. Definition.
constant radial distance from a TACAN
station and are sometimes flown during
departures and approaches. Arc
instructions are given as "via (number of
miles) mile are, direction (east, for
example) of (name of NAVAl D)." An
example of this is "Via 1 O-mile are, east
of Wiregrass VORTAC."
b. Uses. TACAN arcs are used
primarily for instrument approaches and
departures. Approach procedures are
depicted in the instrument approach
procedures of 000 FLIP. Departure
procedures are depicted in standard
instrument departures or may be issued
by departure control. Three typical uses
of TACAN arcs are discussed below.

(])AFTER 3 MINUTES (j) SET UP COMPUTER

HAVE ELAPSED
AGAIN NOTE
~NGEINDICATOR ~tn'~ ~'"

.e.
i~"""",-~, V ~

~~...-
..
'"
i ,. ----..

i
~

~~----e- <D NOTE TIME AND

RANGE INDICATION

Figure 15-11. DME mileage depiction

136 15 DECEMBER 1 984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 (1) Transition to a final approach
radial. The approach depicted in figure
15-12 would be executed by tlying the
published radial inbound from the initial
approach fix until intercepting the 10
DME-mile arc. This arc would be
maintained until the final approach radial
was intercepted, at which time the pilot
would turn inbound on final approach.
The final approach fix would be
established when the range indicator
showed 5 nautical miles and the missed
approach point would be indicated by a
1.6 nautical mile reading.

TACAN RWY 2 A.i Jti Ú4 U:.';'

PAtRICk AFa (kCOF)
lO(UA 8tAUt. flOQID,w"

-----
PAtato:: N'9 CON
119.t5 358.3 ~ R.2931
PAftIOt TOWER *

t26.2
ON> CON
121.7
348.4

335.8
/ ./o.UTfC)N: 1Ight8d boDoon
OJ!unmarIaed cab18
to W.DOO' in R.2931.
.
'-----

~~
QNe DEL "">
118.. / ;~~
....
ATIS

273.'
*
/ '-\
I
'.'

.
.

.,
\
~2Doo
.

WC~
ORlANDO
110"-
52.2)
\
I

I
<:,~
'f>''!'J'' oo:~
(W)
;% I
\
/
\
/
r'"
~~
/
-ræ-J/
"'-- ~ERO BEACH
............
..-/'
EMfRG SAf
ATLAS
AL T 100
NM 1. 000 - -

--- BEV 9
1-090 10 DMf $EtA, MISSED APPROACH HIll ~ 2-20
5õëõ~DrME
I
1-1'U
I 7
c.-. draight ah80d to 25QO,
un right to AnAS. ...
1E11
..,. 2

DMf
..
"
2500 IO~.~1 .
"':'"
I
~
I TACAN
I
1.... 0...-1
I
11Q!& I
tv<. 1 I
1""^~
""""I
III.' V "':"
I
93

..............

CATEGORY A . 0
5-2 :WO--Yo "

S6C>-2
CJOa.N:; .æ-1 471 (500-1)
. 2
...
@
5-_2 :WO--Yo 333 (<<10-"1

~>
OW' to
TACAN

TACAN RWY 2 ".W'N-80.36'W coco... BEACH. FLORIDA

PATRICK AFB (KCOF)
...

Figure 15-12. TACAN arc used to make a transilion 10 flnal approach radial

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 137

 (2) Entire final approach pattern. The
approach depicted in figure 15-13 would
be executed by flying a course of 331
degrees outbound from the Baltimore
VORTAC until intercepting the 14.7 DME-
The 14.7-mile arc would then
mile arc.
be maintained throughout the approach
untilreaching the missed approach fix.
The final approach fix would be
established by setting 036 degrees in the
course indicator and awaiting a centered
fix would
needle. The missed approach
be indicated by a centered needle with
055 degrees .et in the course indicator.

'" _LIoIAIIINS'AÆ
TACAN 1 RWY 14 AWD2 cuW) W_"""""""

~
~
y
rnm:J
---
----
1""..1
III"."
.IU'-"
iii";,
'.';&
"
It

""'"
..,

12300 I

--
...
-""
/4/
---"-
I'''' M
"1M" VCIIf~
"''''11 DMI--
ICIiAIt..,........

...'

..-
~I'
-
-as
'JØ0.3
",. (1~1
11..,1
11,.

.., 1. '" n8'

~...,....

w1WiC8, MdYUHD
TACAN 1 RWY 14 -.....- OUNN ~ 00IAI"" STAIt
"'

Figure 15-13. TACA:N arc used for entire final approach pattern

138 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

 (3) TACAN departures. A TACAN
departure (fig 15-14) could be a portion
of a SID or it could be described by
departure control. The controller would
issue essentially the following
instructions concerning such a departure:
"After takeoff, track outbound on the
080-degree radial until intercepting the
10.DME-mile arc east of the station; turn
left 10 maintain the 1 O-DME-mile arc;
intercept and track outbound on the 030-
degree radial."

I
I
.I
,]
1":,: I
" /
~ /
Q /
/
.~
/i"
/
J:. ~
i.{:.. ò'
<ë-"?"
".
o'
~
.

I
~'<;
~
I .

I ~(j , "''''''''&
I Q

I
I ~ \"."':.'1-:
':"::::~'
"

.'..,.
/ LEAD POINTS '\\f-
, -
'.'
-- --
~'
........Z :.:.:

,
,/ ..è
;0800
~Þ.O\Þ.l.
-- -- --
,
/ ..........~B.$'#~''!!.-'"''''''
tJ/Hf.'ff.''f'!:''''''''. .
..........',;.i::,
\
AIRPORT

Figure 15-t4. TACAN departure

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 139

 c. Arc interceptions. To intercept a
TACAN arc (fig 15-15) from a radial
(maintaining course inbound or
outbound), a turn of approximately 90
degrees is required to piace the bearin9
pointer on the wingtip toward the station.
Here the range indication is equal to the
desired arc. A good technique to
determine the leadpoint for a 90-degree
arc interception is to lead the desired arc
one-halJ percent of the ground speed for
a standard rate (3 degrees per
second)
ground speed
turn. Or 1 percent of the
for a half-standard rate (1 V, degrees per
second) turn can be used. For example,
with a 200-knot ground speed, the
amount of iead would be 1 nautical miie
for a standard rate turn and 2 nautical
miles for a half-standard rate turn. The
turn to intercept the arc should be
started when the range indication is
equal to the radius of the arc - plus or
minus the lead. The lead can be added
to the radius of arc when intercepting fhe
arc from an inbound course to the
station. It can be subtracted when
intercepting the arc from an outbound
course. During the last 30 degrees of
turn, the bearing pointer and range
indicator must be monitored to determine
when to roll out. If it appears that the
turn will not be compieted at the desired
with the
range, the aviator should rollout
bearing pointer ahead of the wingtip to
decrease the range, or behind the
wingtip to increase the range.

I I
LEADPOINTS
NAUTICAL MILE LEAD FOR TACAN
1% X GROUND SPEED =

1.1/2 "!SEC RATE OF TURN STATION IF THE TURN WILL NDT BE CDMPLETED AT
THE DESIRED RANGE, ROLL OUT WITH THE
1/2 % X GROUND SPEED = NAUTICAL MILE LEAD FOR
30 SEC RA TE OF TuRN
Q BEARING POINTER AHEAD OF THE
WINGTIP TO DECREASE THE RANGE
ANO BEHIND IT TO INCREASE
THE RANGE
\ /
EXAMP,LE:
RATE OF TURN 3" PER SEC

-II
GROUND SPEED 200 KTS
1/2%.2=1 NMLEAD

.::!i::::.;.....tf~
""
.::::'
.

.. '"
",.''''"
d~::' ..

~(~.q
D"O'I\I

8
.:.
,::i::' ,. INTERCEPT ARC BY TURNING
.::::' TO PLACE STATION ON
WINGTIP AT REQUIRED DISTANCE
./~/::' -
Fig,ur~ 15-15. Intercepting TACAN arcs

140 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 d. Relative bearings. In theory, it is
simple to fly a TACAN arc by maintaining
a relaUve bearing of 90 degrees or 270

degrees (fig 15-16). In practice, this can

be difficult since the exact rate of
necessary turn will vary with distance
from the facility, airspeed of the aircraft,
and drift in crosswind conditions. A good
procedure is to fly a series of short legs,
keeping the bearing pointer on or near
the wingtip position. Corrections should
be made, as necessary, with reference
to the distance shown by the range
indicetor. For example, with the bearing
pointer on the wingtip and the aircrafl at
the desired range, heading should be
maintained and the bearing pointer
should be allowed to move 5 degrees to
10 degrees behind the wingtip position.
This will cause the range to increase
slightly. Nex1, a turn is made toward the
station to place the bearing pointer 5
degrees to 1 0 degrees ahead of the
wingtip and this heading is maintained
until the bearing pointer is again behind
the wingtip. Corrections from the inside
are assisted by the arc curving toward
the aircraft. If outside the arc, greater
corrections will be needed to return. The
range indicator should be continually
monitored and adjustments in heading
should be made to maintain the desired
arc.
\
\
\
\

~ hl~ VARY THE AMOUNT OF CORRECTION

ACCORDING TO THE RATE OF DEVIATION
AND ADJUST AS NECESSARY ACCORDING
TO THE RA TE OF CORREcnON

Q----~~~~-----
I~ ------
-==:O'e. ("~,,,},É_~.- 'wi'~:~'.
þ.9-c'
, "fI",,.r-
CORRECT 10 20DEGREES FOR

'" '-.. (.~~/~

.~
EACH' 2M!LEDEVIATIONFROMARC

~r";;;':;;;':!.~.
'.'.

Figure 15-16. Maintaining TACAN arcs

15 DECEMBER t984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 14

 interceptions. To intercept a
e. Radial
radial from an arc, the desired course is
set in the course selector window as
soon as practical. The rate of bearing
pointer movement is monitored while
flying the arc. The interception angle will
be approximately 90 degrees. Changing
the lead point used for the arc

0
interception (c above) from nautical mile
to degrees is a technique that can be
used to determine an approximate lead
point. Use the relationship that 1 degree
is 1 nautical mile wide at 60 nautical
miles from the station and its width
15NMARC1D = 114NM
increases or decreases in proportion to
the distance (fig 15-17). For example,
with a 150-knot ground speed using a
standard rate turn, a three-fourth nautical
mile lead point would be used to
3ONMARC10 = 112f11M
intercept the 15 nautical mile arc. Since
1 degree of travel along the 15 nautical
mile arc represents one-fourth nautical
mile, the lead point when intercepting a
radial from the arc (no wind) would be 3
45NMARC 10 =
J/4NM
degrees (fig 15-18).

6ONMARC1D", lNM

\DCAN 8E THOUGHT OF ÄS' NMWIDEATOONM FROM

THE STATION AND INCREASESQR DECREASES IN
PROPORTION TO THE OISTANCE.

Figure 15-17. Degree-distance relationship along a TACAN arc

DESIRED RADIAL ":::"."" '-"";::'.

..::::.:....\,::{:::::...
,

LEADPOINT IN OEGREES 30 ::.:.'

"
314 NM

SET THE DESIRED

COURSE SELECTOR
WINDOW AND
TURN AT THE
lEADPOINT

CHANGE THE
NAUTICAL MILE
lEADPOINT USED

INTEACEPTIO~'"
FOR THE ARC

INTO DEGREES.
.

.:'
~v :::.'
.'

~
",'
','':,:.
i>~
..." ""~':"
~'::"..:.314
NM LEAD POINT
.,.q;. .
'..:::.
,

i>~ ,',','"
,/J '\:::::~~..

Figure 15-18, Intercepting a radial from an arc (no wind)

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

142

15-12. TACAN holding
TACAN holding (fig 15-19), using
distance instead of time, provides a
virtually unlim~ed number of holding fixes
available at each facility. Due to the cone
of confusion, holding is normally
accomplished a considerabie distance
from the station. The direction of holding
is relative to the holding fix (radial!
distance) rather than the TACAN facility.
Once in the holding pallern, turns are
initiated at the indicated range published
or issued by the controller. The inbound
course to the holding fix should be set in
the course selector window. Since the
holding pallern may be a considerable
distance from the TACAN station, course
corrections to Intercept course prior to
reaching the holding fix will be larger
than those normally used in VOR or ADF
holding. For example, 6 degrees off
course at 30 miles is a 3-mile course
error; whereas 6 degrees off course at
10 miles is only a 1-mile
course error.
Chapter 16
Instrument Approach Procedures
16-1. General
The instrument approach is a simple
blending of two skills: basic instrument
flying and precise navigation. Both must
be performed regardless of the effect of
wind or weather. There is a third VMI
element essential to any instrument
flying, especiaily to approaches. It is the
judgment and personal discipline
required to decide to go to the alternate
destination when appropriate. An
..=,':- ~;;; ~E~
-;
"'+4,
,:::::::i::/~+4",'i/::i
TACAIII
RATION
- 'i:::inf
.)('
"",,,;:;:;'"
."P
Figure 15-19. TACAN holding
instrument approach procedure may
have four separate segments. These
include initial, intermediate, final, and
missed approach segments. In addition,
an area for circling the airport under
vlsuai conditions shall be considered.
Section I.
Instrument Procedures
16-2. Identilication of Procedures
a. Straight-in procedure identification.
Procedures whicih meet criteria for
authorization of straight-in lending
minimums shall be Identified by the type
of navigationaJ aid(s) which provide final
approach guidance. Identification is also
by the runway to which the final
approach course(s) are aligned. ILS Rwy
18R, LOC BC Rwy 7, TACAN Rwy 36,
.
LDA Rwy 4, NDB Rwy 21, VOR Rwy 15,
VOR/DME Rwy 6, ILS or TACAN Rwy 9
are examples. A slash (I) shall indicate
that more than one type of equipment
must be used to execute the final
approach such as VOR/DME, or ILSI
DME. When procedures are combined,
the word "or" shall indicate either type
of equipment may ba used to execute
the final approach such as ILS or
TACAN, ILS or NDB, VOR/DME or
TACAN. When the same final approach
guidance is used to the same runway,
the procedures shall be identified as
follows: TACAN 1 Rwy 36, TACAN 2 Rwy
36, VOR 1 Rwy 18, VOR 2 Rwy 18. All
procedures should be carefully examined
to determine capabil~ of flying the entire
procedure. In some instances, the
missed approach segments are
designated to/from a NAVAID with which
Army aircraft are normally not equipped,
.... .,...,-
.''''0'''- -..-,..
TACAN
HOLD-
...NOTTMIRATICHI
~~i~~~I~F
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE -FM 1-240
such as TACAN.
b. Circling procedure identification.
When a procedure does not meet cr~eria
for straight-in landing minimums
authorization, ~ shall be identified by the
type of navigational aid which provides
final approach guidance and an
alphabetical suffix. The first procedure
formulated shall bear the suffix "A" even
though there may be no intention to
formulate additional procedures. If
add~nal procedures are formulated,
they shall be identified alphabetically in
sequence, such as VOR-A, VOR/DME-B,
NDB-C, or LDA-D. A revised procedure
will bear its original identification.
16-3. Units of measurement
Units of measurement are expressed as
follows:
a. Bearings, courses, and radials.
Bearings and courses shall be expressed
in degrees magnetic. Radials shall also
be expressed in degrees magnetic and
shall further be identified as radials by
prefixing the letter "R" to the magnetic
bearing FROM the facil~. For exampie,
R-027 or R-O 10.
b. Altitudes. Units of measurement for
altitude are expressed in feet. Published
heights below the transition levels shall
be expressed in feet above MSL.
Published heights at and above .the
transition levels shall be expressed as
flight levels.
c. Distances. All distances shall be
expressed in nautical miles (60076 feet
per nautical mile) and tenths thereof. The
exception is when applied to visibilities
whicih shall be expressed in statute miles
and the appropriate fractions thereof.
Expression of visibility values in nautical
miles or metric equivalent is pèrmitted in
overseas areas where it coincides w~h
the practice of the host nation. Runway
visual range shall be expressed in feet
except in host nation procedures where
the metric equivalent is used.
d. Speeds. Aircraft speed shall be
expressed in knots.
16-4- Aircraft categories
a. Aircraft performance has a direct
effect on the airspace and visibility
needed to perform certain maneuvers.
Examples are circle to land, turning
missed approaches, or final alignment
corrections for landing and descending.
Terminal instrument procedures (TERPs)
provide for the differences in
performance by placing aircraft in one of
five categories and then establish
approach minimums for each category.
b. The five approach categories (A
through E) are based on 1.3 times the
stall speed in the landing configuration at
maximum authorized gross landing
14~
 weight. An aircraft will fit in only one
category and that category will be the
highest category meeting the
specification. (See tabie 16-1.) If rt is
necessary to maneuver at speeds in
excess of the upper limit of the speed
range for the aircraft's category. the
minimum for the next higher approach
category should be used. For example,
an aircraft which falls into Category C,
but is maneuvering to land at a speed in
excess of 140 knots, but less than 166
knots should use approach Category D
minimums.
Table 16-1
Aircraft approach 'categories and speed criteria
Approach
Speed
Category
A Speed less than 91 knots.
e Speed 91 knots or more, but less
than 121 knots.
c Speed 121 knots or more, bulless
than 141 knots.
0 Speed 141 knots or more, bu11ess
than 166 knots.
E Speed 166 knots or more.
I
NOTE: All US military helicopters may utilize the aircraft
approach Category. A minimum published in authorized
FLIPs. Approach category operating characteristics are used
in determining turning radii and obstacle clearance areas for
i circling and missed approaches. Thereiore, helicopters
! operating a1 speeds greater than CAT A should use the
, higher category minimums. Procedures containing the word
I
"COPTER" in the procedure title, as COPTER VOR 190, are
approved under TEAPs Helicopter Criteria lor helicopter use
only and are restricted Lo SO knots indicated airspaed.
16-5. Instrument approach procedure
Approach eegments begin and end at
designated fixes. However, under some
circumstances, certain segments may
begin at specified points where no fixes
are available. The fixes are named to
coincide with the associated segment.
144
For example, the intermediate segment
begins at the intermediate fix (IF) and
ends at the final app,'oach fix. The
segments are discussed in the same
order in this chapter as the aviator would
fly them in a complete procedure.
(Example would be from an initial,
through an intermediate, to a final
approach, and the missed approach if
required.) Only those segments which
are required by local conditions are
included in a procedure. The design of
the approach should blend ali segments
.
to provide an orderly maneuvering
pattern to the local area with regard to
obstruction protection and airspace
considerations (fig 16-1).
a. Feeder route. The feeder route,
when required, is used to designate
course and distance from a fix in the
enroute structure to the initial approach
fix (lAF). Only those feeder routes
normaliy used which provide an
operational advantage are established
and published.
b. Initial approach segment. In the
initiai approach, the aircraft has departed
the en route phase of flight and is
maneuvering to enter the intermediate
segment. An initial approach may be
made along an arc, radial, course,
heading, radar vector, or any
combinetion. Procedure turns, holding
pattern descents, and high altitude
penetrations are also initial segments.
c. Intermediate approach segment.
This is the segment which blends the
initial approach segment Into the final
approach segment. It is the segment in
which aircraft configuration, speed, and
positioning adjustments are made for
en1ry into the final approach segment.
The intermediate segment begins at the
intermediate fix or point and ends at the
Figure 16-1.' Segments of an approach procedure
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
FAF. There are two besic types of
intermediate segments-the radiel of
course and the arc. When radar vectors
are used, the vector course to the final
approach course constitutes the initial
segment. Also, the flight along the final
approach course to the FAF is fhe
intermediate segment.
d. Final approach segment. This is the
segment in which alignment and descent
for landing are accomplished. The final
approach segment begins at the final
approach fix, or point, and ends at the
missed approach point. Final approach
may be made to a runway for a straight-
in landing, or to an airport for a circling
approach.
e. Missed
approach segment. A
missed approach segment begins at the
missed approach point and provides
obstruction ciearance and course
guidance to a fix for holding or return to
the en route structure. The missed
approach point specified in the approach
procedure may be the point of
intersection of an electronic glide path
with e decision height (DH) or minimum
descent altitude (MDA), a naviga1ion
facility, a fix, or a specified distance from
the final approach fix.
16-6. Straight-in approaches
In figure 16-2, an aircralt approaching
the Baldwin VORTAC requests and
receives clearance for a VOR Rwy 9
approach to the Lee airport. Over the
Baldwin VOR (lAF), the aircralt begins
descent to 2,000 feet while flying
between the Baldwin VOR and Blunk
intersection (the initial approach
segment) on the Baldwin VOR 135-
degree radial. The term "NO PT" (no
procedure turn) appears on the course
between the Blunk intersection and the
Lee VOR indicating that when cleared for
VOR Runway 9 approach from this
direction, a procedure turn is not
authorized. The aircralt descends to
1,300 feet between the Blunk
intersection and the Lee VOR
(intermediate approach segment) on the
270-degree radial. Alter passing the Lee
VOR (FAF) inbound to the airport on the
090-degree radial, the aircraft begins its
final descent to minimum descent
altitude published on the approach chart.
During the descent from 1,300 feet to
landing minimums, the aviator should
expect to establish visual contact with
the runway environment and be in a
position to complete the visuai landing. If
visual contact with the runway
environment is not made or cannot be
maintained by the time the aircraft has
reached the missed approach point, the
missed approach procedure will be
executed. Straight-in approaches are
required unless otherwise authorized by
air traffic control (ATC)-
a. Where the procedure specifies "NO
PT" or "FINAL."
b. When a radar controlled vectors the
aircraft on a radar initial approach to a
final approach fix or a position on the
final approach course.
c. When the controller specifies in the
approach clearance "cleared for straight-
in approach" aithough "NO PT" is not
charted and the aircralt is not being
radar vectored.
NOTE: The term "straight-in approach,"
as used in this paragraph, refers to an
instrument approach procedure that does
not include a procedure turn. it should
not be confused with "straight-in
landing." An aircraft may execute a
"straight-in approach" to a specified
runway and then circle to another runway
for landing. Circling minimums will be
applied in this case. Straight-in landing
minimums apply when published on the
approach chart. A landing is to be made
on the runway specified in the ATC
clearance and contained in the
procedure chart title.

IAF
I'IALI)WIN

Q IIlli2F!AI
r:H ~<:.j -... LEE
-..
.

" ~o. LEE.

.

-'"
.

-', i:I
r".~" !)
.
'0'J
'" I':::.
BLUNK

(AI PLAN VIEW

1300 NO PT
0900
(7.9)
0900-0
-f-
IAF
VORTAC
--. ~_.
--
VOR
3000
I
FAF

~
IN TERM
'='0
c:: lATE

MAP
IBI PROFILE VIEW

Figure 16-2. Straight-In approach

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 14~

 1&-7. Instrument approach with
procedure turn
In figure 16-3, an aircraft is approaching
the Lee VOR from a direction not suited
for a straight-in approach. In this case,
the approach will require a procedure
turn. The aircraft is cleared for a VOR
approach while en route from the
Blinkinsop VOR to the Lee VOR ((A), fig
1 &-3). If tha aircraft is flying at an
altitude above the published feeder route
altitude (3,000 feet, fig 16-3), the aviator
will be cleared to descend to the feeder
route altitude upon receiving approach
clearance unless ATC issues an altitude
restriction. The initial approach begins
when the aircraft crosses the Lee VOR
(IAF) outbound. As the aircraft flies
outbound for a procedure turn, it
descends to 1,800 feet ((B), fig 16-3).
After completion of the procedure turn,
the aircraft begins the intermediate
approach segment and descends to
1,300 feet. The final approach segment
, begins after passing the Lee VOR (FAF)
inbound and descent to landing
minimums is commenced. Positive
indication of VOR station passage and
an on course indication must be received
before descending below the
intermediate approach segment altitude.

ft F
"---".

('~ I

-R270~~~0~~-~:' ""- ,.~,

\
,
,
,)
,\ '" ","
,
-
-~ ,
"
m"~..

þ
",/
-".X
"""~o

1''''''"'0'
.
~,cs ":'.:

(AI PLAN VIEW

IAF
FEEDER
VOR ... ,.
3000
I<EMAIN WI'\HIN
lONM
1800-
INI'\IAL
-.-,1-
INTER MEDIA TE
.. -"/rv
"'I(

'--'"
MAP
IBI PROFILE VIEW lEE GLiNKINSOP

Figure 16-3. Approach with a procedure turn

146 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Section II
Feeder Routes/Standard Terminal
Arrival Routes
16-8. Feeder routes
The terms "feeder route" (sometimes
referred to dS terminal routing) and
"standard terminal arrival routes"
(STARs) refer to procedures whereby an
aircraft departs one enroute facility or fix
and proceeds along a specified course
to a nearby initial approach facility or fix.
Figure 16-4 shows three facilities in a
terminal area: Baldwin (BAL), Blinkinsop
(BLS), and Lee (LEE), and an
intersection (KAREN). Two of these (BAL
and BLS) are not suitably located to
serve as approach aids; the other (LEE)
is localed to provide approach service to
the airport. Air traffic arriving at BAL may
make a straight-in approach, whereas
aircraft arriving over BLS or KAREN
intersection would use the published
feeder routes to LEE and make a
procedure turn.
16-9. Publication
a. Feeder routes. Information on
course, distance, and minimum aliitude,
which is necessary to execute a feeder
route, is pubiished on instrument
approach charts. Figure 16-4 shows an
area with published feeder routes from a
VOR facility and an intersection to the
LEE VOR approach faciiity. In each case,
the information published for the feeder
route consists of-
(1) Course, with the magnetic direction
printed and indicated with an arrow.
(2) Distance, shown to the nearest
tenth of a mile.
BALDWIN
Q 1092BAL
~.L C~,::
.-..
. .
R270 \." 1300 NoPT
"
BLUNK
P\
'"
.-
KAREN
(3) Minimum authorized aititude, based
upon a standard obstruction clearance of
1,000 feet or 2,000 feet in designated
mountainous terrain above obstacles
within 4 nautical miles of the feeder
course.
NOTE: This same format is used to show
course, distance, and minimurn altitude
for initial and intermediate approach
segments with the notation "NO PT"
used to indicate that a procedure turn is
not authorized.
b. Siandard terminal arrival routes. A
STAR is an ATC coded IFR arrival route
established for arriving IFR aircraft
destined for certain airports. The FLIP
includes a book of STARs for the
airports. A STAR will be included in the
flight plan if you intend to use one upon
arrival at your destination or at any
intermediate point where an instrument
approach will be made. STARs may have
published feeder routes which indicate
courses and distances and minimum
altitudes from one or more enroute
navigation facilities to the navigational
facility or fix from which the STAR
begins.
16-10. Execution
A feeder route or STAR is executed in
accordance with the ATC clearance.
Arriving aircraft are usually cleared to the
IAF or to a fix on the enroute structure.
Routing or a STAR will be named in the
clearance. Certain of these fixes on the
enroute structure will have designated
feeder routes or STARs to the IAF. If
there is an approach delay, ATC will
issue holding instructions. If there is no
:-:'"
090
(19)
,~
00/
').~f,)f,)~,
/~~.
\
Figure 16-4. Three facilities in a terminal area
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
delay, ATC will issue an approach
clearance prior to the aircraft reaching
the fix. The published feeder route or
STAR (if one has been assigned) should
be flown to the initial approach fix using
the published altitude(s) as desired
(uniess an altitude restriction or other
altitudes had been assigned in the
approach clearance) and then the
approach should be executed. If there is
no STAR or published feeder route to the
IAF, the controller should have issued
routing instructions and assign an
altitude to the IAF along with the
approach clearance.
Section III
Procedure Turns
16-11. Use of procedure turns
A procedure turn is a maneuver which
allows the aviator
to-
a. Reverse flight direction.
b. Descend from initial approach
altitude or last assigned altitude to a
specified procedure turn altitude from
which descent for final approach is
begun.
c. Intercept the inbound course at a
sufficient distance away from the
approach fix to align the aircraft for the
final approach.
LEE IAFI
1142LEE:~1
Q . +
[jlINK!t"~()t'
'-.10
'1,,6HI c;
ð..1/
-...
0
00
"0
-tI",-
0
14ï
16-12. Typical patterns
Typical procedure turn flight patlerns are
illustrated in (A) and (B) of figure 16-5. A
description is given for each illustration
(a and b below).
a. The 45-degree turn from
nonprocedure turn side (fig 16-5, A).
(1) In this situation, the aircraft flies on
the outbound course or parallel to the
course on the nonprocedure turn side.
(2) At point A, the aircraft turns right
to the procedure turn heading published
on the approach chart, 315 degrees. The
aircraft then flies 40 seconds after
crossing the approach course. If tracking
outbound on the approach course, timing
starts upon completion of the turn to the
procedure turn heading. The time is
adjusted to compensate for known head
winds or tail winds.
(3) At point B, the aircraft turns left to
intercept the approach course at point C
and flies inbound to the FAF.
b. The 45-degree turn from procedure
turn side (fig 16-5, BI.
(1) In this situation, the aircraft flies
outbound to point A north of the
approach course.
(2) At point A, the aircraft turns left to
intercept the approach course. After
intercepting the approach course, the
aircraft turns right to the procedure turn
heading published on the approach
chart, 315 degrees. The aircraft then
continues the procedure as discussed in
a above.

(/--'~" ,,,~~~:F:_.. ~
r:::::..

-- ---

\,
,

-- ---

\'
"
'- "

0---- -- )'
+
c
--
........
-
A
45'
~U-;;";~NON PROCEDURE TURN SIDE
(A)
B

//""'--'( " 'AF

I
, "- '"
1147 LEE
\ "-
"
:-..
\ " A
'-
C
"

,../ ------'"0- -- -
.
+
-- -

--.
--
------8
45' TURN FROM PROCEDURE TURN SIDE

(B)

Figure 16-5. 45.degree turns

148 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240

 c. Teardrop turn. A teardrop turn
16-6) may be executed in lieu of the 45-
degree type procedure turn if the aircraft
heading at the time of crossing the
approach facility is conveniently aligned
w~h a teardrop course.
NOTE: Each of the above (a, b, and c)
applies to a procedure turn illustrated in
figures 16-6 and 16-9. If a teardrop
pattern is shown in an approach
procedure, the teardrop pattern will be
flown.
(1) Upon arrival over the approach
follow acourse outbound not to exceed
30 degrees from the reciprocal of the
approach course and on the depicted
procedure turn side.
(2) At the end of 1 minute (point A),
turn inbound to intercept the approach
course at point B. The timing for the
teardrop begins over the approach fix or
wings level outbound, whichever occurs
last.
(3) Because the time flown outbound
is dependent on the time required to
descend from procedure turn altitude to
the low station altitude, and distance
limitations are shown in the profile
section of the approach chart, the
teardrop angle should be adjusted
according to the time outbound (fig 16-6)
as follows:
(a) One minute outboun~O-degree
teardrop track.
(fig (b) Two minutes outbound-20-degree
teardrop track.
(c) Three minutes outbound-10-
degree teardrop track.
16-13. Procedure turn area
limiting distance for procedure
a. The
turns is published on the profile view of
approach charts (fig 16-3, B). Procedure
turn iimiting distances are normally set at
1 0 nautical miles for standard
approaches and 5 nautical miles for
COPTER approaches. Deviations from
fix, normal will be clearly depicted on the
approach charts.
b. In flying outbound from the
approach fix to execute the procedure
turn, normally fly a minimum of 1 minute.
This outbound leg may be extended, if
necessary, to lose additional altitude or
compensate for adverse wind effects.
However, in no event may the distance
outbound from the station exceed that
published on the approach chart.
16-14. Obstruction clear-
ance-mlnimum altitude
The procedure turn altitude is the
minimum altitude that can be flown until
established on the inbound course on
approach. The published procedure turn
alt~ude will provide a minimum of 1,000
feet of clearance in the procedure turn
maneuver area. In flying outbound from
the approach fix, the aviator would
normally descend from the route
segment altitude (airway or feeder) to the
procedure turn altitude. This descent
may vary between a few hundred feet
and several thousand feet-or there may
be no descent if the feeder route altitude
is the same as the procedure turn
altitude. The rate of descent is a matter
of judgment; however, it should not
exceed a maximum safe nate. A descent
rate of 500 feet per minute is
recommended for the last 1,000 feet of
altitude change. If the aircraft has not
arrived at the minimum procedure turn
altitude at the lime the turn starts, the
descent is continued during the turn until
the minimum altitude is reached. If the
altitude over the initial approach fix is
unusually high, ~ may be necessary to
lose the excessive altitude in a holding
pattern.
16-15. The 45-degree procedure turn
The procedure turn is made at the
standard rate of 3 degrees per second.
This rate of turn may be increased or
decreased, but not to exceed 3!J..degree
bank, to allow the aircraft to roll out on
the desired track. In aircraft equipped
with an integrated flight system which
uses a steering pointer, the turn is
executed with a centered steering
pOinter (approximately a 25-degree bank
angle).

A
la)
.....--
Ib)/-....
[e}/ fro
,/ I'(
-
-
-

....'- -
-
,

.....
I.
......

1.':'~:~"11~::!'J"
,
LEE

1\..1<'LEE
OAF

:-..
oil, "l"~"""".........
\ \ \ "".... .... ,

,ð.
....
~
ø
...."":--'"
"-"'-.... ...:::-....~......

--/-
090. ..
-11-270
B" ""~Q;:
"
"
"
"

'(9,
Figure t8-6. Teardrop turn

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 14!

 I if the turn will result in an interception of
a. n executing the 45-degree
procedure turn, the aviator should
normally fly for 40 seconds from the
approach course on the procedure turn
heading. This timing is calculated so that
the subsequent turn to the inbound
course will be completed when the final
approach course is intercepted.
However, the 40 seconds flying time
must be adjusted if known crosswinds
exist. Figure 16-7 illustrates the results
when time adjustments are not made.
During the turn inbound, the navigation
instruments should be monitored to see
the fhal approach course. When it
becomes obvious that it will not, the rate
of turn should be adjusted by increasing
or decreasing the bank angle. If this
action does not line the aircraft with the
approach course, the turn should be
stopped or continued depending on the
position of the aircraft at a 45.degree
intercept heading to the inbound course.
When the aircraft's position begins to
align with the inbound course, the turn
should be continued and appropriate
wind drift correction applied.

:...
~
1\

~
UNDERSHOOT I OVERSHOOT
1
,
,

~ I

t
I

t I
I I

Rgure 16-7. Improper procedure turn patterns caused by wind effects

150 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240

 b. Adjustment of the 40 seconds flying
time is based upon the known or
estimated drill correction required to fly
the track outbound. An allowance of 1
second for each degree of drift
correction used on the outbound ieg
should be applied to the 40 seconds
flown on the leg of the procedure turn.
Figure 1!H1 shows the aircrall holding a
10-degree drift correction flying outbound
for 1he procedure turn. Aller turning left
45 degrees, the aircraft will be headed
into the wind and will fly for 50 seconds.

16-16. Missed approaches

If the instrument approach and landing
cannot be completed successfully, a
missed approach procedure will be
executed. This procedure is published on
the approach chart and normally is
supplemented by further instructions and
clearances from the controller.

WIND

FACILITY

e -
-

OUTBOUND LEG
8-
Figure 16-8. Adjusting procedure turn for wind effects

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 15

 a. Procedure. The procedure
normally approach procedure printed within the proceed to REHOB intersection and
directs the aircraft to proceed on a profile view. The aircraft is making the hold.
specified course to or from a designated final approach on the 231-degree radial b. Report. A missed approach must be
facility and to climb to a specified to the facility and is unable to complete reported and the reason given (unless
minimum altitude. Figure 16-9 shows the landing. The aviator should execute a initiated by ATC) to the controller as
plan and profile views of aI', instrument climbing right turn to 2,000 feet to soon as practical after starting the
approach procedure with the missed intercept the 157 -degree radial and procedure. The aviator should request

19
Amch 13 CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
VOR RWY 6 Al 577 OJ 'us Arn'y) FORf RUCKER, ALABAMA

CAIRNS A.PP
\11.-340(' 133.45
CON
237.5
/ ---- ~. ---- l'ìv?;---

:WS'-l20- 125.4 2J..4.. OUrF~

, -

C""IRNS TOWER / -fCIII"

126.2
GNP CON
121.9
ClNC Del
133.75
ASR/PAR
2..1.0

248.2

370.3 /
/
/
,/ /'
-----

-- ---
FffDfÌj'--

10
""""

^'",
'-
'/(/:'-..
I"I["S
I"~.s"

'"
"

/'
'\ó.ABIDE
\
ATiS / ~q,
o:).':r
121.1.5

\
0

I
I
I I
QP'PTQ

I /,\
r::1'"

>i" \
\

'-
'" '8'
~~~~--
~

I HoUND--
/-
'"
"'-DARED j /
I
--.
-, ---
-

ElE\( 298
R8moin VCR
wilhin KI NM' MISSED APPROACH
'13,0 Climbing right turn to
20DCI out R.157 aZR
VQR to REHOB

1700~
-.......... 0$/.
INT GIld hold

.~
4
"..../
..

CATEGORY ' . C D TDZE 298

741)/40 442 (500-~) 740/50 740/6IJ

5-6 442 (500-1) .wZ(5OQ.-I'J.)
7BO-IV, 0"'" CD ,.
CIRCliNG
740-1 760-1 860--2
U2 (500-11 0462(.500-1) 481 (500-1\.1;1) 562 (600-2)
$-PAR 6 49B/24 2DD (700-\7) 49B 40 200 20[},\'.) os '1.7"

A
HIRl
R~ 6-24. 16-36

VOR RWY 6 3\.ló'N-S'-43'W

FOQy ~:KKrR, ALABAMA
CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
19

Figure 16-9. Plan and profile views of an Instrument approach procedure

152 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

clearance to execute another approach
(if feasible) or request clearance and file
a flight plan to an alternate
airport.
SectIon IV
Holding Patterns
16-17. Definition
Because of heavy traffic conditions
enroute or at busy air terminals, air traffic
controllers occasionally will instruct
aviators to hold. Holding is the procedure
used to delay an aircraft at a definite
position and assigned altitude. In
some
instances, the aviator may be directed to
climb or descend to a newly assigned
aititude in the holding pattern.
16-18. Configuration
The standard holding pattern consists of
right turns (fig 16-10) and the
nonstandard holding pattern has left
turns.
16-19. Timing
a. The initial outbound leg of a holding
pattern at or below 14,000 feet MSL
.
should be fiown for 1 minute. Known
adverse head winds or tail winds may
make it necessary for the aviator to
extend or reduce the 1 minute to achieve
as close as possible to a 1 minute
inbound time. Above 14,000 feet MSL,
the leg should be flown for 1 Y2 minutes.
This applies unless otherwise specified in
the approach chart or in the ATC
clearance.
b. Since holding is concerned with
time. inbound and not distance inbound, it
is not
necessary to know the wind
velocity. By using the computer side of
the dead reckoning computer, the aviator
can determine the time outbound that
will result in 1 minute inbound. For
example: Ou1bound time of 1 minute
results in time inbound of 26 seconds.
To determine the outbound time, set 26
on the inner scaie under 60 on the outer
scale. Then the required time outbound
of 139 seconds can be read under the
speed index.
c. Outbound timing (fig 16-11) begins
over or abeam the holding station,
whichever occurs later. The position
abeam the station can be determined by
a change of the TO-FROM indicator or
by setting the course selector to a radial
90 degrees from the approach course.
When the needle centers, the aircraft is
at the abeam position. The RMI is used
to determine the abeam position for both
VOR and ADF holding. When the
appropriate bearing pointer pOints to a
heading 90 degrees to the holding
course, the aircraft is at the abeam
position. During intersection holding,
outbound timing is started when the
aircraft has completed its outbound turn
and is wings level on the outbound
heading. Outbound time will be adjusted
to achieve the desired inbound time.
d. The procedure for determining the
abeam position as discussed În c above
will not be affected by the
aircraft
heading. Outbound timing should begin
when anyone of the indicators identifies
the abeam position regardless of the
outbound heading.
16-20. Airspeeds
Maximum indicated airspeed allowed for
holding is 175 knots for
all propeller-

ABEAM HOlDING SIDE

I
I
I OUTBOUND .

I
FIX END I OUTBOUND
I END
, I
1
I
:/HOLDING
FIX
I
RECIPROCAL \ 1 INBOUND
HOLDING
COURSE /~ I
NONHOLDING SIDE COURSE

Figure 16-10. Standard holding pattern

e
:E
~
w
'"
~
I
I
I
I

TIMING STARTS OVER FIX

TIMING STARTS ABEAM FIX

Figure 16-11. Outbound timmg

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM
1-240 153
 (3) Determine entry turn from the
driven aircraft and helicopters. However, 16-21. Turns
aircraft heading upon arrival at the
helicopters using holding patterns Malle all turns during entry and whiie
holding fix.
depicted on COPTER instrument holding at: (1) 3 degrees per second, or
(2) not to exceed 3D-degree bank angle, b. Standard holding paltern entry.
approach charts will fly 90 knots
angle, provided a (1) Refer to the letters on figure 16-12
maximum indicated airspeed. Different or (3) 25.degree bank in applying the following instructions:
speeds are allowed for civil and military flight director system is used.
(a) Parallel procedure-parallel the
turbojet aircraft, depending on holding
holding course, turn left, and return to
altitude and aircraft category as listed in 16-22. Entry the holding fix or intercept the holding
current navigation publications. Aircraft
a. Pilot action. course.
operating en route at normal cruise
(1) Cross the holding fix initially at or (b) Teardrop procedure-proceed on
airspeeds higher than the maximum
below maximum holding airspeed. If the outbound track of 30 degrees (or
authorized for holding are required to
required, effect speed reduction 3 less) to the holding course; turn right to
reduce airspeed 3 minutes or less from
minutes or less from the holding fix. intercept the holding course.
the holding fix. "

(2) Compensate for known effect of (c) Direct entry procedure-turn right
except when turning. and fly the pattern.
:wind,

STANDARD PATTERN

...
.... .... ....
,...... ..

.....
. .

.....................,..
..."'"''''
.............
........................
...........,.............
.

............
.............
.......,.....
............
...,........
......,........
... .................
.

,...,...............'"
. . . . .

.,...........,..,..........
........................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(b('

Figure 16-12. Holding'pattern entry

154 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 (2) Distance measuring equipment
(DME) holding is subject to the same
entry and holding procedures as in a and
b above except that distances (nautical
miles) are used in place of time values.
The outbound course of a DME hoiding
pattern Is called the outbound leg of the
pattern. The length of the outbound leg
will be specified in the procedure chart
or by the controller. The end of the
outbound leg is determined by the
appropriate odometer reading. When the
inbound course is toward the
navigational aid, the fix distance is 10
nautical miles, and the leg length is 5
NAVAID
10
I..
NAVAID ~O
'\
-
- ~
nautical miles, then the end of the
outbound leg will be reached when the
odometer reads 15 nautical miles (fig
15-13). When the inbound course is
away from the NAVAID, the fix distance
is 28 nautical miles and the leg length is
8 nautical miles, then the end of the
outbound leg will be reached when the
odometer reads 20 nautical miles.
(3) Nonstandard holding pattern entry.
The fix end and outbound end turns are
made to the left. Entry procedures to a
nonstandard pattern are oriented in
relation to the 70-degree line on the
holding side just as in the standard
pattern.
END OUTBOUND LEG
DME FIX
NM . I
28 NM
N
END OUTBOUND LEG
Figure 16-13. OME holding
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE -FM 1-240
16-23. Departure
a. When cleared by the controller to
leave the holding fix, the aviator departs
the pattern from over the fix. An
exception to this occurs when the
controller specifically slates "cleared
from your present position.
.
." If the
.
controller has specified a departure fime,
the holding pattern is adjusted so that
the aircraft is over the holding fix ready
to depart at the specified time. If an
aircraft is holding on the published final
approach course at an approach fix and
receives clearance for the approach, the
final approach is begun from the holding
\
-
-
~
I
155
 the approach chart. When this occurs, a b. If the same amount of drift
pattern without executing the
standard procedure turn will be flown. correction is flown for both inbound and
conventional procedure turn.
outbound legs (but applied in opposite
b. Sometimes an aircraft
is held by the directions), the outbound leg will parallel
aviator on the nonprocedure turn side of 16-24. Drift correction the inbound leg. However, the turns will
the final approach course. If so, the a. Always compensate for known still be wide or tight, respectively. The

aircraft must execute the procedure turn
on the procedure turn side of the final
approach course if a descent to
procedure turn altitude is necessary.
NOTE: At some locations, beginning the
final approach from the holding pattern
may be prohibited by notes published on
effect of wind except while turning.
Sometimes no attempt is made to
correct for adverse effects of crosswinds
while holding. In this case, the turn
inbound will either overshoot or
undershoot the hoiding course
depending on the direction of the wind
(fig 16-14).
aviator has little control over the
aircraft's track while turning. Therefore,
the track of the outbound leg is adjusted
to avoid turning short of or overshooting
the holding course due to effects of wind
drift.

-- -----""""', \
I
I /,-- ------ ------ \
I
I Z'"
\ '
;
\
-
./
,

'-8
-----
íiì
(") RIGHT CROSSWIND OUTBOUND

I
~
"
,--- -- --
w
I --- --
I -- -- ---
\
, -- -... "
,
,
"""-~
~
I
I
/
-...-
......---'
(8) lEFT CROSS WINO OUTBOUND

Figure 16-14. Wind eflect on holding pattern flight

156 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 c. For holding pattern drift d. Two examples of applied drift (1) Direction to hold from the holding
correction- correction are shown below.
(1) Determine the correction fix.
(1) In (A) of figure 16-15, the inbound
(2) Name of the holding fix.
necessary to maintain the track inbound. correction is 5 degrees right; therefore,
(2) Double the inbound correction the correction used outbound is 10
(3) Statement that the holding
and pattern
apply it in the opposite direction while is depicted ("as published").
degrees left.
flying the outbound leg. Or if the inbound (2) In (B) of figure 16-15, the inbound (4) Time to expect further
clearance
correction is over 1 0 degrees, use an correction is 15 degrees left; therefore, (EFC).
outboard correction of1 0 degrees plus the correction used outbound is 25 b. If the holding pattern is not
the inbound correction. degrees right. depicted, holding instructions are issued
as follows:
NOTE: This guide must be adjusted
to fit 16-25. Clearances and reports (1) Direction to hold from the holding
each situation. Analysis of the initial
inbound turn (overshooting or a. When delivering an ATC clearance fix.
for hoiding at a fix with a depicted (2) Name of the holding fix.
undershooting) should be used as a holding pattern, the controller gives the
basis for a subsequent adjustment.
(3) Radial, course, bearing,
following information in the airway, or
order shown: jet route on which the aircraft is to hold.

~
~-_.._--------- \
-',
\
,

~.
(AI LEFT CROSSWIND OUTBOUND

&- ,
,

\
\
I
\
\
I
\
" I
~ I
--
- -
-
- -

-- -
- -
- -
-

-- ---
III RIGHT CROSSWIND OUTIOUND .......

Figure 16-15. Adjusting holding pattern tor wind

effect

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM

1-240 157
 (4) Leg length in miles if DME or area
navigation (RNAV) is to be used.
if
Otherwise, leg length in minutes
requested or if ATC considers it
necessary ,

(5) Direction of holding pattern turns if

left turns are to be made.
(6) Time to expect further clearance.
c. Typical clearances are shown
below.
(1) "Cleared to AJAX VOR, hold south
as published, expect further clearances
at 1930" (fig 16-16, A). / ~~.
Ì''-'.~
(2) "Hold south of the AJAX VOR on AJAX VOR AJAX VOR
the 180-degree radial; expect further
\;'0
clearance at 1930" (fig 16-16,B). .'.'.
(3) "Hold northeast of Cliff on Victor I
I
21, left turns, expect further clearance at -
<
....-'
2050" (fig 16-16, C). i5
is 'NOTE
d. If not in radar contact, the aviator ..
required to report the time and altitude
..
0
0
0 0
reaching a holding fix or point to which ~ ~
cleared and to report leaving any
assigned holding fix or point.

16-26, Stacking FACILITY

a. Stacking
is the procedure when two A. HOLDING AT B. HOLDING AT FACILITY
(DEPICTED PATTERN) (NO DEPICTED PATTERN)
or more aircraft are holding one above
the other at the same fix. As the lower
i aircraft leaves the stack to complete its
it
i approach, the aircraft above is cleared
to the next lower holding altitude. This
,

clearance is given after the pilot of the

i approaching aircraft has reported that he
is vacating his altitude and leaving the
i
,
radio facility inbound. The second aircraft
is cleared for an approach when the first
aircraft is sighted by the tower. It is also
cleared when the tower considers that a
normal, safe landing will be
accomplished.
is
b. Tfte length of time an aircraft
required to hold in a stack depends upon
the time required by the aircraft in the
lower positions to land. Since the delay
may be of considerable duration, the
pilot should fly at an airspeed and power
setting which will provide fuel economy,
but still permit adequate aircraft control.

16-27. Instrument approach briefing

Even the aviator with vast instrument HOLDING AT VOR INTERSECTION
flying experience will make a safer C.
(NO DEPICTED PATTERN)
instrument approach by using a copilot. PATTERN TO BE FL.OWN.
.NOTE. DOTTED LINES INDICATE
Before the flight, the copilot should be HOWEVER, THE LINES DO NOT APPEAR ON CHARTS
briefed and made to understand the
duties to be performed. This is especially
important on the most critical phase of
an instrument flight-the approach and
landing, In addition to any other duties
assigned the copilot, the following duties
are deemed important to the execution
of a safe approach and landing. The
copilot should-
Figure 16-16. Holding patterns flown for typical clearances
engine instruments and
a. Monitor all
warning lights.
b. Be sure that the correct approach
chart is being used.
c. Know at all times
the position of the
aircraft in the approach pattern.

158 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE 'FM 1-240

 d. Crosscheck flight instruments and
radio navigation instruments for
malfunction.
e. Check that altimeters are set at the
correct barometric pressure.
f. Take time to check all
altimeter
indications. (The pilot may misread the
altimeter.)
g. Verify all fixes that are determined
during the approach.
h. Keep close watch on the
altimeter
on the final approach segment and
notify
the pilot when he is approaching 100
feet above the DH or MDA (whichever
applies to the approach) and
when he is
approaching DH or MDA.
i. Watch for the approach lights
or
runway to come into view. Do not inform
the piiot that they are in view until
positive that they will remain in view and
the approach can be continued visually
to a landing.
j. Be prepared, on breakout and field
in sight, to take the
.
aircraft controls and
make the visual approach and landing if
requested by the pilot.
k. Be prepared to execute a missed
approach.
Chapter 17
Instrument Approach Procedure
Charts
Figures 17-1 through 17-20 (pages
162 through 175) are located at
the
end of this chapter.
17-1. General
The Cairns Army Airfield (AAF) VOR
runway 6 and the ILS or NDB-1 runway
6 approach charts (figs 17-1
and 17-2)
are typical of those found in current
navigational publications.
Their format
and general data presentation
are used
as a guide. (For current and detailed
explanation of approach chart symbols,
consult the flight information publication
instrument approach procedure charts
and their legends that are printed with
each volume.)
17-2. Legend pages
Legend pages contain the plan view
symbols, profile information, and airport
diagram information. Figures
17~, 17--4,
and 17-5 are legend pages to the
instrument approach procedure charts.
General information and abbreviations
are shown in figure 17-ß.
17-3. Concentrfc rfngs
Concentric rings (fig 17-7) are used
when it is necessary to chart facilities
Which lie beyond the
chart area If the
procedure was charted to scale. The
rings are normally centered
on the
approach facility.
15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE
17-4. Chart format
Each approach chart (figs 17
-ß and
17-9) consists of the five sections shown
below.
a. Margin identification.
b. Plan view.
c. PrOfiie view.
d Landing minimum
section (and
notes).
e. Airport sketch.
17-5. Margin Identification
The chart title (fig 17-1 0) includes the
page number, chart reference number,
agency originating procedure, type of
approach or procedure such as VOR,
NDB, ILS, or localizer. The runway
airport, city, and state
are also included.
Charts which include the word
"COPTER" in the title are for the
exclusive use of helicopters. The
procedure identification is derived from
the type facillfy prOviding the final
approach course guidance and runway
number. This is when the approach
COurse is within 30 degrees of the
runway centerline such as VOR RWY
6.
17~. Plan views
A plan view (fig wide-angle
17-11) is a Approach Radar instrument approach
view of the entire procedure. Information
pertaining to the initial
approach
segment, including procedure turn,
minimum safe altitude for each
sector,
courses prescribad for the final approach
segment and obstructions is portrayed in
this section. Navigation
and
communication frequencies are also
listed on the plan
view.
a. Formal. Normally, all information
within the plan view is shown to
scale.
Data shown within the 10-nautical miie
distance circle is always shown to
scale
(fig 17-7). The dashed circles,
called
concentric rings, are used when all
information necessary to the procedure
will not fit to
scale within the limits of the
plan view
area. These circles then serve
as a means to systematically arrange
this information in their
relative position
outside and beyond the 10-nautical mile
distance circle. These concentric rings
are labeled Enroute Facilities and Feeder
Facilities.
b. Enroute Facilities Ring. (See fig
17-7.) Radio aids to navigation, fixes and
intersections that are part of the Enroute
Low Altitude Airway structure and used
in the approach procedure are shown in
their relative position on this Enroute
Facilities Ring.
c. Feeder Facilities Ring, (See fig
17-7,) Radio aids to navigation, fixes and
intersections are used by the
air traffic
controller, They are used to direct
aircraft to intervening facilities/fixes
between the enroute structure and the
initial approach fix, This is shown in their
relative position on the Feeder Facilities
Ring, Sometimes the initial
approach fix
is part of the
emoute structure, If this is
the case, there may be no
need to
oFM 1-240
designate additional routes for aircraft to
proceed to the initiai approach fix, In
some cases, however. it is necessary to
designate feeder routes from the enroute
structure to the initial approach fix, Only
those feeder routes which provide an
operational advantage shall be
established and published, These should
coincide with the local air traffic
flow.
The length of the feeder route shall not
exceed the operationai service volume of
the facilities which provide navigational
guidance, The exception is if additional
frequency protection is provided,
Enroute
airway obstacle clearance criteria shall
apply to feeder routes, The minimum
altitude established on feeder routes
shall not be less than the altitude
established at the IAF,
d, Radar availability, (See fig 17-11.)
This is indicated below the
communications information by the
appropriate and applicable letters
"ASR," "PAR," or "ASR/PAR." These
terms are applied as follows:
(1) ASR-means an Airport
Surveillance Radar instrument approach
procedure is available at the airport,
(2) PAR-means a Precision
procedure is available,
e, Initial approach,
(1) In the initial approach, the aircraft
has departed the enroute phase of flight
and is maneuvering to enter an
intermediate or final segment of the
instrument approach,
(2) An initial approach may be made
along prescribed routes within the
terminal area which may be along
an are,
radial, course heading, radar vector,
or a
combination thereof. Procedure
turns,
holding pattern descents, and high
a~itude tear-drop penetrations
are initial
approach segments,
(3) initiai approach information is
portrayed in the plan view of instrument
approach charts by course lines with an
arrow indicating the direction, Minimum
aititude and distance between fixes
are
also shown with the magnetic course,
t, Approach
COUrse. The approach
course is published on an ILS procedure
that does not require a procedure
turn
(NoPT),
(1) In the case of a
dog-leg track and
when there is no fix depicted at the point
of interception on the localizer
course,
the total distance is shown from the
facility or fix to the LOM
or to an NDB
associated with the I LS,
(2) The minimum altitude applies
until
the glide slope is intercepted, at which
pOint the aircraft descends
on the glide
slope,
(3) When the glide slope is not
utilized, this minimum a~itude is
maintained to the LOM (or to the NDB if
appropriate),
g, Procedure turn, A procedure turn is
prescribed when it is necessary to
reverse direction to establish the aircraft
{59
 prescribed The S-Iocalizer 2 minimums are the
inbound on an intermediate or final procedure turn, altitudes over
the same for Categories A and B, but
required fixes, distances between fixes, and
approach course. It is a different for Categories C and D. The
symbol NoPT missed approach procedure. A
maneuver except when the approach glide slope circling minimums are the same for
is shown, when radar vectoring is a. Precision B individually different for C and
and and
provided, when a holding pattern is intercept attitude. This is a minimum
published in lieu oj procedure turn, or altitude tor glide siope interception after D.
Rwy 13R procedure (fig
completion of the procedure turn.
It c. The VOR
when the procedure turn is not 17-15) authorizes minimums for aircraft
applies to precision approaches and,
authorized. The altitude prescribed for with VOR receiver. Lower minimums
the procedure turn is a minimum altitude except where otherwise prescribed, also one
if the aircrait also has a
applies as a minimum altitude for are authorized
until the aircraft is established on the
in case DME receiver and the Intersection is
inbound course. The maneuver must be crossing the final approach fix
is inoperative or not used. identified. (See fig 17-13 for minimums.)
completed within the distance specified the glide slope
in nonprecision The requirement for dual VORs is not
in the profile view. b. Stepdown fixes applicable to Army aircraft. Off-tuning
(1) A barb indicates the direction or procedures. A stepdown
fix may be NAVAID to identify an
provided the final, such as between from the approach
side of the outbound course on which on
approach fix is authorized. Dual VOR
the procedure turn is made. Headings the final approach fix and the airport for
approach minimums apply. Extreme
using the purpose of authorizing a lower MDA
are provided for course reversal This caution should be used when the fix is
the 45-degree-type procedure turn. after passing an obstruction. of the missed approach
within two miles
stepdown fix may be made by an NDB
However, the point at which the turn may point. Knowing capabilities and
be commenced and the type and rate of bearing, fan marker, radar fix, radial from proficiency should be the deciding
turn is at the aviator's discretion. Some another VOR, TACAN, or by DME. identify a fix.
Normally, there is only one stepdown fix factors when off-tuning to
of the options are the 45-degree fix the The weather planning minimums
and d.
procedure turn, the racetrack pattern, the between the final approach
missed approach point. If the stepdown must be recomputed when the MDA of
tear-drop procedure turn, or the 80- to identified DH has been raised due to using a
fix cannot be for any reason,
260-degree course reversal. Some remote altimeter setting. In some cases,
the altitude at the stepdown fix becomes
procedure turns, specified by the straight-in the new minimums will be shown in the
procedural track, must be flown exactly the MDA for a landing.
minimum box (fig 17-16). When not
as depicted. However, when circling under this figure 17-17 will
condition, the aviator must refer to the shown, the method in
(2) There are limitations on procedure to compute the new weather
minimums section of the procedure for be used
turns. circling minimum (figs planning minimums.
(a) In the case oj a radar initial the applicable
pre-flight planning prior to
approach to a final approach fix or 17-14 and 17-15, for example). e. During
approach point. It should be departure on an IFR flight plan,
position, a timed approach from a c. Missed .
should be made to instrument
specifically noted that the missed reference
holding fix, or when the procedure approach This is to determine
approach points are different for the charts.
specifies NoPT, the aviator may not
exception is ILS (with glide slope) and the whether an IFR departure procedure for
make a procedure turn. The complete
obstruction avoidance has been
when the aviator receives final
approach localizer only approach. The MAP for the
ILS is 1he decision height while the established. Take-off minimums are
clearance, he advises ATC and at
a
usually the standard unless the symbol is shown
clearance is received. "localizer only" MAP Is over
(straight-in) runway threshold. In some under the minimums box indicating that
(b) When a tear-drop procedure turn is MAP the separate listing should be consulted.
depicted and a course reversal is non-precision procedures, the may
prior to reaching the runway threshold (Fig 17-19 shows an example of this
required, this type turn must be be
listing.)
in order to clear obstructions in the
in
executed.
climb-out In f. The minimum rate of climb quoted
(c) When a holding pattern repiaces missed approach area.
the IFR take-off minimums and departure
the procedure turn, the standard entry nonprecision procedures, the aviator can
in
determine when he is at the MAP by procedures section quotes figures
and the holding pattern must be followed feet-per-nautical mile. The rate-of-climb
provided tirning from the final approach fix. The
except when radar vectoring is indicators in aircraft are measured in feet
when NoPT is shown on the approach FAF has been clearly identified by use of
or
the maltese-cross symbol in the. profile per minute. Therefore, a rate-of-climb
course. As in the procedure turn, the FAF to MAP table has been developed (fig 17-20)
section. The distance from
descent from the minimum holding will appear in Instrument Approach
fix and time and speed table are found and
pattern altitude to the final approach Procedure volumes in the near future.
altitude (when lower) may not commence below the aerodrome sketches (fig
VORl The proposed location will be
until the aircraft is established on the 17-18). This does not apply to
when the facility is immediately following the IFR take-off
inbound course. DME procedures or
facility is the MAP. minimums and departure procedures
(d) The absence of the procedure turn on the airport and the
tabulation.
barb in the plan view indicates thaf a
procedure turn is not authorized for that 17-8. Minimums section
procedure. a. The same
minimums apply to both 17-9. Alternate airport
(3) A procedure turn is not required day and night operations unless different Use of an alternate airport is sometimes
of required in filing an IFR flight plan (AR
when the symbol NoPT appears on an minimums are specified at the bottom should be made
approach course shown on the plan the minimum box in the space provided 95-1). If so, reference
the instrument approach procedure to
is desired, ATC for symbols or notes. to
view. If a procedure turn selected to
the straight-in and be used for the alternate
approval must be obtained and b. The minimums for
procedure turn altitude must be circling appear directly under each determine alternate airport minimums. If
the is the airport is not authorized for use as
maintained until established on aircraft category. When there no
will follow
inbound course. division line between minimums for each an alternate, the letters "NA"
straight-in circling the symbol under the minimum box.
category on the or
17-7. Profile views lines, the minimums apply to two or more NOTE: If the aviator must proceed to the
Profile views (figs 17-12 and 17-13) categories under the A, B, C, or D.
alternate airport, the alternate ceiling and
show a side view of the procedures. 2 visibility minimums are disregarded. Also,
NOTE: For figure 17-14, the S-ILS
These views include the minimum the published landing minimum is
altitude and a maximum distance for the
minimums apply 10altfour categories,
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
160
applicable for the new destination
utilizing facilities as appropriate to the
procedure. In other words, the alternate
airport becomes a new destination and
the aviator uses the landing minimum
appropriate to the type of procedure
selected.
17-10. Straight-In minimums
Straight-in minimums are shown on
instrument approach procedure charts.
This is when the final approach course of
the instrument approach procedure Is
within 30 degrees of the runway
alignment. It can also be when a normal
descent can be made from the IFR
altitude shown on the instrument
approach procedures to the runway
surface. When e~her the normal rate of
descent or the runway alignment factor
of 30 degrees is exceeded, a straight.in
minimum is not published and a circling
minimum applies. The fact that a
straight-in minimum is not published does
not preclude the aviator from landing
straight-in if the active runway is in sight
in sufficient time to make a normal
landing. Under such conditions and when
ATC has made clearance for landing on
that runway. the aviator is not expected
to circle even though only circling
minimums are published. If the aviator
desires to circle at a controlled airport,
ATC should be advised.
17-11. ClrcHng minimums
The circling minimums published on the
instrument approach chart provide
adequate obstruction clearance and the
aviator should not descend below the
circling altitude until the aircraft is in a
position to make a final descent for
landing. Sound judgment and knowledge
of his and the aircraft's capabilities
are
the criteria for determining the exact
maneuver in each instance. This is
because the airport design, the aircraft
pos~ion, altitude and airspeed must all
be considered. The following basic rules
apply.
a. Maneuver the shortest path to the
base or downwind leg as appropriate
under minimum weather conditions.
There is no restriction from passing over
the airpor1 or other runways.
b. Recognize that many circling
maneuvers may be made while VFR
flying is in progress at the
airport.
Standard left turns or specific instruction
from the controller for maneuvering must
be considered when circling to land.
c. Notice airpor1s without a control
lower. It may be desirable to fly over
these airports to determine wind and turn
indicators and to observe other traffic
which may be on the runway or lying in
the vicin~ of the airport.
17-12. Missed approach
a. There are various terms in the
missed approach procedure which have
specific meanings with respect to
climbing to altitude, executing a turn for
be accomplished by NOTAM and by air
obstruction avoidance, or for other traffic advisory. Sometimes RVR
reasons. Examples include the following: minimums for take-off or landing are
(1) "Climb to" means a normal climb published in an inslrument approach
along the prescribed
course. procedure, but the RVR is inoperative
(2) "Climbing right turn" means a and cannot be reported for the runway at
climbing right turn as Soon as safety that time. In this case. it is necessary
permits, normally to avoid obstructions Ihat the RVR minimums which
straight ahead. are
specified in the procedu re be converted
(3) "Climb to 2400, turn right" and applied as ground visibility in
means
climb to 2400 feet prior to making
the accordance w~h Ihe M ETAR Conversion
turn, normally to clear obstructions. Chart located in instrument approach
b. When the missed approach procedure volumes.
procedure specifies holding at a facility
or fix, holding shall be in accordance
with the holding pattern depicted on the
plan view, and at the minimum altitude in
the missed approach instructions, unless
a higher altitude is specified by
ATC. An
alternate missed approach procedure
may also be given by ATC.
17-13. Procedural component
operation
a. Operative runway lights are required
for night operation.
b. When the facility providing course
guidance is inOPerative, the
procedure is
not authorized. On VOR/DME
procedures when e~er VOR or DME is
inoperative, the procedure is not
authorized.
c. When the IlS glide slope is
inoperative or not utilized, the published
straight-in localizer minimum applies.
d. Compass locator or precision radar
may be substituted for the IlS outer or
middle marker.
e. Surveillance radar may be a
substitute for the IlS outer marker. DME,
at the glide slope site, may be
substituted for the outer marker when
published on the IlS
procedure.
f. Facil~jes that establish a
stepdown
fix, such as 75 megahertz FM, off
course
VOR radial, are not components of the
basic approach procedure. Applicable
minimums for use, therefore, both with or
w~hout identifying the stepdown fix, are
published in the minimums
section.
g. Additional methods of identifying a
fix may be used when authorized on the
procedure.
17-14. Runway vlaual range (RVR)
minimums
To authorize RVR minimums, the
following components and visual aids
must be available in addition to basic
components of the approach procedure:
a. Precision approach procedures.
(I) RVR reported for the runway.
(2) High intens~ runway light (HIRl).
(3) All wealher runway markings.
b. Nonprecision approach procedures.
(I) RVR reported for the runway.
(2) HIRl.
(3) Instrument runway markings.
c. Inoperative RVR minimums. Where
RVR visibility minimums are pUblished
and the runway markings become
unusable, the necessary adjustment will
IS DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
161
 13 .. CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
..... 6 ÂLA606.MA
VOR RWY -
Al.577.03 (US A.",yj
-
FORT RUCKER

C....IRNS ;.n CON ----

,';;;;;--
121.-:)44. 133.45 237.5
ou,,~
~. -12Oa 125..4 234.4
/' ,~

--
CAIRNS TOWER / all;::-
126.2
GND CON
2.41.0

/ /"
---- -- FffDffi''''
,c-..qC'/~
'ifoS'

121.9 '2A8.2
/ "'.ð:~8IDE .

10
CLNC DEl / "'", '" /
\33.75 370.3/ ,/ i~' \
Þ-9.!PM
,..TlS
' /
12U5 37.4.3 \
I 7~9/!..

~ -:e b"iE~=;,.
I 1/3.B)

w_. '6B~Þ
--:::.....

~ O~ \
(23.8) ".,}

?" ~
0""'
0/, I

CRESTVIEW (Fie) 'l7ó" 0 -P

~
115.9 CEW ==. \ Ó
~
~
Chen 106

~~ f /
\(~ "'" ~~Ê.'HOB
~~.
.'\ ~
/
/
'Ig,,"!- -

"'--
DARED j" /-l
HoUND
'\
..-/' /'
-.....c
--- ElEV 298
RlIII\Oin voo
within 10 Nt;. M.ISSED APPROACH
'/.'!.,' Climbing riQht Nr'n to
2000 out A-157 OlR
VOR to REHOB
INT and hold
1700~
--........ 05,.
./
,...,"~...
~

c 0 TO"
CATroORY .. .
...
(soo-..I 7.0/50 7.o/6IJ ..~:i:'~
.... 7.0/.0 ... (300-,) 442 (500-114) 36
760-1
A4$'2

780-1 !'I 860-2

~./@
7.0.-1
CMtCltNG 482 (500-11'l) 562 600-2
.w:z (500-1) 462(~1)
~98/2~ 200 (200- JI,) ~9 200 2QO.~) GS 2.7"
.......
.. Hill Rwp 6-2.4, 18-36

FORT RUCKER, AlAßA.M,I.,

VOR RWY 6 3'816'N-8JO,c3'W
CAIRNS AAT- (OZR)
..

Figure 17-1. Cairns VOR RWV 6 approach chart

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

162
 "
A""dt II/Arndt 13
ILS or NDB-l RWY 6 Al 577 02 \U5 A.myl
CAIRNS AAF (OIR)
FORT RUCKER, AlABAMA

-- --
CAIRNS APP CON
11'~-344~ 133.45 137.5
34~8-1208 125.4 234.4
----- --- ------...
~
/
CAIRNS TOWER ~
126.1 241.0
/
OND CON
121.9 248.1
/
/----------...", ""
QN(:
133.75
DEl
370'13
/' "" '.ðABIDE

~;\
ASR/PAR:
/BOll WEE \Ill
ATIS
0
~BVG
121.15 37..3 / ~ 688 ".
r'Q " ^
10..,0 /

I
\ ~

\ ~

~\ \
\ \ '0
REHaB /
\ :(~" ":.., / \ 0.
,~~ ~d
:"/ .~
~~q, /
~r:I{I'
""t
~ t
'. -----"'8'~ -
-

~''Es 28; - /
I
.

---- DARE~ -----

--- li
Procedur. turn
not autharizM
"""'241g
lOM
1989
I
MISSED APPROACH
ClimbÎn1l riQIII tIIrn to
-- ElEV 298

.. 2QCX)vio OZR VQR R.157

061'_/
2000
to REHOB INT and .hoId
8115
climb to 700' bet<<e
"'0.
-
One miftllle OS 2.70'
holding paft8rn
,
""iëH'"16 ,
",,~./ ~

-~,--
~

CATfGORY . . C D to,.
S-ILS 68

S-tOC .
498/24
660/040
200 (200-~J 498/040 200 1200-"1
660/50 "', ~.:.:. ~
36
362 (400-\U
3621.&00-1) '@
5-NDII . 7040/040 "'2 {300-\'.J
7040/50 740/60 "-
061" S.6 NM
"'2 1500-1) 4012 (500-1V.)
From lOM
CIRClING 7.w-1 760-1 780-1~ 860-2
442 (.500-11 ~2 (SOO-I) .c82 1500-11;1 S62 (600--2)
HlRl awyt
S-I>... 498/24 2QO (200--1'l1 498/040 6-2., 18-36
2DD (200-,,) GS 2.7'
... ND6 lOC FAf to MAP 5.6 NM
Knob 60 90 120 150 180
Min:Sec $,36
ItS or NDB-l RWY 6 3,..., 2,14 1,~2
31816'N-8$80'W fORT RUCKER. AlABAMA
18 CAIRNS AAF (OIR)

Figure 17-2. Calms ILS or NDB-1 RWY 6

approach chart

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 163

 lEGEND
INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS)

PLAN VIEW SYMBOLS

ROUTES OBSTAClES
TERMINAL
. Spot Uevo110n . Hi9ne~t Spot Elevotion

.
"" L'"
...
A
^
Ob~10d.. A Gro....p
Higne~1 Ob~,ocle~
01 Ob!tode!

Proc",dute Trock
Procedure Ivr...
.-. ~ Doubtt....1 A.:.:...rocy

(type. deg...e ond point

01 turn apj,cooll SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
Ii! Re\lrkted
~ P Protl1bited
WWorning
A-Alert
............,.
-------~
'
...., ..
M;~~",d Approoch vl~uol Fl.ght Porh
RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION
3100 NaP! .5 6 NM 10 G5 Inter'
045 . Underlone ìnd'cote~ No Voice tror:smitted on
!!2..!
1},47 to lOMI Ih" Ireq~ncy
DME I~ymbol moy be uied with
2000 M,n,mum Altitude feed~'r
0 VOR, NOR, or lOCI

~'55
(151J MoIeog'-'
Routl?'
0 VOR V'TACAN If:JVORTAC
Pe"elrole, Spe~,ol Use A"spoce
0 NDB (Non d,rectionol Radio Beocon1
HOlDING PA.TTERNS

270., < 0 > LOM (Compon Lo.:otor)

c:090.~ Ini..",,, oi
P,ocedure iv,,,

C2JO' Arrlyol
Holding .
,....-:','" M",\
A"1""""
,
<=::> c===> Marker Beacon~

090~~ Pon",.n "1)911

-.
11<;"""1 Loco1i2er Cour!e
l1m,h will. only be spet,I'ed when in"y d"""ole trem SDF Coun..
Ihe s,..:",do.d. OM~ i'~es may be ,hown-
ø lOC/lDA/SDF TroMm,lIe.
REPORTING POINT IFIXES
Å l~hown when .n,'ollolion '1 ot\,e1 trom
Compulsory ih normal po!,hon 011 the." end oi the runwoy\
Repor1u'9 POlMt
L::..
Non C.ompulsory

þ "... f-." or In1ened,on

..} WI>.YPOINT (WPT)
ARC/DME/RNAV F,,, WoypOlnl Dotn

-----
PRAY'::,
----.-_____.L-- I
Radial I,ne
3Bo5B.3'N
112,~ CAP 1871"
89"515W
561
------
R I'.U- cnd ,",olue
'90
j~ lead Rad,ol

--
,""h------- WOYPO;nl Nome.
Coord,nal..\
Frequency. òdO!"nt,lier. Rod'ol!O,~ton{t.
MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE (MSA) (Facllily to Woypo,n1'
RO!"terO!"nce Foc,hty I:levol,on

M5A wit",n 15 NM unle~~ otnerwi~e

rï4õQ1
~ ,ndlCoted IEm..rgency U~e Only 1

~
/-/..:'.1-
(Arrow~ on d'~lon.:e clrde identity Sectou) MISCElLANEOUS

Focillty Ident,f,er
....

--.- (\-.f! :)~

~
J CnongeovO!"r Poml

r":
~':1
-

v.{"?-'( D,!1once Not 10 xol..

@ Helicopte' Ali9"h09 ..u~o

- - .
Internotioool Boundary

Figure 17-3. Plan view symbols

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

164
 I
LEGEND
INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS)

PROFilE
~'J.'19......- ......,.
IOlnNM
lOM
Glide Slope d. Alti1U.
-- II ./
W ith"11'1
2400
-
'
01D at Outer Marker/FAf

'_drop ~']
Turn"...,-
12S._,
Procecb. T...n 11~
FM (non'pre<"ion opproache1iJ

I Mi,wd Approach Point

2400
'lit. "r us GIH:Ie Soupe/
1_-
-

'--1270)1 ..
2~ I~.,~...,~_d~=:~t1e
Approach 'rocl.
Thrnhold (j~de .:~~ ::~HJ.:;
.....>'~
'/,
Glide SlosH' IntllKeDt Altitude

""-(Non.ProcedUJel
DESCENT fROM HOlDING PA'TERN

~~
~7.
-307"
1600
-
V~
Ie
127"-1600 -

:f)1
0

~
D /'_307" finol Àpþfooch
" ~.>o MAP WPT
~
~300 "'0'. f~ V~'''al

/'
Path Computer'
.....,.,
.,/
(RNAV Dftcentl"""" 3.028
/" .::::::.:

FACilITIES/FIXES Al TlTUDES
X Finol
5500 2300 4800 2200 Approoc;h Fi~ (FAf)
l I ~ Mi-;;;;;;;:;-m Recommended (tor non.preci1.ìon apprOOCAm.)
Mo_imum
FM I Alhtude Altitude Altitude A.hitude Glide Slope InIeI'r:epI
NDI (Rbn)
I AItitudeI. precede fix or are arrowed to show wh.e --
VOR I fhI.y appfy
V Visuol tmcent Point (YOP)
VQRIAC
I FIX
TACAN
WPT liNT -
.
n.. non-pfecilÒort FAf mini"",," altitude ,. th8 ~
the- Glkje Slop8 int8rcep1' attitude unleu otherwis.e -----~
Viwol F~ght Path

AIRPORT SKETCH
Runwa'fli
- áh æ
Hard Surface
c=:J
Other Than Hcwds.tonds/To.iwGy1o
18 III [E] H&licopter "'~""no ....~
Hard Svrtoce Nevøti- Symbok uwd to identify Cop- Procedure
. D Â 0
===::
Oosed Runways Under Construcr;an
::~::::~:~
Metal Surtace
Ia.ding po;""
II
and Tealw.
TOZE 123 Runway TDZ elevolion

+-
.
0-8'110 - '-II Total RunwcJ)' ~odi.Rt
~.rYh Dispkxed Thr"hold
(shown when runway grodie"t
ArrlHtin'll Gear
eaceed. 0.3%1
l uni-difectianal ~-diredionol J .181 Sorrier
MINIMA DATA
. C...ntrol Tower ... Alternate Minimunn not atiÞndcrd..
USA/USAf/USN pilcm rei.. to ~
NOTE NOT ALL
APPLICABLE TO ARMY,
When ConIrd
T~
and RotatirM;! 8eocon ore appropriatll r~lcrtiom.
-

co-Iacated. Beacon symbol will be used and

--.......
.6.NA IFR mi"imurm are Not USN, USAF
i~
also Authorized
as TWR. for alternate vw due to unmonitored facility
. << obs.ence ot wecrthw reporting .."...ce.
Ratoting Airport Beacon.
v Take-ofl Minimums not standard and/~
. U.S. Nervy Optical lonclin<l System (OlS) "OI.S"
Departure Procedures ore pyblilhed. Rei.. to
Iaccrtion ~ shown because of ~ Mght of tabulation.
7
oppro.ifnatetr føt and proaimity to edg8 of
rVftWGy, mat' aecrte on obItrvction tor
01 oiraah.
types
--
ApprØOl:h liFt tynIbok en '5"- 01'1 0 wp_ote Iepnd

Figure 17-4, Profile Information

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 185

 "

LEGEND

AIRPORT DIAGRAMS

SCOPE
Airport diagrams me specifically de!l.igned to anist in the movement of ground traffic at
localions wan complex runway/taxiway configurations and provide information for updating
Inertial Navigation Sy,t.ms (INS) aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are not intended to be
used for approach and landing or depotlure operations. Requisition for the creation of airport
diagrams must meet the above criteria and will be approved by the FAA or DOC on 0
cose-by-cose basis,

LEGEND
Airporl diagram scale, or. varioble. REFERENCE FEATURES

Building,
......
.

True/magnelic North orientoticIn may Yory from dia-

gram 10 diogram. Tanio., .

.8
Ob,trl.>diol't A
Coordinate yolue,; Ott! !Iohow" În OMI 0) minllte in.
cremenh. They Drt! fur.hl:!" broken down into six (6) ""irpart BeocOll
.....*
second ticln, wilhin eoch ono (I) minute increment.
Runway
Radar ReUeclor'
NOTE: ...1
All new and revi,ed Qirporl diagrams are ,hown refer. Control Tower.
enced to the World Geodetic Sys'em (WGS) (noted on <ßI æ
Helicopter Alighting Aroo,
approprlat. diagram). ond mO)' nol be compalible
ffiI&ò.1Ð
with locQI coordinate1. pubJi,hed In FliP. (Foreign Only) to, _nldCQ.er
~~~f~;op;rn7~~~.~.,.uMd loceii"
"rte"',,; Gear
l "ni.directlonal ~ bi.di'KliOllol 1J8ta.ar....

RUNW""V D"TA
.

I Ix x X xl X X )l
Hard Surface Other Thcln Clolod Rul'twoy, TOl:iway Under Con,truclion Overrun" TQl:iwoy,.
Hard S"rface Porking ""801
field Run~oy
Runwoy
Grod,enl Elevation Idol'tl,f'Co110"
,
0.7% UP ".
!
~I IN
t 900011200 023.2' 10001:200
E1EV " --............
Runway End Elevation
-
lOA ---
Runway Dimen,ions
(In Feet)
Runway Heoding
(Magnetic)
Overr"n Dimon,ion,
(In fH')

Figure 17-5. Airport diagrams

166 15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 "

GENERAL INFORMATIOIt & ABBREVIATIONS

.
In.diuIeet CGMroi lOwer or ATIS opowale. -a
~
ga, ICII~.
ÎII ftCIUIicai ""i'" "'iIibIitr ÎII ~ j..~1 ...a.. ond Iun.vy Viluaf 10"118 in hundreds 01 ""1.
.--or Di-.iom ift Ieet.

E~ in
C8tirtgI in .....
f... Mnin s.o l_1
aa-. oirparl
IMSt).
...cnion.

~.
,"',bec.iRgIAMdinva/t_18I ..8
. "'ÔCOl8l CCIIIIrOI
to-. ""''''ür ~ UfN.

~.... ,...........D........,f_- ""..

.L
-
. . . .
Approoch l;~ s,wn. MIl" . ~~.tJtitu.
"-'- I~ .u~
loll....
COO< .
Approadl CanhI
""";"01 Mi,. 1-
Micr-- s,..mlandi"G
,..".... 'ubli.h8dRcdar~GI
this.
.... Nell .toutharõacl
Airport N08 .
. 1'100 di.._"-.411 Itodio leCK:Oll
..... . .
"'VlomcrtOI: t.",iJ1a8
w...-... NoPT. No ....-..... t..... II.-qlrirwd
5eo'vir.. (P.oadur. t......
K. . .
Iodo Coon. _vIMI-otho;outAtC ... """ be

-.,
C. . . Circl'..g
CAT.. . .
C-II"8'Y OOAI.. Omnidir.mo-l Appr~
a-...
ClNC DEl.
.

0.-
demaM."""""
tivhts,.......
IA.
.lIodoo~~""
. . . . , . . .

011..
.... .
.

.
.DMi-.ion H.;o;hl
DÍltI:mC8 Meoo..-inlill
E.....,. .
I'" 1Ieqund. . .

...-d
.
lIadao .-.oriOle
.... approodl
b

.. 080d leõoninlill IAiI.

II~ A~ IndicCIQ
. . . .
.

BIY. . .
.a...rtion tiQlhh
,... FinolApproadlFia ... Radio hcK-
,.. .f_Mor~.. ... t-.., EM! IÓ8nIif.... tighk
06 .Glid.SIop. KlS.
II~ c.n"'1me 1~h8
.

MM. "'òeM Aboo. Air-poart

...-
.

.... lWi...htA~londlloo
_v. "'_Ncwiga8oon
HAl. . .
"'''1# Abo..r'I Toud..:,..... '" .'~Poinlofl....<eptlÌOIIJ
_.. ... Hovh

I~ A~ tlightl
........ '-err bmafnmg lighk
. .

W.. lNtioiltJllWOGthFia
.ltItwrtationoi CiwiI.fmuboro
........
It_GJ1oudoc1ow8Z-. 'iRt 3000' of lIunway
ICAO. . .
'VO. Itu""err VOuocII_.
o.gatlllotHm

0_- '"..
. """"
_.
Nt, INDN.
.

.'''''II8C''I. SAt.
.

.
Stooi9hl-"
Short Approodl h9m ~
lOA l..aliz. T~Oir8diotoolAicl ...., .
sø..pt.Ñd $Ihorr Approoc:h

l~.. londi",
leod in hghl
ttght~...othIlAA
_..
.

s,.- SOf. Simplm..:!

0--01 Foc:i~
lilt. .

1- In'-"li' RUftWG)' lOghto

.. .T,_.............
lOC. .locolo.... 'AC "CAN
... L8Cld lødiat "'-cIft GI Ieost 'CH nw..hokI C.OWftO Height
2 NM ICOfIf8r I NM] of !load
to _ist.,. ""'''"'''D Dllto ....
I....,. "'
'...., '- AI>-. Gr~
iMer-ai..,./I",alcø- 101.
1~..1.....
.

-. Mltdiu", Inten,ity Approodo

light ~Iem
IOn
IOn.
T-WO-..
T_"""Z-~,ght.
1- E&..anon

-.. M8dium Inmoaity ApprODdl

light $yo""'1 ...oIh .An
Th.
VDO
.

.
T,--.., ~.....
Visuø D.Ken' PoInI
..... .
Miued Appr_h Point
-.
RADIO CONTROL
.
WoypoonI tRNAV)

AIRPORT LIGHTING SYSTEM

KEY MIKE 'UNCTION

7~Wttt>",S..onds Hi"'" ............ ....1aW.
~ ....thi.. .s
..... ..... M8dn.m
(l_..lfll
-
10-.
01'
~
IEII-o"1
3

A..-....
t_....thinS!IoKOMfr
l-h- in'-ly
lEa - -'...
.11.-'11

.-
...iII b8 ...do<-.I Of'
,..,,,-
Approodl P,<<.duo. (lAP!
ACIIVlt.n MIll 8..., 3ð-12:l8. ACtlVlt.tf MAl5ll1""Y 7-12'2.8
.... ~ Doto. os C--. --- follo'W",

ACtlVlt.n YIt.!oI ....a .11 itWI' l-12:U. AC.Tt\lATf Hill It..., 1-2s...ln.8

"

Figure 17-6. General Information and _revlatlona

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 167

 Anldt 13 ,. CAIRNS AAF (OIR)
VOR RWY 6 Al- 577,03 IUS ArfTIyJ fORT RUCKFR, ALABAMA

CAIRNS APP CON

121'-34.(' 133.AS 237.S
3AS. -110' 125..( 23.1..( /'"
....-- --- -- i,:,:--
'OIJ'F~
THE EN ROUTE FACILITIES
RING PROVIDES ALL THE
/ '~('" FACILITIES/FIXES USED IN
CAIRNS TOWER
/
- -
~
/" --
11'i;;;j
126.2 2.(\,0 THE APPROACH
GND CON / /
'
FiiDr~.
'.~,;;" ,../
(APPEARING ON THE US
121.9 248.2 '<:'..,,,,
[,ABIDE
CLNC OEL
/ / '0 "'S, GOVERNMENT EN ROUTE

~/
133.75 370.3
'v'"
J.SR/PAR
I
\ CHART).
ATiS / '"\.."!)r::i"
\.'1.~.
\

121.15 374.3 Ball WEEVIL

/ 308 BVG \ \
0 IWiiliGRA~;, 1
I 1116 RR5 ::=::: I
I L Cho" 5:i
7
i

OPPTO, 2000

I c~/\
2."--,?
(15.2) /
I

~" 1/,
CRESTVIEW Iflel
1159 CEW ;-...:=.
Clio" 106
\
\
\
'"
"
~
,
/ÎI
,
I
THE FEEDER FACILITIES
RING PROVIDES FOR
FACILITIES/FIXES THAT
ARE NOT PART OF THE

THE INNER RING

~, f ~/ENROUTE
aZR
STRUCTURE.

(NORMALLY 10 MILE
\/",
"
,., ~~ËREHOB ~
/ ç..
,..r-'='
%
2.5
"v....
"
"
-
/
RADIUS) PROVIDES THE
BOUNDARY OF THE "jlokt
-/-l
~\)
~OUND--
PROCDURE THAT IS ""
CHARTED TO SCALE. DARED
# ~ /'
--. ---
Remain
withinlONM ~
VCR -.
MISSED APPROACH
ElEV 298

Climbing right turn 10 01

-'].'~\.~ I 2000 out R.157 OZR
111.02 8'
VOR 10 REH06 "III
't.lT CItId hold

\J,

Figure 17-7. Coheentrle rings

168 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 TYPE OF PROCEOURE~CHART
M~RGIN REFERENCE
IDENTIFICATION (TOP)
AIRPORT NAME
NUMBER....... r
..... ..
VOR WY 6 '''''-51'7,03
-
"-- PAGE
IUS ""myl
-
NUMBER CAIRNS
fOAl RUCkER, ~lII)AlABAMA
APPROACH CONTROL. ~NS - CON
GROUND CONTROL. ~~.:,: ~~ :;:,' --- ,~
"'0","'>- AG~~g~~~~~NATING
// /'
ATiS. ASR/PAR
WHEN AVAILABLE ~NS TDWBI - -

1,."''''~l'
"-
126.2 241.0
""'CON / / /" -- ~OfÄ
"'",,- "-
121.9 2".2
ClNC DE' /
133.7. 370,'/
/ ."
^'i;
\'1'1:'"
~.
/
'" ,
"'81DE

...IP..
~ I
'.....
"1><", \
~
12\.1' 374.3 eOLl """EVIL

/ :!!I! aVG \ \
I
PLAN VIEW

}
CRESTVIEW (Fie)
n:'9 aw ::.:=' \ ~
Chgn 106

FEEDER FACiliTIES RIN~

~'" ......'!P
RL
~

WHEN REQUIRED "HOB

2;11: "-.
'<........
~~
ENR01E>DA>EDJt/J
/'
HOON';- /
FACiliTIES
RING WHEN REQUIRED ---..: -
-

Elf V 298 ELEVATION OF HIGHEST

....... VOl
wit8tinIONM MISSED AmOACH POINT ON USABLE
C&nI:Iing riaht tun! to 0102
lANDING AREA
PROFilE
VIEW-~-ß" 2OCIO cIUI 1."7 OD
VOl to REHOI ..
OL

INf .... hold I

~.......... Os,. AIRPORT SKETCH

' .
../ C D
~

CA1fQOIY
7<<>/HJ
TDZE
...
7<<>/50
LANDING MINIMUM .... 7<<>/<<> M2 (500-")
.w2 (500-1) "42 t5DO-1")
SECTION "';"@ ..
7<<>-1 760-1 780-11'1 8HJ-2
CIIC""'G
442 [5(0.1) 462'SDD- 412 1500-1t1i) 2

498/24 4
..,tlJl
...... 2DO 2DD~) 2DO GS 2..r
...
SPACE FOR NOTES AS HIItlItwrt ~2". '\8-3ð
REQUIRED FOR AIRPORT C,?ORDINA
TES
PROCEDURE r- -

IDENTIFIER
-

VOR RWY 6 / 31.16'N-I.5.4:!'W fORT AU(.KER, A.lAaAMA

.,
MARGIN IDENTIFICATION (BOTTOM) ..
CAIRNS AN (OlIl)'

Figure 17-8. Celms AAF (OZR)

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 169

 18
Atndt 11/ Amdl 13 CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
IlS or NDB-l RWY 6 AL-5770' (US A,my)
- -
fORT RUCKER, ALAßAMA

CAIRNS APP CON

121"-34,4" 133..&5
3.45"-120" 1'2.5." 2J.tA
237.5"""---
/
-- --- .............

CAIRNS fOWER "'"

126.2 2..1.0
GND CON
121.9
ClNC DEl
'2.ca.2
/
/
/' ./
------ R-2103
'---
'-...
"
'"
/'.,0'
,

133.7.5 370.;' \
A5A/PAA
A-TIS

121.15 374.' I ", i~ ,

/
/OI'PTO

I
\ "

A HOlOING PATTERN IS IN
\ \..
REHOB
\ /
LIEU OF A PROCEDURE ~~"
'0 / t ~
TURN. NOTE THAT ~4
~
/ ~y
PROCEDURE TURN BARB
IS NOT PUBLISHED AND
'<,~ ~~/ll~ HOUND

/"
~'Q ---~~<1- ---
y
INDICATES THAT -

,S/"
PROCEDURE TURN SHALL
~"s.---
NOT BE MADE
--
Á DARED
------ EIEY 298
Procedur. turn L~ MISSED Þ.PPIIOACH
Climbing rililht turn 10
noI allthorized 1'9
... 241. . 2000 yio OlR VOl ..157 TIME/DISTANCE FROM
061.~ / Ie REHOR INT ond hold
.IL5 climb to 7(10' betOl'. FACiliTY/FIX AS
2000
""n. SPECIFIED ON
MHo
PROCEDURES
en. minut. G5 2.70.
holding pottetn 'CH 56
.../
CATEGORY
S-IL56"
'

~98/2~ 200
-5.INM-5
.

(200-,,) ~98/40
C

200
0
(200-1101
~,....@tI'..~.
6ðO/ SO
$-lOC . 6ðO/40 30' (.01>-110)
3ð2{~1) FACiliTY FIX TO MISSED
" APPROACH DISTANCE
S-NDI! . 740/40 44' (000-1101
740/SO 740/60 061" 5.6 NM
442 (500-1) 442 (.500-1\11)
from tOM
QaCLING 740-1 760-1 780-11> 860-2
442 1500-1) .t62 (500-1) 42 (500-I}I,) 562 (600-2) Hill 1:W'f' 6- .
18-36
...... . ~98/2~ 200 (200-~) ~98/ ~O 200 (200-110) GS 2.7' NOS L to MAP 5.6
a
KIKJt5 6Q 90 120 150 180
5,36 2.1.. 1..52
Min.See
3,44,
IlS or NDB-l RWY 6 31"\6'N-8S."3'W
FORT RUCKER. ALABAMA
CAIRNS (OZR)
AM
,.

Figure 17-9. Calms AAF (OZR)

170 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

 TOP MARGIN
" ,. CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
_13
VOR RWY 6 Al. 577.03 (US Army! FORT RUCKER. AlABAMA
- ~
CAIRNS APP CON
121.-:w.I. 133..s 237.5 ..--- tìV;---
'OU't~
:ws0-12O" 125..4 2:W."
/ /' '.

--
CAIRNS TOWER <ì.'i'~
126.2 2.nO
GND CON / ./
--- -- 'ttofli--
ì:
1"$

""-
121.9 248.2
/ "IC"...~
'(III. "
ABIDE-
"
ClNe OEl / / to '. "

,,/
^'
"'
~., \
133.75 370.3/
.

A!IR/PNt
/ ~~.
'O")lI WEEVil
\ \
I
WIII:EGRAS~ 1
I
~, :=: ,
,

...,0/.44

\ I HIRL
'''''' 6-", 18-36

fORT RUCKEl.:, ALABAMA.

VOR RWY 6 31"16'N-8S"43'W
CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
19
,
BOTTOM MARGIN

Figure 17-10. Margin Identification

AtrIcb13 ,. CAIRNS AM (OZR)

VOR RWY 6 AI. 57703 IUS .tu-my) fORT RUCKER. A.tAßAMA

CAIRNS APP CON

- -
INITIAL APPROACH DATA,
121.-34A" 133.'" 237.$
US.-I20" 125." 23A.. ./'
..---
t~ "~ CONTAINS MINIMUM
ALTITUDE, COURSE AND
'. {'It'-

--
CAIRNS IOWE' /
126.2
GND CON
2.1.0
/ ./
--- -- "fEOfÌ!"---
,t-~C'.I~
'~~l' DISTANCE TO VOR

'21.9 248.2 /" 'Illli "".ð.AßIDE

/
10 "
CLNC DEL
/' / '-2103 "'i; /
~., \
133.7.5 370.3

...,...
ATIS ' / ~f.:Þ'

121.1S,
/
31..3 BOll WEEvil
308 BYG
\
749/:0.
ASR AND PAR APPROACH
PROCEDURE AVAILABLE/
to
-:-

~":'
"',81--';::""
~~..".
m.,

\ \
QPPTO

O~
2000
('r,"~~' ,., -A<!.,
). "
:zocD

,.,.~
(7/'
f>~/' 1\; MISSED APPROACH
~. \
V
0
\ TRACK
,
I
0
"
.

/
/
DIRECTION PROCEDURE "
TURN TO BE MADE

I
"'"
~
\/
'\'
)

FINAL APPROACH ./" /'

COURSE

Figure 17-11. Plan view

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE 171

.FM 1-240
 ALTITUDE OF FINAL APPROACH FIX
GliDESLOPE AT LOM (FAF) SYMBOL

MISSED APPRO,6,.(H
Procedure turn
Climbinv righf turn to
MINIMUM ALTITUDE FOR not alJlhorized
..... 2410
2000 via OZR VOA R.1S7
GliDESLOPE to REHOII INT and hold MISSED APPROACH POINT
.ILS climb to 700' b.fOfe
INTERCEPTION AND (MAP) FOR ILS
turn.
MINIMUM ALTITUDE FOR PROCEDURE IS AT DH
NON-PRECISION UNTIL One minlJle GS 2.70'
PASSING LOM ItoIdinv p~1IITI "'Tëii56 MISSED APPROACH
TRACK

DEGREES AND
_-'.1_-
HUNDREDTHS, MISSED APPROACH POINT
(MAP) LOCALIZER ONLY
THRESHOLD CROSSING
SHOWN BELOW AIRPORT
HEIGHT IN FEET
SKETCH (SEE FIGURE
)7-18)
Figure 17-12. Profile view (precision)
FINAL APPROACH FIX
SYMBOL (FAF)
MAXIMUM DISTANCE OF
, .

VORTAC MISSED APPROACH

bmain (I,mblol600d,re,"
PROCEDURE TURN FROM STEP DOWN FIX (RADIAL
with.n ION,M

--173 -í
~5~
TL lOM ond hold
FACILITY, FIX OR IDENTIFIED ON PLAN
WHATEVER THE ~ fl" VIEW)
PROCEDURE TURN IS
BASED ON,
2000
20001l~"D" ð
~

-
5 DME

I MISSED APPROACH POINT

l
7201 """""..",
MISSED APPROACH
PROCEDURE TURN
I.TN'" TRACK
MINIMUM ALTITUDE
MINIMUM ALTITUDE OVER MDA FOR APPROACH,
FAF (VORTAC) BEFORE LOWER MINIMUMS ARE
DESENDING TO MINIMUM AUTHORIZED IF
DESCENT ALTITUDE STEPDOWN FIX IS
(MDA) IDENTIFIED BY DME, OR
BY OFF COURSE RADIAL
(SEE FIGURE 17-15)

Figure 17-13. Profile view (non precision)

VISIBILITY (RVR IN 100'8 OF

FEET)

PRECISION STRAIGHT-IN
TO RUNWAY 2 HEIGHT OF DH ABOVE
TOUCHDOWN ZONE (HAT)

NON-PRECiSION
'"~ ~::~.Y
STRAIGHT-IN LOCALIZER
207-17
(NO GLIDE SLOPE)
S-IOC 2
MINIMUMS. S6D--2
MILITARY
CIRCLING 480--1 PLANNING
551 600-2
S.ASR 2 40-\10 MINIMUMS

LOWEST RADAR MINIMA

AVAILABLE FOR THIS
RUNWAY, (MILITARY lAPs
ONLY.) SEE FRONT OF MDA HEIGHT OF MDA
BOOKS FOR ADDITIONAL
ABOVE AIRPORT
RADAR MINIMUMS,
HEIGHT OF MDA ABOVE (HAT)
TOUCHDOWN ZONE (HAA)
Figure 17-14. Minimums section (precision)

172 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 MINIMUM
DESCENT HEIGHT OF MDA ABOVE
CIRCLING MDA
ALTITUDE TOUCHDOWN ZONE (HAT)
WITHOUT STEPDOWN
VISIBILITY IN
STRAIGHT-IN STATUTE MILES
RUNWAY 13 . C D
CAlf
MINIMUMS 760.11. 760-2 HEIGHT OF MDA ABOVE
.13 760-16251700-') 625 (700-1Ya) 625 (
AIRPORT (HAA)
BASIC VOR 760-1'!ó .2
MINIMUMS ClRCUNG 760.1618(700-1) 618 (7QO.IIâ) 618 (700-2)

DME MINIMA

MINIMUMS AUTHORIZE~
WITH SPECIFIED
S.13 500-136SI-')

OPERATING AIRBORN CIRCLING 6OO.1..81S(]Q.l)

EQUIPMENT
MILITARY
PLANNING MINIMUMS
ALTERNATE MINIMUMS NOTES CONCERNING
NOT STANDARD. CIVIL THIS PROCEDURE AND
PILOTS ONLY. ARMY MINIMUMS APPEAR
IN THIS SPACE

Figure 17-15. Minimums section (nonprecislon)

A . C D
CATfGCaY
1.500- 1 ~ lSOG- 2
CIKUNG 1500- 1 009 1100. I)
009 (1(>> I \1,) 009 1700-')
, C AUlMfTU SfnlNCi MINIM.
1600- 2 1600.2'.
CIICUNG 160(). 1 109 1100 1) 7CW (100.21 709 ,100- 2 '. I

;" AnderMJfl D19.",,"., 18ft.,." .he" not D"Dllobl.. U'8 Gt-.., olh"'''.' Mtt'''1

ANA

TAKEOFF MINIMUMS
NOT STANDARD OR
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE
PUBLISHED

FIgure 17-16. Weather minimums shown In minimum box

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 173

 mv 201
VOR'AC
MISSED APPROACH R.mgin
Climb to 1200 then climbing 14d within 10 NM

"-
righi turn to 2000 direct
AMG VQRTAC and hold.
AMG .,..,,1800
'!,'l.1:i
'DM'
.." "F
rom AMG 7 DME "re,
"''''''', 800. 1080 when ulin;
ValdOlla altim81er 18~in

CATEGOIrY A . c D

s-.. 600-1 403("0..-1) 6()()'11A1 403(400.114)

CIRCLING 660-1 09 (500, I) 660-1 Y, 760-2

4.59 (5()().1 Yl) .559 (600-2)

When Jacal allimeter lening not available'. U~e Va,lda~la altimele, ","lng 2.
Ine,.o.. all MOAs 280 feet. 3. Strai;ht.. in minimums from 7 DME Are no1
authorized.
ACTIVATE MIRl and VASt Rwy~ 15-33.122.7.
MlRL 15.'3
ðNA
Knah 60 90 120 150 180
MindH{;

SOD Feet-MDA with local altimeter

2BO Feet-Increase when using remote altimeter
BBO Feet-New MDA
-201 Feet-Less Airport Elevation
679 Feet-Rounded Up (700-1)

Figure 17-17. Weather minimums not shown In minimum box

AIRPORT USABLE LENGTH OF

ELEVATION RUNWAYS

APPROACH LIGHTS
BEARING SYMBOL
AND DISTANCE
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE
INDICATOR (VASI)
TOUCHDOWN ZONE DISPLACED
ELEVATION (TDZE) THRESHOLD
HELIPORT
iiJ
610A ARRESTING
" ;r;
:!J
.

7.3 GEAR
NOTE ON HIGH INTENSITY
RUNWAY LIGHTING - FINAL APPROACH FIX TO
~TDlICLllwy5 MAP
HIRl Rwys 5.23 and
(NOTE: MAY BE SHOWN AS
FAfto MA,P 4,3 NM LOC. SUCH AS FAF TO
Knoll 60 90 120 150 0
MAP,)
TIME AND SPEED TABLE /M;"S" .,1. "" 2,09 I,.' "

FROM FAF TO MAP

/" FAF TO RUNWAY
THRESHOLD OR MAP
SHOWN AS 4,3, NM,

Figure 17-18. Airport sketch

174 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 VIFR TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS
AND
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
CiYiI Airport'll and Selecled Military Airports
and tlstablisheJ lalte-off minimums as foIlo~: (1) Aircraft
CIVil USERS: FAR 91 pr-=ribM tCJke-off
having two engine~ or les, one statute mile. -
r. (2) Aircraft havmg mof8 tnon two envil'lft OM half
-

stoMe mile.
publtstted OS Stondard Im1rument o.pc.1vre (SlCbI.
MIlITARY USERS:
and (ivil
R*
'.&-oK
Sp.cial IFR
~e
procedures. not
minima ore induded below and en edobli,hed to cas~t pilon in obstruction cmJickmc8.
to appropriate service dirediv.. to.- toll.-oft rinirrturm.
minÎmUm5 O1her than 'Iondard or. lid'8d beaow olphabeticaUy by airport narN.
Airports witt!
IFR
"'~H ceiling YÎ:ubility minimum"
ani 8Itabli.hed to GUil' pilots conducting
IfR flivht in
0epcIrtur1l Pfocedure5 and/or
Ø'lotding obstructions during climb to the minimum erroute ohitude.
Toite-off minifnuml cmd dep~8S
.aJtitudes.. unles. otherwise mdicoted, ore minim...... .uftitu-

~..
011 specified.
app'" to runwØY' u"1eu
in feet MSl.

AIRPORT "AME TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS AIRPORT NAME TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS

ALBA"Y~GHERTY
COUNTY. GA . . . . . . Rwy .- ATLANTA,GA
.
fAR 135. DEKALB-
Awys
" ~ dimb rwy hdg 10 700 belore turning. PEACHTREE. . . .
Rwy 9, 27, 34.. 200-1
Rwys 2OI.-2OR. 500-1

Figure 17-19. IFR take-oft minimums

XIII

INSTRUMENT TAKEOFF PROCEDURE CHARTS

RATE OF CLIMB TABLE

(It. per min.)

A rate of climb table is provided for U~ in planning and eJO.eCuting
takeoH procedures under known or approximate ground speed conditions.

REQUIRED
CUMB GROUND SPEED (KNOTS)
RATE
(It. po< NMI 30 120 140
60 80 90 100

200 100 200 267 300 333 400 ..,7

250 333 375 .,1 583
2~ 125 500
300 1~ 300 400 .SO 500 600 100
S25 816
3~ 17S 3~ ..,7 583 700

200 400 533 600 667 800 933

400
615 TSO 10SO
.~ 225
.~ 600 900
1167
SOl) 2~ SOl) 667 TSO 833 1000

5~ 733 825 917 1283

5~ 275 1100

600 300 600 800 900 1000 1200 1400

325 915 1083 1:100 1516

650 6SO 867
933 1167 1633
700 3~ 700 10SO 1400

REQUIRED
aIMS GROUND SPEED (KNOTS)
RArt
(It. po< NM) 1~ 180 210 240 270 300

200 SOl) 600 100 800 900 1000

2~ 625 TSO 875 1000 1125 1250

300 750 900 1050 1200 13~ 1500

3~ 1225 1400 1575 17~

-

87~- _n'~5I1. ..
-

Figure 17-20. Rate of climb table

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE -FM 1-240 17!

Chapter 18 information on current instrument Section I
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) approach procedures at specific airfields, Typical VOR Approach
and Nondireclional Beacon (NDB) The format of all these charis is basically
Approaches the same. Therefore, once the aviator 18-2. VOR approach chart
has studied one type chart and its The Cairns Army Airfield VOR runway 6
1B-1. General legend, he should be able to use other approach chart (fig 18-1) is typical of
The separate VOR and NDB approach types effectively. those found in current navigational
charts published by Federal agencies publications. Its tormat and general data
and private companies contain complete presentation are used as a guide. (For
19
Amdt 13
CAIRNS AM (OZR)
VOR RWY 6 AL.577.03 (US Army) FORT RUCKER, ÀLABAMA
-
CAIRNS ÅPP CON
1218-3.w" 133."5 231.5 ---- --- 'N::---
'OUI,::.....
3450-1200 125." 234."
CAIRNS TOWER /" '. ('1'/;'--
126.2 2'1.0
GND CON
121.9

ClNCDEL./
2<48.2

133.75 370.3/
""/.AA f
/

/
/'
/
./ /'
---
-- --
fEfDtìi'-.

'0
''"'('/0
"'..
I'I(J'
':.-t'";--

"',,/'
~q\ \
"".ð.ASIDE

ATiS
~".
121.15 374.3 BOlt WEEVil

I ßVG
~:~. 7491.\
\
I I
OPPTO.
I c~/~
~.. ~
CRESTVIEW Ifle)
115.9 CEW ::.:="
Cfou:ln 106
\ ~
/
I

~ f /
y" "'" ~~Ê "H08 /

'" '-
/j~"t-
'~y
.'
./ /
~,

"
OA.AED j'" /-lHoUND ---
,/ ".....-/
---.....:-
Rltmai"
within 10 NM
VOf!
-- ELE v 298
MISSED APPROACH
'/.'1'. Climbing riaht turn to
2000 OV'I R.157 OZR
.............. VOR tø REHOfI
1700 INT and ~d
-........... OS/.

CATEGORY .. 8
",,"
./ C 0
~

~ 740/40 -"2 (SOO-JJ.) 740/50 74O/6lJ

442 (500-1) 442 (500-1\1.)
740-1 760-1 780-1)',
",e@ 36
CRCLING 860-2
""2(~1) 462 (500-1) 482 (.500-1VJ)
.., (ooo-,)
S.,.u 6 ~98/24 "'" t200-I;} 49 "'" 200-"- OS 2.7-

...
HIIU Rwys 6-'04, 18-36

VOR RWY 6 31.16'N-8S.043'W FORT RUCKER,

CAIRNS
AlABAMA
(OZR)
19 AM

Figur. 18-1. Typical VOR approach chart

176 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240


detailed explanation of approach chart
symbols, consult the flight information
publication instrument approach
procedure charts and their legends that
are printed with each volume.)
18-3. VOR station location
VOR stations used in VOR approaches
may be located some distance from the
(called
airport as shown in figure 18-9
OFF airport VOR) or may be located on
or near the airport as shown in figure
18-1 (called ON airport VOR). Figure
1 B-1 is used to illustrate a typical VOR
approach procedure.
18-4. Initial contact and arrival
Flying eastbound on V-241 at 5,000 feet
,
with Cairns AAF as the destination (fig
1 B-2), and in compliance with ATC
.GUM .
instructions, radio contact is first
established with Cairns approach control
over DARED intersection. Cairns
approach control then clears the aviator
to the Cairns VOR from over the HOUND
intersection with clearance to hold
southwest of Cairns VOR on the 231-
degree radial left turns. Clearance is then
given to descend and maintain 4.000
feet and an expected further approach
clearance time of 1525 is given. Upon
arrival at Cairns VOR at 4,000 feet-
a. Note the time.
b. Turn outbound to enter the
holding
pattern .
airspeed to prescribed
c. Reduce
holding speed if not done previously.
NOTE: To comply with maximum holding
airspeed, reduction of airspeed should
be done when 3 minutes or less from the
holding fix.
'f': ~_.._...
Figure 18-2. Typlca' en route chart
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
d. Report to ATC if required.
NOTE: The above actions are performed
almost simultaneously. The report is not
made until after station passage.
18-5. Holding
Initial passage of the Cairns VOR
a.
occurs when the TO-FROM indicator
reverses readings (TO to FROM). The
aviator would then turn outbound to a
heading of 231 degrees (fig 18-3) to
enter the holding pattern. Use of the
course selector and deviation needle to
track outbound during the entry
procedure is optional, but this procedure
will aid the aviator in orienting himself
with respect to the VOR station and to
the holding radial. Either the course
selector on the holding radial outbound
is set or a heading outbound is flown
with the course selector set for tracking
inbound on the holding radial.
17/
 b. After flying 1 minute on the
outbound heading of the entry leg, a left
turn is made to intercept the holding
course inbound (051 degrees, fig 18-3).
Prior to turning, the course selector is set
on 051 degrees and the TO-FROM
indicator reads TO. The inbound turn is
adjusted, if necessary, as the course
indicator and I or the radio magnetic
indicator is monitored to intercept the
desired inbound course.
c. During the initial inbound leg of the
holding course, the drift correction
necessary to remain on the desired track
and the time flown on the inbound ieg
are determined. The aviator probably will
not be able to establish proper drift
correction on his first time inbound, but
shouid be able to do so on subsequent
legs. Subsequent outbound legs of the
holding pattern are adjusted so that each
inbound leg requires 1 minute.

CAIRNS
,-...
",//// ~ 111.20ZR
---
-

.-.
- . .

/!
( @{+
",/

I
I
I
I
~
~ I
/~ 6
HOUND

Figure 1 B-3, Holding pattern entry

178 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 VOR facility, a
d. After flying over the
18O-degree turn is made to the outbound
heading of the holding course. Timing for
the outbound leg should begin when the
aircraft is abeam the station (fig 18-4).
(1) Point A. During the left turn
outbound, the course selector is rotated
gO degrees to the left (reading of 321
degrees), thereby enabling the aviator to
fix his position abeam the station. During
the turn, the deviation needle deflects
full left.
(2) Point B. The needie centers
abeam the station. Outbound timing
begins at this time.
(3) Point C. After passing point S, the
CDurse selector is reset to 051 degrees
to intercept the hoiding course inbound.
The needle deflects to the side away
from the holding course during the
outbound portion of the holding pattern.
(4) Point D. The needle centers as the
aircraft turns inbound and intercepts the
holding CDurse.
holding at a fix where
e. When
methods described in d above cannot be
used, the aviator begins timing the
outbound leg immediately after rolling out
of the 18Q-degree standard rate turn.
f. There are aclually three methods of
determining the abeam position.
(1) The VOR number 2 needle when it
passes the gO-degree point in relation to
the inbound course (fig 18-4, E).
(2) The to/from flag on the 10 1347
changes from "from" to the "to"
position
(fig 18-4, C).
(3) The less desirable method of
rotating the course selector 90 degrees
to the inbound course (fig 18-4, S).
These techniques permit the aviator to
time the outbound leg accurately from
position abeam the station.
18-6. Descent
holding at 4,000 feet
a. The aviator is
over the Cairns VOR. The approach
chart (fig 18-1) shows the minimum
procedure turn altitude for the VOR
approach to the field as 1,700 feet. As
lower air traffic departs the holding
pattern, the controller now clears you to
descend to a iower holding altitude. In
_.~
Figure 18-4. Flying a holding pattern
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
this situation, the clearance to 3,000 feet
is received. Continue the established
holding pattern and establish a 500-foot-
per-minute rate of descent. When you
report leaving 4,000 feet, the controller
can assign this holding altitude to
another aircraft. A 500-foot-per-minute
rate of descent should not be exceeded
when within 1,000 feet of desired
altitude.
b. if the aviator had been at a higher
altitude (9,000 feet for example), and
had been cleared to a lower altitude
(3,000 feet for example), he could have
established the maximum rate of descent
a
at which he could still fully control the
aircraft. He could have used this rate to
within 1,000 feet above the newly
assigned holding altitude then reduce to
a rate not to exceed 500 feet per minute
for the 1,000 feet of descent.
18-7. The approach
of his
a. The aviator has been advised
expected further approach clearance
time. As air traffic conditions change, the
controller revises the expected further
'~~11;.~1~~==c-.I
179
approach clearance time and advises the
aviator accordingly. When cleared for the
approach, the aviator may immediately
begin the descent from the 3,000-foot
hoiding altitude to the 1, 700-foot
procedure turn altitude, regardless of his
position in the holding pattern. The final
turn inbound from the holding pattern
serves as the procedure turn, so he
could extend the outbound leg to lose
altitude if necessary, provided he does
not exceed the 10 nautical mi les (fig
1 B-1) prior to turning inbound. Since this
approach is an ON airport VOR
approach, the final segment on the
approach begins with completion of the
procedure turn.
CAUTION: No extension would be
allowed for those procedures using a
holding pattern in lieu of a procedure
turn.
b. Descent from the procedure turn
altitude may be initiated when the aviator
has intercepted the final approach
course inbound. So that visual reference
with the runway environment can be
established as early as possible before
reaching the missed approach point, the
descent to the MDA should be made
without delay. An effort should be made
to arrive at the MDA with enough time or
distance remaining to identify the runway
environment and descent from the MDA
to touch down at or near the normal
approach angle and descent rate for the
aircraft. If the approach clearance did not
state that circling to another runway
would be required, the aviator will use
the MDA for a straight-in approach to
runway 6 (S-6) according to the category
of his airci dft. If circling to another
runway is required, the MDA is used for
circling according to the category of the
aircraft.
c. Descent below the M DA is not
authorized until the aviator establishes
visual contact with the runway
environment and can reasonably expect
to maintain visual contact throughout the
landing. In making an ON airport VOR
approach, the VOR is the missed
approach point. Should visual contact
not be made by the time the VOR is
reached, a missed approach is executed
(paragraph 18-9).
18-8. Landing
Landing clearance will be issued by ATC
during the approach. if visual reference
is lost while circling to land from an
instrument approach, the missed
approach procedure will be executed. To
become established on the prescribed
missed approach course, make an initial
climbing turn toward the landing runway
and continue the turn untii established
on the missed approach course.
18-9. Missed approach
If for any reason the landing is not
accomplished, execute the missed
approach procedure. To accomplish the
procedure as specified in figure 1 B-1,
perform the following:
a. Adjust power and attitude, as
necessary, to begin an immediate climb.
b. Turn right to intercept the 157-
degree radial Of Cairns VOR.
c. Set the course selector to 157
degrees. This results in a FROM
indication and a right needle deflection
on the course indicator.
d. Report a missed approach and
include the reason (unless initiated by
ATC) to the controller and request further
clearance, either for another approach or
to the alternate airport as appropriate. (If
you request clearance to the alternate,
flight plan data must be given to the
controller.)
e. Check for centered needle at the
157 -degree radial.
f. Continue to climb to the missed
approach altitude (2,000 feet).
g. Comply with subsequent ATC
instructions.
Section II
Typical NDB approach
18-10. NDB approach chart
NDB approach charts (fig 18-5) are
similar in appearance and format to VOR
approach charts discussed in the
previous section. The approach
procedures are essentially the same as
those for VOR. In the event of an RMI
malfunction, fixed card ADF procedures
must be used.

NOTE: Where the ,VOR station is located

away from the airport, descent is
restricted to minimum altitude prior to
reaching the final approach fix. After
passing the final approach fix inbound,
descent to minimum descent altitude is
authorized. The missed approach point is
determined by computing the flight time
from the final approach fix to the landing
runway. The missed approach must be
executed at the expiration of this time
even if the aircraft has not reached the
appropriate MDA.

180 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 10
Amdo
.. BIRMINGHAM MUNI iBHM)
NDB RWY 5 At.50 'IFAAI B!RMINGt1Þ.M. AL".AMA

IIItMINGHAM A." CON

12"" 385.6
IfIoWNGHAM TOWEl
'1'--Vu'~CAN
119.9257..
II" VU,l~:..
Chon91
GND CON
J.
-

121.734.6 "7' r"'-, .~~-=-

ClNC DEl
120.' ,29".~-;:'-
....
A115119-.29'.7
,,':I" ,,' \
.... 1"'.'
Ã1397
11A~ 393

I~:~~
-

~ _.a.
.... 0-
tooJ

"
'II~M,
MM.
810/
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"'910
A 14o.t

(W) \
o.
Md>I!N
...
'

à~.
10lIO
82O:t: A
1228:t

A:zo.&'
"

\'
AI549
,
,,'\.~ ?

,. 1;.)1>

/~
~'
,

(f~
,0 ,," .1
.
,.
i
~~7 ~
"
~~
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.......
:l1NT/LOM ...DIN

MISSED A.-..oAOI
ELfV I....
,~
Rw' IIId.
Rwy 23 'do 8220'
438"

828"
-.. '0- '1Y' CMrtb 10 3ODO direct 10 LOM
Oftd hold.
~
2500~ BU.
r.. "1$1
,

--
~
"
-O.s..o--
.

CAnGOIn' A
'""'-
2200

.1
u

,
./ 0
...

1300-1 V. 13(1()..2 !j,

5-5 1300/.0 ... (""'''' 694 (1OO-1~) ". (7OC).21 610b, .
"...

1300.2 'æ.'
.

1:JOO.21/O
,', 703"
CIIQING 1300.1 "'1""''' 656(700.1) 656(701).2)111

Cirdine
V
I'IOt outtloriud Sf. of rvnwG)' '.23.
~_""NM MI:08r'1 !nt/LOM

,. TDZtCL S
Mill hyI...J.23 and 11-36
'A' 10 MA' ".5 NM
Knot. 60 90 I 20 150
4130 3:00 2:15 ..... 1:30
Mia,.
NDB RWY 5 33':U'N-I6'd'W
8IRMINGIIAM MUNI
IIRMING~, ALAIAMA
(BHM)
II

Figure 18-5. NDB approach chart

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 181

18-11, Arrival
Figure 1 B-6 depicts aircraft and the aircraft is tracking "on-course" to the
associated instrument indications as the station. Throughout the inbound leg,
aviator approaches the McDen NDB on determine the drift correction (if any) to
an inbound course of 304 degrees at maintain the desired track and the flight
5,000 feet. He is going to execute an time from rollout to station passage in
NDB approach to runway 5 at order to adjust subsequent legs.
Birmingham Municipal Airport (fig 18-5).
He has been cieared to hoid southwest
of the McDen outer marker (OM) on a
054-degree course to the outer marker,
left turns. He has also been cleared to
descend and maintain 4,000 feet and to
expect further clearance at 1730. Upon
arrival at McDen outar locator at 4,000 '" '"
'" /"
../"
'"
feet-
a. Note the time.
b. Begin the turn outbound.
c. Reduce airspeed to the prescribed
holding speed if not done previously.
s:?\ci~M'DEN
I \;j 224 BH-:-:::

NOTE: Airspeed reduction is initiated

when 3 minutes or less from the holding ~~
0
'-,r.
,,~o~
fix. However, the holding fix is crossed
~ ~~,
initially at or below maximum holding
airspeed.
~9O
099~ "'-
d. Report to ATC if required. /'J.'; .

~
NOTE: The above actions are performed ,.." ~

'ü
.
~ -

almost simultaneously. The report is not . w

made until after station passage. CHELS

18-12. Entry to holding

Figure 18-7 shows the NDB holding
Figure 1B-6. NDB arrival
pattern entry procedure and instrument
readings during entry to the pattern. The
aviator arrives at McDen and
accomplishes the normal entry into the
left-hand holding pattern by turning
parallel to the outboard heading on the
holding side.
a. Point A. After passing McDen
inbound, the aviator observes station
passage. The number 1 needle (bearing
pointer) will begin to oscillate and then
deflect into the lower haif of the RMI
compass card. Then the aviator begins a
standard rate turn to the left. At point A, ,
the aircraft is on a heading of 234
degrees. The bearing pointer indicates
that the station is to the left rear of the
aircraft. The tail of the bearing pointer
indicates the bearing from the station on
which the aircraft is located (299
degrees) and the head of the bearing
pointer indicates the magnetic direction

e-
to the station (119 degrees).
o"""''l~ 224 SH -:-::: I
......
A McOEN
b. Point B. The aircraft has flown -
-

outbound for approximately 1 minute and

-
-

has begun a turn to intercept the -

-
O"~ "
inbound course of 054 degrees. During
(;;>.. ,
,

/~,
,
"
the turn, the aviator monitors the heading ,. /
C \

I,BW
.

indicator and movement of the bearing ,

pointer and adjusts the rate of turn in "
order to roll out on the 054-degree \
-
/

'...
course to the beacon. ~;:?'"
/
0
c. Point C. The aircraft is inbound to 'J.">~ Ò.
c
the station on a heading of 054 degrees ~ CHELS
as shown. The bearing pointer indicates Figure 18-7. NDB holding pattern entry
that the magnetic direction to the station
is also 054 degrees. Therefore, the

182 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

18-13. Holding
Figure 18-8 shows the holding pattern
with aircraft locations shown at various
points in the pattern.
a. Point A. After passing the beacon
inbound, the aviator begins the left turn
to the outbound heading.
b. Point B. As the aviator completes
the turn to the outbound heading, he
adjusts for drift correction and monitors
the ADF indicator to determine when he
is abeam the station. When the indicator
reaches the 90-degree pos~ion (144
degrees in this case). the aircraft is
abeam the station and the timing for the
outbound leg begins.
c. Point C. Having flown the required
outbound time (based on the desired
inbound time of 1 minute). a left turn is
begun to reintercept the 054-degree
inbound course.
d. Point D. The aviator establishes the
aircraft on the inbound course of 054
degrees and rechecks his timing and drift
correction for further refinements.

B
.

ø '~'~~CDA'I.'!>t:

~
c
/' ,ø/ /\' A

.0/ D

Figure t8-8. NDS holding pattern procedure

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 18:

S-<'
18-14. Descent
Figure 18-9 shows the NDB descent
procedure from the holding pattern and Me DEN INT/LOM
should be used in conjunction with figure
IAI Profile View
18-5.
a. At point A, the aviator has received
approach clearance and has begun his
descent to procedure turn altitude (2,500
feet) while in the holding pattern.
Because he is established in the holding
pattern, the published turn is not required Æ!!L
as the turn inbound serves as the
procedure turn.
NOTE: After receiving approach
clearance, the aviator may disregard the
time restrictions for the outbound and ~o
inbound legs. However, he must remain
within his airspace limitations as depicted
on the approach chart-t 0 nautical miles ........_--'*'
in this case. No extension would be
allowed for those procedures using a f--4.5 NM-j
holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn.
b. In the event the aviator has been "
issued approach clearance while inbound -'
to McDen LOM, he would have turned -' -'
and intercepted the outbound course of

0\ "r/
234 degrees after arrival at McDen and A
(8) Plen View -

also would have executed the procedure

turn. '2-'>}/ t:õV
18-15. Intermediate and final M~DEN
0/
INT/LOM
approach
a. Figure 18-10 shows the procedure o'>~
and instrument readings during the
intermediate and final segment of the
approach. After completing the turn
inbound, the aviator intercepts the 054-
degree inbound course and descends to
2,200 feet. This is the minimum (Cllndrument Readings
authorized altitude prior to reaching the
~
final approach fix (McDen).
b. When observing station passage,
the aviator notes the time, begins the
descent to the minimum descent altitude,
and if required, reports the beacon
inbound. The descent to the MDA (1,300
feet for a straight-in approach or a Figure 18-9. NDB descent
circling approach) to another runway (fig
18-5) should be made without delay. The
recommended rate of descent is 500 Me DEN INT/LOM
REMAIN WITHIN 10 NM
feet per minute. A greater rate of
descent may sometimes be necessary
due to high ground speeds or short final ~~?Jf
approach segments, so that visual
2500
--- CD'",
reference with the runway environment
J
.
.
2200 ~~
can be established as early as possible
before reaching the missed approach
-~-oS4O
A
~

"
pOint. However, descent below the
appropriate MDA is not authorized until
the aviator establishes visual contact
with the runway environment and can
reasonably expect to maintain visual
contact throughout the landing.
c. In this approach, the
facility
(McDen) is located OFF airport (para
18-3) and the aviator would continue to
Figure 18-10. NDS Intermediate and final approach
fly toward the airfield at the MDA for the
time computed based on the distance to
the missed approach point and the
estimated ground speed (fig 18-10). For
this approach, the distance from the final

184 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

approach fix (McDen) to the missed
approach point is 4.5 nautical miles, If
the aviator has computed his ground
speed to be gO knots, the flight time tor
this segment of the approach is 3
minutes. If the MDA is reached prior to
the expiration of the 3.minute time
period, he maintains this altitude and
continues on course, A missed approach
will be executed 3 minutes after leaving
the final approach fix if visual contact
with the runway environment has not
been established,
NOTE: For NDB approaches in this
example, the MAP is determined by
computing the flight time from the FAF
and must be executed at the expiration
of this time even if the aircraft has not
reached the appropriate MDA.
Chapter 19
Instrument Landing System
19-1. General
The instrument landing system is a
complex array of radio and visual
navigational aids, It is the most efficient
system in widespread use for safe
landing under the lowest ceiling and
visibility conditions permitted by
obstruction clearance criteria, Its
effectiveness as an approach aid is
matched by radar, but the preferred
system at most major air terminals is the
ILS supplemented by radar.
Section I
Components
19-2. Ground components
ILS consists
a, Basic components, An
of the following components:
(1) A localizer radio course (LOC) to
furnish horizontal guidance to the airport
runway,
(2) A glide slope radio course to
furnish vertical guidance along the
correct descent angle to the proper
"touchdown" point on the runway,
(3) Two VHF marker beacons, outer
marker (OM) and middle marker (MM),
are normally installed on the front
course, They provide accurate radio fixes
aiong the approach path to the runway,
At some locations, a third marker beacon
may be employed on the front course to
indicate the point at which the decision
height should occur on a Category II I LS.
A marker beacon may be installed on the
back course to indicate the back course
final approach fix, Compass locator or
radar may be substituted for the OM or
MM, DME, when specified in the
procedure, may also be substituted for
the OM,
(4) Approach lights are normally
installed on the ILS runway to provide
means for transition from instrument to
visual flight.
..
,
b, Supplementary components, The
ILS is frequently supplemented by
installing one or more of the following
approach aids:
(1) Compass locators, The locators
provide transition from enroute NAVAIDs
to the ILS system; to assist in holding
procedures, tracking the localizer course,
or Identifying the marker beacon sites;
and to provide a final approach fix for
NDB approaches,
(2) Transmissometers, This device
"looks" instrumentally down the
instrument runway in the landing
direction and either determines the
runway visibility by reference to ordinary
runway lights or computes the RVR by
reference to high intensity runway lights.
(3) Surveillance and precision radar
systems, (See chap 20,)
(4) DME. This aid, aithough normally
installed at VHF, VOR, TACAN, and VOR
and TACAN navigational
facilities-collocated (VORTAC) sites, is
occasionally collocated with the
instrument landing system. With proper
airborne receiving equipment, the
distance can be read to or from the
transmitter at all times.
(5)Visuai approach slope indicator.
(See para 19-11.)
(6) Instrument approach ligh!/ng
systems. Instrument approach lighting
systems provide the basic means for
transition from instrument flight using
electronic approach aids to visual flight
and landing, Operational requirements
dictate the sophistication and
configuration of the approach light
system for a particular airport. Refer to
the legend of any volume of FLIP
instrument approach procedures for a
display of various approach lighting
systems. Lighting systems information is
also found in the flight information
handbook.
(7) Runway marking. For a discussion
of instrument runway marking, see the
Airman's Information Manual.
(a) Condenser.discharge sequenced
flashing light system. This instrument
approach lighting system is installed in
conjunction with the instrument approach
light system at some airports which have
US Standard "A" approach lights as a
further aid In making instrument
approaches, The system consists of a
series of brilliant blue.white bursts of
light flashing in sequence along the
approach lights. 11 gives the effect of a
ball of light traveling toward the runway.
(b) Runway edge lights. These lights
are used to outline the edge of the
runway during periods of derkness and
restricted visibility conditions. They are
classified according to the intensity of
brightness which they are capable of
producing. This light system consists of
HIRL, medium intensity runway lights
(MIRL), and the low intensity runway
lights (LlRL), The HIRL and MIRL
systems have variable intensity controls,
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
whereas the LlRL system normally has
one intensity setting,
(e) In-runway lighting aids. Touchdown
zone lighting and runway centerline
lighting are installed on some precision
approach runways to facilitate landing
under adverse visibility conditions.
Taxiway turnoff lights may be added to
expedite movement of aircraft from the
runway,
1. Touchdown zone lighting-two rows
of transverse light bars disposed
symmetrically about the runway
centeriine in the runway touchdown
zone. The system generally extends from
75 feet to 125 feet of the landing
threshold to 3,000 feet down the runway.
2, Runway centerline lighting-flush
centerline lights spaced at SO-foot
intervals beginning 75 feet from the
landing threshold and extending to within
75 feet of the opposite end of the
runway,
3. Runway remaining lights-centerline
lighting systems in the final 3,000 feet as
viewed from the takeoff or approach
position. Alternate red and white lights
are seen from the 3,000-foot points to
the 1,OOO-foot points, All red lights are
seen for the last 1 ,000 feet of the
runway. From the opposite direction,
these lights are seen as white lights,
4. Taxiway turnoff lights-flush lights
spaced at SO-foot intervals, defining the
curved path of aircraft travel from the
runway centerline to a point on the
taxiway,
5, Runway end identifier lights
(REIL)-installed at many airfields to
provide rapid and positive identification
of the approach end of a particular
runway, The system consists of a pair of
synchronized flashing lights, one of
which is located laterally on each side of
the runway threshold facing the
approach area.
NOTE: Consul! the FLIP IFR Supplement
to determine the exact supplementary
components of the ILS that are available
for a specific airport.
Section II
Operation
19-3. Localizer
a, Signal pattern (fig 19-1), The
localizer transmitter is located near the
departure end of the primary instrument
runway. I! produces two signal patterns
which overlap along the runway
centerline and extend in both directions
from the transmitter. One side of the
signal pattern is referred to as the blue
sector, the other as the yellow sector.
The "beam" produced by the overlap of
the sectors is usually from 4 degrees to
5 degrees wide, The portion of the beam
extending from the transmitter toward
the outer marker is called the front
course, The sectors are arranged so that
when flying inbound toward the runway
on the front course, the blue sector is to
1BE

~NWAY
~;~L, ~e:4///7ø:~LF<
Figure 19-1. Sample ILS localizer location and signal pattern
the right of the aircraft and the yellow
sector to the left While flying inbound in
the back course (extending from the
transmitter to the left), the blue sector is
to the left of the aircraft and the yellow
sector is to the right (fig 19-1). Both the
front course and the back course may be
approved for instrument approaches.
However, only the front course will be
equipped with associated compass
locators and lighting aids. Some major
airports are equipped with more than one
complete ILS system, thus providing a
front course for each end of a selected
runway. Normally, only one ILS will be
operated at a time. The localizer
provides course guidance throughout the
descent path to the runway threshold
from a distance of 18 nautical miles from
the antenna. Proper off-course
indications are provided throughout the
following angular areas of the
operational service volume.
(1) To 10 degrees either side of the
course along a radius of 18 nautical
miles from the antenna.
(2) From 10 degrees to 35 degrees
either side of the course along a radius
of 10 nautical miles. Generally, proper
off-course indications are provided to 90
degrees either side of the localizer
course. However, some facilities cannot
provide angular coverage to that extent
because of siting characteristics or
antenna configurations or both.
Therefore, instrument indications of
possible courses in the area from 35
degrees to 90 degrees should be
disregarded.
b. Receive operation. Army VHF
navigation receivers will receive the
localizer signal in the frequency range of
108.1 to 111.95 megahertz. Tuning of
the localizer frequency will activate the
course deviation indicator of the course
indicator instrument. The localizer signal
received will Identify the station by the
three letter identification of the station
preceded by. the letter "I." An exampie
would be I OZR identifying the Cairns
AAF iocalizer as printed in the instrument
approach chart. The localizer is usually
capable of transmitting voice. Reliable
reception of the localizer signai will be
indicated by activation of the course
186
BLUE SIDE
\ FRONT COURSE
TRANSMITTER WIDE
YELLOW SIDE
deviation indicator, disappearance of the localizer (approximately 2V. degrees
"OFF" flag associated with the course either side of the centerpoint). The
deviation indicator, and reception of the amount of correction to the localizer
coded identifier. No "TO-FROM" course should begin with 5 degrees and
indication will be displayed. When a be narrowed down to 2 degrees as the
localizer frequency is tuned, the course transmitter is approached and the signal
selector setting has no effect on the pattern narrows. These recommended
course deviation indicator as it does corrections may be modified as
when a VOR frequency is tuned. necessary until the wind correction is
(Operation of the localizer receiver is determined.
described in the operator's manual for
the aircraft.)
c. Localizer tracking (fig 19-2). When
the aircraft is proceeding inbound on the
front course or outbound on the back
course, the indications of the course
deviation indicator are directional. That
is, if the deviation needle is deflected to
the right of center, the localizer is to the
right of the aircraft and a turn to the right
will be required to return to course and
center the needle. However, if the
aircraft is flying inbound on the back
course or outbound on the front course,
the deviation indicator is no longer
directional. That is, if the deviation
needle is deflected to the left, the
localizer course is to the right and a turn
to the right will be required to return to
course and center the needle.
NOTE: Some aircraft ILS equipment has
a reverse sensing capability and the
deviation needle is always directional.
d. Sector coiors. Some course
indicators have blue and yellow sector
colors printed on the face just below the
course deviation indicator. The deviation
needle is always deflected into the
colored area corresponding to the color
indicated on the I LS approach chart. This
aids in determining the position of the
aircraft in relation to the localizer course
and the direction of the correction to be
applied. The amount of correction to
return to the localizer course will depend
on the distance between the aircraft and
the transmitter and on the direction and
velocity of the wind. Remember that the
needle sensitivity when tuned to ILS is
different from that of the VOR. Whereas,
the needle sensitivity of VOR is a total of
20 degrees (10 degrees either side of
the center point), the needle sensitivity is
a total of 4 degrees to 5 degrees on the
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 CDTURN TOWARD
DIRECTIONAL:
NEEDLE
NEEDLE
NEEDLE NON DIRECTIONAL:
TURN AWAY FROM NEEDLE

r~~'($" I
,
,
,

/
/
,
~~ "

'y
9-
.

I ""'"
I
"0'

t27~6\ 9: BACK COURSE:.:: ti'l

:- ..
\
~
.2"CIo.~:
""

'.'.2~12_'"
....,,_I8.,,~~,.'F.'
~

YELLOW SIDE BLUE SIDE

NEEDLE DIRECTIONAL:
TURN TOWARD NEEDLE
,

NEEDLE NONDIRECTIONAL: ,
,
,
I

I ,

TURN AWAY FROM NEEDLE I

I
/

I
I
,

(iy,~~'D'
,"\6,
\'l1
~
...
.:z"
.

.'
.

.'"
...
9~
..,; CD FRONT COURSE
...~I2'''
'''-,2115"
..,18.",-
~

Figure 19-2. Localizer tracking

19-4. Glide slope the glide slope will be Indicated by the

a, Tranf7litter location. The glide activation of the glide slope indicator and
slope transmitter radiates its signals the disappearance of the "OFF" flag
primarily outward along the localizer front located on the face of the course
course in the direction of the outer indicator near the glide slope indicator.
marker (fig 19-3). There are numerous
false glide slope signals which are
radiated simultaneously with the desired
signal. Glide slope indications must be
ignored unless the aircraft is at or near
the appropriate approach procedure
altitude within the limits of the localizer
course and the approach procedure is
specifically named on the approach
"ILS," However, there are some runways
at which an additional glide slope
transmitter is installed to radiate signals
primarily directed outbound on the
localizer back course, On runways so
equipped, the two glide slopes cannot be
operated simultaneously, Glide slope
transmitters are located from 400 to 600
feet to one side of the runway centerline
on the approach end.
b, Receiver operation. Glide slope
frequencies are paired with localizer
frequencies in predesignated
combinations, Receivers will
automatically tune the paired glide slope
frequency whenever the localizer
frequency is tuned, Reliable reception of

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 187

,!Oi<
 TH ICKNESS UP TO 1.40

C\1~0

USUAL GLIDE SLOPE ANGLES 20 TO 30

GLIDE SLOPE TRANSMITTER

~\
~\
~
C\

RUNWAY

750 FT TO 1,250 FT
(VERTICAL ANGLES EXAGGERATED FOR ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES.)

Figure 1~3. Typical glide slope transmitter installation

0 0

.. A
~---
0

Figure 19-4. Directional aspect of glide slope Indicator

c. Glide slope indicator. The momentarily flies through stratus or fog,

indications of the needle are always there may be an illusion that the pitch
directional. If the aircraft is below the attitude of the aircraft has moved
glide slope (fig 19-4, A), the needle wili upward. If the glide slope is still being
be deflected upward from the centered flown, only a quick glance will tell that
position. A pitch attitude/power the pitch attitude is normal and has not
adjustment must be made to maintain changed. This will prevent a pitch
the airspeed within acceptable limits and adjustment downward, causing the
to decrease the rate of descent or level aircraft to contact the ground short of
off temporarily in order to reintercept the the runway at a high rate of descent.
glide slope. If the aircraft is above the
glide slope (fig 19-4, B), the pitch
attitude/power must be adjusted to
maintain the airspeed within acceptabie
limits and to increase the rate of descent
in order to reintercept the glide slope.
Even after visual contact has been
established with the approach lights or
runway, it is recommended that the glide
slope be followed until the aircraft is
definitely past the fieid boundary or is
approaching the runway overrun. This
wili aid in preventing a ianding short of
the runway. Also, if the aviator

188 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

19-5. Marker beacons and compass
locators
a. Marker beacons. A marker beacon
is a radio facility capable of transmitting
a signal in a vertical direction only. Its
signal is received only while flying over
the facility (fig 19-5) within the signal
radiation pattern. The. primary purpose of
the marker beacon is to provide a
definite radio position fix. The horizontal
cross section of the vertical radiation
pattern of a mariker beacon used with
ILS is the elliptical pattern. It is quite
narrow so that an aircralt will pass
through the pattern rapidly. thereby
ensuring the accuracy of the fix. Since all
marker beacons transmit on a frequency
of 75 megahertz, the receiver is preset to
a 75-megahertz frequency to receive
signals from any beacon. The marker
beacon signal is modulated with a coded
or continuous audio frequency for
identification purposes. The marker
beacon receiver is arranged so that the
signal can be either heard in the headset
or seen as a marker beacon light on the
aircraft's instrument panel, or both.
Airborne marker beacon receivers with a
selective sensitivity feature should
always be operated in the "low"
sensitivity position for proper reception of
the ILS mariker beacon.
b. Outer marker. The outer marker
normally indicates a position at which an
aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the
localizer course will intercept the ILS
glidepath (fig
1~). The OM is identified
with continuous dashes at the rate of
two dashes per second.
c. Middle marker. The middle marker
indicates a position at which an aircralt is
approximately 3,500 feet from the
landing threshold (fig 1 This will also
~).
be the position at which an aircralt on
the glide slope will be at an altitude of
approximately 200 feet above the
elevation of the touchdown zone. The
MM is identified with alternate dots and
dashes keyed at the rate of 95 dotl dash
combinations per minute.

Figure 19-5. Marker beacon signal pattern (vertical cross section)

PLAN VIEW
(LOCALIZER) OUTER MARKER

.
,
RUNWAY r-t
I
I
t=e~
I

I
I
I
I PROFILE VIEW
I
(GLIDE SLOPE)
I
I

MARKER OUTER MARKE R

5 MILES(STATUTE}
IS TYPICAL ~
FI9ure 19-6. Outer and middle marker locations and signal pattern
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 189

.~
 d. Inner marker (1M). The inner
marker, where installed, will indicate a
point al which an aircraft is at a
designated DH on the glidepath between
the middle marker and the landing
threshold. This is for Category IIILS
approaches. The 1M is identified with
continuous dots keyed at the rate of six
dots per second.
Back course marker. A back course
e.
marker, wherever installed, normally
indicates the ILS back course FAF where
approach descent is started. The back
course marker is identified with two dots
at a rate of 72 to 95 two-dot
combinations per minute.
f. Compass locators. Compass locator
transmitters (fig 19--7) are often situated
at the outer marker site and occasionally
found at a middle marker site. They have
a power of less than 25 watts, a range of
at ieast 15 miles, and operate between
200 and 415 kilohertz. At some
iocations, higher powered radio beacons
up to 400 watts are used as outer
marker compass locators. These
generally carry transcribed weather
broadcast information. Compass locators
transmit two-Ielter identification groups.
The LaM transmits the first two lelters of
the localizer identification group and the
LMM transmits the last two letters of the
localizer identification group.
19-6. Arrival
Figure 19-8 shows the Cairns AAF
instrument landing system and
surrounding airways and related facilities.
Figure 19-9 shows the ILS runway 6
approach chart for Cairns AAF. Unless
being radar vectored to the ILS final
approach course, aircraft inbound to an
airport for an ILS approach will usually
be cleared via a feeder route from a fix
on their route of flight to the locator
outer marker to join the localizer course.
Figure 19--9 also shows several feeder
routes to the Cairns LaM. These routes
are indicated by an arrow to the LaM
and contain information concerning the

COMPASS LOCATORS

,
,""... ...
LOCALIZER TRANSMITTER ,
"'...
"'''''''......''
\ """ A-n',>"
:(
}/.........../"" 1

RUNWAY
.,'
.):>;z--;;-, mZ:

,
ð///x~;;:ø'~f'~Y"..' <<:"'...;":.",:
0..".",

'" MIDDLE MARKER

'",
OUTER MARKER

Figure 19-7. Compass locator positions

!$ THE
IN TROY
E" ""NO Corl folwm 0
;~~3 262130

,Iu~'o
--, Os

Figure 19-8. Area chart representation

190 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Amell 111Aøtdt 13
)8
CAIRNS AA1 (OIR)
ILS or NDB-l RWY 6 AI mo, 'us A,m,' fORT RUCKER. ALABAMA
-

CA8NS APP
12'--3448 133.45
30150-1200
CON

12...
237.5
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CAIRNS TOWEll
126.2 241.0 / ~- ---
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OM> CON
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QNC DE'
133.75 370'13 /6011 WffVIi
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121.15 314.3 / 688
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'OM
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, MISSS) APPROACH

--_2.1' ,-.
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2DDO via Oll val ..157
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-I.S cIiIIIb 10 700' betcn

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061'"

HIRI
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.... LOC f lID 5
I.not!. eo 90 120 150 18)
2,14 ta
Min.s. 31..
ILS or NDB-l RWY 6 318\6'N-'W 43'W
fORT RUCKEIJ. ALABAMA

"
CAIRNS AA1 (OIR)

Agure 19-9. Typical approach chart

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 191

course from the enroute fix to the LOM, for specific action. This action may be for programmer.
alternate airport, another ILS approach, b. The transmissometer projector and
distance, and minimum altitude. If ATC
or a GCA if minimums are lower. receiver are mounted on towers either
clears the aircraft for the ILS approach
prior to reaching 1he LOM, the aircraft
250 or 500 feet apart. A known intensity
of light is emitted from the projector and
may descend to the minimum altitude for 19-8. Localizer only approach
only approach is flown the is measured by the receiver. Any
the feeder route if the aviator desires. If The localizer
same as the front course ILS approach obscuring matter such as rain, snow,
holding Instructions are received, the
with the following exceptions: dust, fog, haze, or smoke reduces the
aircraft will maintain the altitude assigned
altitude to the FAF light intensity arriving at the receiver. The
bl ATC. Prior to reaching the enroute fix a. The minimum
must ~e observed. resultant intensity measurement is then
and starting the feeder route, the ADF
receiver is tuned to the frequency of the b. Timing for determination of the converted to an RVR value by the signal
missed approach point should begin at data converter. These values are
compass locator, providing that receiver
the FAF. displayed by readout equipment in the
is not required for other navigation.
Tracking on the published feeder route c. Descent to MDA
is initiated upon associated air traffic facility and updated
passing the LOM. The descent should be approximately once every minute for
should be started as soon as practicabie
started without delay and continued at a controller issuance to pilots.
after departing the enroute fix. While on
the transition, the remaining navigation rate that will cause the aircraft to reach c. The signal data converter receives
the MDA prior to the MAP. This will aid in information on the high intensity runway
receivers should be tuned and placed in
proper operation for the ILS approach.
arriving at the MDA with enough time! edge light setting in use (step 3, 4, or 5),
Passage of the LOM will be indicated by distance remaining to identify the runway transmission values from the
the ADF bearing pointer and by environment and descend from MDA to transmissometer, and the sensing of day
reception of the signal from the outer touchdown at a normal rate for the or night conditions. From the three data
marker. If the ILS has been tuned, the aircraft. sources, the system will compute
course deviation indicator will move d. Use the MDA for a iocalizer appropriate RVR values. Due to variable
rapidly from one side to the other as the approach (fig 19-9) or for circling conditions, the reporting RVR vaiues
localizer course is crossed, according to the approach ciearance may deviate somewhat from the true
received. observed visual range due to the slant
Missed approach is initiated when range consideration, brief time delays
19-7. Front course Approach e.
After LOM passage, a turn outbound is the computed time from the iocalizer FAF between the observed RVR conditions
made to parallel the localizer course if a to missed approach point (on the and the time they are trensmitted to the
localizer course, at the completion of the aviator, and rapidiy changing visibility
procedure turn barb is depicted on the
localizer course. Or the proper holding computed time) has eiapsed and visual conditions.
contact has not been established with d. An RVR transmissometer
pattern entry is made if a holding pattern
is depicted and the procedure turn is not the runway environment. established on a 500 foot baseline
provides digital readouts to a minimum of
authorized. if a procedure turn is
depicted, the aviator descends to the 19-9. Localizer back course approach 1,000 feet. A system established on a
The localizer transmitter produces both a 250-foot baseline provides digital
procedure turn altitude, flying outbound
required depending the front course and a back course. The readouts to a minimum of 600 feet,
the time, on
back course is frequently used as an which are displayed in 200-foot
winds and altitude to be lost, while
remaining within the designated distance. additional approach course (fig 19-10). increments to 3,000 feet and in 500-foot
Upon comnietion of the procedure turn Normally, a glide slope transmitter is not increments from 3,000 feet to a
or holding pattern, and upon intercepting installed with the intent of radiating maximum value of 6,000 feet.
the localizer course, the aviator should signais toward the localizer back course. e. RVR values for Category Ilia
finai approach Therefore, the back course approach is operations extend down to 700 feet
then fly inbound. The
usually a nonprecision approach and is RVR; however, only 600 and 800 feet
descent will begin when the aircraft
intercepts the glide slope. if the flown in the same manner as the are reportable RVR increments. The 800
holding only approach (para 19-8). A RVR reportable value covers a range of
approach from a depicted pattern localizer
descent to the VOR radial or a marker beacon is usually 701 feet to 900 feet and is therefore a
must be started, a
procedure turn altitude must be made used to establish the final approach fix. valid minimum indication of Category Ilia
required holding There is usually no approach lighting operations.
while flying the pattern.
associated with the back course f. Approach categories with the
Upon intercepting the approach course system
to approach, so visual contact with the corresponding minimum RVR values are
inbound, the aviator then descends
shown in table 19-1.
.

the minimum altitude that is to be used runway environment may be more

to intercept the glide slope. This will be difficult than during a front course
Table 19-1
below the glide slope. The final approach approach. It should be remembered that Approach categories and RVR values
descent will begin when the aircraft the course deviation indicator is Visibility (AVR)
Ca1egory
intercepts the glide slope. The aviator directional outbound and nondirectional
notes the time of LOM passage. He can inbound on the back course. Nonprecision 2400 feet
Category I 1 BOO feet
then use this time to determine the Category 11 1200 feet
missed approach point in the event 19-10. Runway visual range 700 feel
visibility Category ilia
reception of the glide slope is interrupted RVR values are measured 150leet
a. Category nib
and the approach must be continued as by transmissometers mounted on towers Category lIle 0 feet

a localizer approach. A missed approach along the runway. A full RVR system
will be initiated if at the DH, the runway consists of the following: g. Ten minute maximum and minimum
approach threshold, approach lights, or (1) Transmissometer projector and RVR values for the designated RVR
markings identifiable with the related items. runway are reported in the remarks
other
(2) Transmissometer receiver section of the aviation weather report
approach end of the runway are not
clearly visible. After the missed approach (detector) and related items. when the prevailing visibility is less than
(3) Analogue recorder. 1 mile and!or the RVR is 8,000 feet or
is satisfactorily initiated, the aviator
(4) Signal data converter and related less. RVR is reported when the
reports that the approach has been
prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and!
missed, includes the reason (unless items.
initiated by ATC), and requests clearance (5) Remote digitsl or remote display or the RVR is 6,000 feet or less.

192 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Amelt 13 29'
TALlAHASSEE MUNI
LoeBe RWY 18 "l.SO'S (F"")
-
TALlAHASSEE,
(TI.H)
nORIOA
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1 t 8.7(CTAF) 257.8
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CLNC DEL
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Wt.en conhol tow- cIos8d ACTIVATE SSALR Itwy 36-111.1. IEIl Iwy 91
TOllel 2n
I Mill Iwy 9l-271
I Hl8L ~I.., 0I-27L Oftd ''''36
AltoM>>6HM
Knots 60 90 120 150 180

LOC Be RWY 1 8 -- 3082A'N-84821 'W

M8n, 6:00.40
TALLAHASSEE MUNI
TALLAKASSEE,
3100 2:24 2100
fLOIIOÃ
(TLH)

Figure 19-10. Back oour.e IL5 approech chart

15 DECEMBER 1954 UPDATE. FM 1-240 193


requirements for the
h. Details on the
operational use of RVR are in FAA
Advisory Circular 97-1, Runway Visual
Range. Aviators are responsible for
compliance with minimums prescribed for
their class of operations in appropriate
Federal Aviation Regulations and/or
operations specifications.
i. The nose of the aircraft, particularly
if a nose high pitch attitude is being
maintained, may also block out the sight
of approach lights, terrain, and runway
end environment. Knowledge of these
various factors will aid the aviator in
making a safe, smooth transition from
instrument to visual flight for a landing.
I VASI is that
i of color differentiation between red and
000 I 000
DDD II ,
which provides safe obstruction
clearance within the approach zone. The
normal glide slope angle is 3 degrees,
however the angle may be as high as 4.5
degrees for proper clearance. On
runways served by ILS, the VASI angle
normally coincides with the eiectronic
glide slope angle. Course guidance is
obtained by alignment with the runway
iights.
VASI installation
a. The standard
consists of either 2-, 4-, 6-, 12-, or 16-
light units arranged in downwind and
upwind light bars. Some airports serving
long-bodied aircraft have 3-bar VASls
which provide two visual glide paths to
the same runway. The first glide path
encountered is the same as provided by
the standard FAA VASt. The second
glide path is about Y4 degree higher than
the first and is designed for long-bodied
aircraft
b. The basic principle of
ILS
course may be wider than a standard
precision.
resulting in less
localizer,
Usable off-course indications are limited
to 35 degrees either side of the course
centerline. Instrument indications In the
areas between 35 degrees and 90
degrees are not controlled and should be
disregarded.
(2) The SDF antenna may be offset
from the runway centerline. Because of
this, the angle of convergence between
the final approach course and the
runway bearing should be determined by
reference to the instrument approach
chart. This angle is usually not more than
3 degrees. The aviator should always
note this angle since the approach
course originates at the antenna site. An
approach continued beyond the runway
threshold would lead the aircraft to the
SDF offset position rather than along the
runway centerline.
(3) The SDF signal emitted from the
transmitter is fixed at either 6 degrees or

111111\ 1\ aDD white. Each iight projects a beam having 12 degrees as necessary to provide
a white segment in the upper part and a maximum lIyability and optimum course
red segment in the iower p~rt. The light quality. Identification consists of a three
units of astandard FAA 2-bar VASI are letter identifier transmitted in code on the
SDF frequency.
ABOVEGLIDE PATH arranged so that they appear as
illustrated in figure 19-11.
glide
c. From a position above the
path both bars appear as white. Moving
down to the glide path, the color of the
upwind bars changes from white to pink
to red. When on the proper glide path,
the aircraft will overshoot the downwind
bars and undershoot the upwind bars.
Thus, the downwind bars appear as
white and the upwind bars as red. From
a position below the glide path, both light
bars appear as red. Moving up to the
glide path, the color of the downwind
bars changes from red to pink to white.
When below the glide path, as indicated
ON GLIDE PATH by a distinct red signal, a safe
obstruction clearance may not exist.
d. Approaching the runway threshold,
the visual glide path will separate into
individual lights. At this point, the
approach should be continued by
reference to the runway touchdown
zone.

19-12, Simplified directional facility

:
---
---I
\\\\"\:
(SDF) and localizer-type directional
aid (LDA)
These NAVAIDs are similar to a standard
ILS localizer and are used for
nonprecision instrument approaches.
Both transmit signals within the
frequency range of 1 06.1 0 and 1 1 1.95
BElOW GLIDE PATH megahertz. The same techniques and
Figure 19-11. Standard FAA 2-Þar VASI procedures used in no-glide slope
localizer approaches are used in SDF
19-11, The visual approach slope and LDA approaches. Back course
Indicator (VASI) approaches may be associated with
The Visual Approach Slope Indicator either SDF or LOA.
.

gives visual descent guidance provides final

information during the approach to a
runway. The standard VAS I consists of
light bars that project a visual glide path
194
a. The SDF (fig 19-12)
a
approach course similar to the ILS
localizer described earlier in this chapter.
(1) The SDF course mayor may not
be aligned with the runway and the
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
-,
SDF RWY 36 ...
.'-5622 IfAA)
POPlAR 81U"/EARl RElDS MEM (POF)

~~'k
JIOItLAIt ILUFf, MISSOUII

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60 90 120 150 110
ACnVATE VAIIIwy 36 .UNCOM V'å ....
.

5;54 3:56 2:S7 J:12 1:51

RWY 36 W..'N-tO'If'W POPLAI 8I.Uff. MISSOUla
m POPLAnLUPf/EAR' AlLDS MEM(POF)

Figure 1&-12. SDF approach

procedure chart

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 195

 is of
b. The LOA (fig 19-13)
comparabie utility and accuracy to a
a complete
iocalizer, but is not part of
is between 3
ILS. The LOA course width
6
degrees and degrees and thus
provides a more precise approach
course than the similar SDF installation
6
which may have a course width of '" VAN NUVS (YIlT)
The LOA course ....., "'L..552 (FAA' "AN ...m.. o.UFQItNA
degrees or 12 degrees. LDA-C
is not aligned with the runway. However,
a straight-in minima may be
where the angle between the
published
runway
centerline and the LOA course does not
exceed 30 degrees.
If this angle exceeds
30 degrees, only circiing minima are
---
published. The procedure depicted in
figure 19-13 is an example of this
condition. The identifier is three letters
preceded by "i," transmitted in code on
the LOA frequency.

Chapter 20
Radar

20-1. General
Radar was first installed at airports
in the

late 1940s. Further development of radar

in the
systems and their expanded use
Air Traffic Control system have greatly
modified and simplified instrument flying
procedures. There are three basic types
of radar systems.
radar (ASR).
/

a. Airport surveillance
b. Precision
approach radar (PAR). --- l~1'E~IJT~- ----
Airport surface detection equipment E!fY 799
c. ...,

.-
M
......
(ASDE).
0.- I
to 4000 'Iio VNY 1-101
a..Mh

--
I
.. II. and hoW.
I
Section I ..2568
mP U16~1
Radar Capabilities, Uses, and ...............

Limitations
O~~I Ð
~ I
CAUnQN, D6...-d [
81181.... iRIIk:oIlonI
20-2. Operation
is based upon the precise D
a. Radar
.
c.1tGOII1"
timing of a returning RF echo from a -
140-2\4
611 (700-~""
target and displaying this information to
the radar op.erator so the distance and Iwy
1611
Idt ü7O'
bearing to this target can be instantly CIIC"",, I..., 16L1dt251O'
determined. The radar transmitter must ..... ~16I-3'L
161..341
MI.. .., 16)oIId SM
high
be capable of delivering extremely tEll"""
fAi to M>> 5.9 NM
power levels toward the airspace under
surveillance. The associated radar
....
Man"s.c $-.'" 3:" 2: T ':58

receiver must be able to detect

VA"" NUl'S. CALIFOItHIA
LDA 348U'M-I""3't'W
extremely small signal ievels of the VAN NUYS (VNYJ
'"'
returning echoes.
better
b. These requirements can be
appreciated when its realized that the
is
effective size of a small aircraft Figure 19-13. LDA approach procedure chart
comparable to e small doorway. The
radar system may be expected to detect
and display this aircraft from what small
fraction of energy is reflected from this
surface at renges up to 200 miles under
optimum conditions. By means of a
microwave link relay system, an unlimited
number of radar transmitter sites can be
remotely located from the control center
to provide navigational guidance along
the air routes.

196 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240

20-3. Primary radar
a. The surveillance system provides
the controller with a map-like
presentation that shows all the radar
echoes ot aircralt within detection range
of the radar lacility. By means 01
electronically generated range marks and
azimuth-indicating devices, the controller
can locate each radar target with respect
to the .radar tacility. The controller can
also locate one radar target with respect
to another. From direct-reading counters
on the control panel, the controller
determines the bearing and range 01 one
aircralt target with respect to another.
b. Another device, a video mapping
unit, generates an actual airway or
airport map and presents it on the radar
display equipment. Using the video
mapping feature, the air traffic controller
not only can view the aircralt targets, but
will also see these targets in relation to
runways, navigational aids, and
hazardous ground obstructions in the
area.
c. The essential difference between
airport surveillance radar and air route
surveillance radar (ARSR) is in the
equipment required to provide greater
maximum usabie ranges. ASOE is also a
surveillance system, but it scans the
ground rather than the air lor targets. At
many major terminals, runways or
taxiways may be as lar as 2 miles from
the controller's position. During all
weather conditions, the ASOE equipment
permits the controller to have radar-
visual access to all parts 01 the airport
although he may not be able to see the
far ends of the airport.
20-4. Secondary radar
a. The surveillance radar system
cannot identify one specific radar target
lound within a display presenting
perhaps a dozen or more targets. This
problem can be solved with Air Tnaffic
Control Radar Beacon System
equipment which is becoming more
prevalent in aircralt installations.
ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as
secondary surveillance radar, consists of
three main components.
(1) Interrogator. The interrogator, a
ground based radar beacon transmitter-
receiver, simultaneously scans with the
primary radar and tnansmits discrete
nadio signals which repetitiously request
reply from all transponders on the mode.
The replies received are then mixed with
the primary returns and both are
displayed on the same radarscope.
(2) Transponder. The transponder, an
airbome nadar beacon transmitter-
receiver, automatically receives the
signals from the interrogator and
selectively repties with a specific pulse
group (code) only to those interrogations
being received on the mode to which it is
set. These replies are independent 01
and much stronger than a primary radar
return.
(3) Radarscope. The radarscope used
by the controller displays returns Irom
both the primary radar system and the
ATCRBS. These returns, or targets, are
what the controller refers to in the
control and separation of traffic.
b. Identification of primary radar
targets and maintaining this identification
is a long and tedious task for the
controller. Some of the advantages of
ATCRBS over primary radar are shown
below.
(1) Reinforcement 01 radar targets.
(2) Rapid target identification.
(3) Unique display of selected codes.
A part 01 the ATCRBS ground
c.
equipment is the decoder. This enables
the controller to assign discrete
transponder codes to each aircralt under
his control. Normally, one code will be
assigned lor the entire flight.
d. Major air traffic control uses of
radar include the following:
(1) Resolving enroute traffic conflicts
and providing en route traffic advisories.
(2) Expediting arrivals and departures
in the terminal area.
(3) Controlling instrument approaches.
(4) Monitoring nonradar instrument
approaches (lLS, AOF, and VOR).
(5) Vectoring as a supplementary
means 01 navigation to expedite traffic,
avoid traffic conflicts, or avoid observed
hazardous weather when possible.
(6) Providing iimiled radar weather
information and nadar weather advisories.
CAUTION: Use extreme caution with
ATC radar to avoid hazardous weather.
ATC radar is not designed to show
weather. In fact, it has circuitry for
eliminating weather presentations which
interfere with lis primary lunction 01
observing air traffic.
e. Virtually all radar ATC relies on one
01 the types of surveillance radar
discussed in panagraphs 20-5 and 20-6.
20-5. Air route surveUlance radar
The use 01 long-range radar lor control
01 traffic by the air route traffic control
centers (ARTCC) is standard procedure.
The range of this type of radar is
approximately 200 nautical miles wiIIh
altitude coverage to 40,000 leet. Since
the area 01 control of an ARTCC
normally is more than 200 nautical miles,
more than one radar is required to give
complete coverage.
a. ARSR indicators normally are
centrally located in the air traffic control
center. However, the antennas are
located at remote sites which produce
the best radar coverage 01 the area. An
outiying radar unit can serve two or more
centers simuitaneously.
b. Either transparent map overlays or
electronically displayed video maps are
normally used on the controller's scope
to indicate the location 01 NAVAJO,
airways, and reporting points. In effect,
t5 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
the controller can see all 01 the air traffic
wilhin his area 01 responsibility.
21Hì. Airport surveillance radar
The range 01 ASR is usually a 30- to 50-
nautical mile radius from the antenna
site. An overlay on the scope or a video
map (para 20-5b) shows lacilities and
landmarks in the area. The two basic
purposes 01 ASR are for radar
approaches and radar control 01 air
traffic in the terminai area by approach
control facilities.
20-7. Limitations
It is important to recognize that
a.
there are limrtations to radar services
and that ATC controliers may not always
be able to issue traffic advisories
concerning aircralt which are not under
ATC control or cannot be seen on radar.
Radio waves normally travei in a
continuous straight line unless they are-
(1) "Bent" by abnormal atmospheric
phenomena such as temperature
inversions.
(2) Rellected or attenuated by dense
objects such as heavy clouds,
precipilation, ground obstacles, or
mountains.
(3) Screened by high terrain features.
b. The bending 01 radar pulses, olten
called anomalous propagation or ducting,
causes extraneous blips to appear on
the radar operator's display. It is difficult
to solve the effects 01 anomalous
propagation, but using beacon radar and
electronically eliminating stationary and
slow moving targets by a method called
a moving target indicator (MTI) usually
negates the probiem.
c. Radar energy that strikes dense
objects will be reflected and displayed on
the operator's scope. This will block out
aircralt at the same range and greatly
weaken or comptetely eliminate the
display of targets at a greater range.
Again, radar beacon and MTI are very
effectively used to combat ground clutter
and weather phenomena (fig 20-1). A
method of circularly polarizing the radar
beam will eliminate some weather
returns. A negative characteristic 01 MTI
is that an aircralt flying a speed that
coincides with the cancelling signal of
the MTI (tangential or "blind" speed)
may not be displayed to the radar
controller.
19~
 establishing vertical, iateral, or
longitudinal separation between aircraft
flying IFR under the control of ATC.
continuously at
h. Radar units operate
the locations shown in DOD Flight
Information Publications and their
services are available to all pilots, both
civil and military. (Contact the associated
control tower or ARTCC on any
frequency guarded for initial instructions,
or in an emergency, any FAA or military
facility for information on the nearest
radar service.)
Section II
Radar Air Traffic Control Procedures
2o--a. Identification
Figure 20-1. Precipitation attenuation All radar air 1raffic control services
depend basically upon the positive
identification of the aircraft target being
d. Relatively low altitude aircraft will controlled. The controller identifies a
not be seen if they are screened by primary or radar beacon target by
mountains or are below the radar beam performing the following:
due to the earth's curvature. Tha only departing aircraft target
a. Observing a
solution to screening is the installation of within 1 mile of the takeoff runway end.
strategically placed multiple radars which b. Observing a target whose position
are present in some dreas. with respect to a fix corresponds with a
e. There are several other factors
direct position report received from an
aircraft and the observed track is
,
c. Radar beacon transponder is used.
20-10. Enroute control procedures
a. Separating. Within 40 nautical miles
of the radar site, aircraft under positive
radar control are provided a minimum
horizontal separation ot 3 nautical miles
between all identified targets. If the
controlled aircraft are more than ,40
nautical miles from the radar site, the
required separation is 5 nautical miles
because target-distance-fixing capability
is not as precise. At this distance, two
targets which are close together, 3
nautical miles for instance, can appear
as one on the radarscope. Aircraft
normally are kept a minimum of 1.5
nautical miles away from the boundary of
adjacent airspace when less than 40
nautical miles from the antenna. When
40 nautical miles or more from the
antenna, the minimum is 2.5 nautical
miles. Horizontal separation is provided
between aircraft flying at the same
altitudes. The radar controller has a
number of different altitudes and flight
levels under his jurisdiction. Separation
can also be effected by assignment of
different altitudes or flight leveis.

which affect radar control. The amount

of reflective surface of an aircraft will
determine the size of the radar return.
Therefore, a small aircraft or a jet fighter
will be more difficult to see on radar than
a large commercial jet or military
bomber. Here again, the use of radar
beacon is invaluable if the aircraft is
equipped with an airborne transponder.
All ARTCC radars in the conterminous
US and many airport surveillance radars
have the capability to interrogate MODE
C and display altitude information to the
controller from appropriately equipped
aircraft. However, there are a number of
airport surveillance radars that are still
two dimensional (range and azimuth)
only and altitude information must be
obtained from the pilot.
f; At some locations within the ATC
enroute environment, secondary-radar-
only (no primary radar) gap filler radar
systems are used to give lower altitude
radar coverage between two iarger radar
systems, each of which provides both
primary and secondary radar coverage.
In those geographical areas served by
secondary-radar only, aircraft without
transponders cannot be provided with
radar service. Additionally, transponder
equipped aircraft cannot be provided
with radar advisories concerning primary
targets and wea1her.
g. The controllers'
ability to advise the
aviator when flying on instruments or in
visual conditions of proximity to another
aircraft will be limited if the unknown
aircraft is not observed on radar, if no
flight plan information is available, or if
the volume of traffic and workioad
prevent his issuing traffic information.
The controller's first priority is given to
198
consistent with the reported heading or
of flight.
route
c. Observing while a target makes an
identifying turn(s) of 30 degrees or more,
provided both of the following conditions
exist
(1) Except in the case of a lost
pilot position is received
aircraft, a report
which assures him that the aircraft is
within radar coverage and within the area
being displayed.
(2) Only one aircraft is observed
making those turns.
d. Receiving a coded transmission
from a radar beacon transponder In the
controlled aircraft.
NOTE: Radar controi is lost the moment
identification is lost. If radar identification
is lost, 1he radar controiler will
immediately advise the aviator. If
necessary, the controller then issues
instructions and clearances so the
aviator may resume conventional control.
20-9. Transfer of radar control
(handoff>
Transfer of radar control (handoff) from
one controller to another involves
positive identification of the target aircraft
by the receiving controller. Methods for
transferring radar control are as follows:
physically points out
a. The controller
the target to the receiving controller.
b. The controller informs the receiving
controller of the following:
(1) The distance and bearing of the
target from a fix or transfer point shown
on both radarscope displays.
(2) The observed tracks of the target
unless already known.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240
b. Routing. Established airways are
used by radar controllers for enroute
traffic. However, if required minimums of
separation and obstacle clearances are
met, controllers may alleviate traffic
conflicts by using radar vectors which
depart from established routes. It is
possible to request deviation from
established routes to avoid hazardous
weather conditions. When the controller
vectors the aircraft off the assigned
route, he will normally specify the point
which the vector will take the aircraft and
the purpose of the vector. If
communications fail, the aviator should
proceed to the point specified.
In some cases,
c. Assigning altitude.
en route radar provides the controller with
target aititude data. In other cases, the
controller must rely on the aviator's
reported altitude. In either case, altitude
assignments are made in a manner
similar to those of nonradar traffic
control.
(1) In certain cases, the radar
controller may assign an altitude below
the minimum enroute al1itude (MEA) for
the airway. However, an altitude
assignment below the minimum
obstruc1ion clearance altitude (MOCA)
will not be made.
(2) If the controller assigns an altitude
below the MEA, he wili realize that the
aircraft may be unable to navigate
because of the possibility of passing
below the minimum reception altitude of
the radio facility. Therefore, the radar
controller will navigate the controlled
aircraft past all obstacles by offering
radar vectoring service.
20-11. Departure and arrival control
procedures
a. Departures. Wherever practicable,
radar departure routes are established as
standard instrument departures (SID).
Channelized altitudes are placed under
the jurisdiction of radar departure control.
The use 01 standard departure roules
and altitudes reduces the amount 01
coordination between departure/arrival
control and tower VFR control facilities.
(1) Departure routes normally are
based on the use of availabie radio
facilities and do not require radar service
for navigation. However, for an
operational advantage, the controller
may provide vectoring service for
navigation to achieve adequate
separation, noise abatement. avoidance
of hazardous weather, or other reasons.
If given a radar departure which deviates
from established SIDs or routes, the
aviator will be advised by the controller
of the route or SID to which the aircraft
is being vectored.
(2) Radar separation for departures is
maintained as required by traffic
conditions and within the saturation limits
of the radar facility. Handoff to enroute
radar or transition to nomadar separation
is accomplished as traffic conditions
permit. In all cases, the transition to
nonradar separation is completed well
within the limits of radar coverage.
b. Affivals.
(1) Routing to nonradar facilities, such
as ILS, ADF, and VOR can be
accomplished with radar control of
arriving aircraft. Radar feeder routes may
be established to "feed" traffic to the
final appro~ch fixes as required.
(a) A radar leeder route is similar to a
conventional nonradar feeder route. The
nonradar feeder route is usually a
straight course from an outer fix to an
approach fix with bearing, distance, and
minimum altitude published. However, a
radar feeder route may employ several
"legs" with different courses and
different minimum altitudes on the legs.
This multi-legged route is also referred to
as the radar pattern (random vectors). In
some cases, it may resemble a
conventional VFR traffic pattern with
downwind and base legs.
(b) The radar feeder area and required
obstacle clearance are different from
those required for nonradar leeder
routes. In general, radar feeder routes
allow greater airspace use because
known obstacles can be plotted on the
overlay map of the radarscope and
identified aircraft targets can easily be
provided with adequate obstacle
clearance.
(c) Provided the radar controller
complies with the minimum separation
and obstacle clearance standards
required by the ATC procedures manual,
he can vary radar traffic patterns to
resolve conflicting traffic conditions. If a
nonradar final approach is being used,
the controller can use radar vectoring to
the final approach course.
(2) If the final approach of the aircraft
is to be controlled by radar GCA, the
vectoring to the linal approach course is
the preliminary part 01 the GCA. The
radar pattern leading up to the final
approach course can assume any
configuration which takes into account
the location of landing and navigation
laciiities, arrival routes, and the airport.
(a) The GCA final approach may be
one 01 two types. However, the type
used has little effect on the radar pattern
leading to the final approach segment,
except perhaps at the point where the
final approach course is intercepted.
(b) Patterns are established Irom outer
fixes to intercept the final approach
course. For typical approach patterns,
see figure 20-2. While the aircraft is in
the radar pattern, prior to the time it is
turned on final approach, the radar
controller issues appropriate advisories
to assure effective completion of the
radar approach.
20-12. Radar approaches
The two types of radar final approaches
are airport surveillance radar and
precision approach radar. The type
employed depends on the equipment
available, landing runway, weather, and
traffic conditions. ASR equipment
provides the controller with positive data
on range and azimuth of the aircraft
target. With PAR equipment available,
however, the final approach can be more
precisely controlled. To the controller,
the basic advantages of PAR are that he
can determine the exact aircraft position
in relation to the glidepath. Also, the
range and azimuth can be determined
w~h greater accuracy. In general, where
PAR is employed, approach minimums
are lower.
a. Initial approach. Unless the aviator
has stated that he has received the
automatic terminal information service
(ATIS) broadcast, the controller will Issue
the following approach information.
(1) Altimeter setting.
(2) Ceiling and visibility if ceiling at the
airport of intended landing is reported
below 1,000 feet or below the highest
circling minimum, whichever is greater, or
if the visibility is less than 3 miles.
(3) Any special weather observations.
(4) Pertinent information on known
airport conditions If they are considered
necessary to the safe operation of the
aircraft concerned.
b. Final approach. The controller will
issue the following information before
starting the final approach:
(1) Type of approach and runway to
which the approach will be made.
(2) Aircraft position at least once. In
addition, he will advise the aviator to
perform the landing check.
c. ASR-final approach. On finai
approach, the aviator will be given the
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
frequency and told to contact the final
controller. The final controller will make a
radio check with the aviator and then
advise him not to acknowledge any
further transmissions. Heading
corrections will be issued as required to
keep the aircraft on the final approach
course. The controller must transmit at
ieast once every 15 seconds or the
aviator will assume that he has lost
communications with the controller. " a
full stop landing is to be made and any
portion of the final approach conducted
under iFR conditions, a wheels-down
check will be made and the missed
approach instructions issued. Advance
notice 01 where the descent will begin
and the straight-in MDA will be furnished.
When reaching the descent point, the
controller will instruct the aviator to
descend to the MDA. Course guidance
and distance from the runway, airport, or
missed approach point will be furnished
on the remainder of the approach. When
approach guidance is discontinued, the
aviator will be advised of his position and
instructed to execute a missed approach
unless the runway approach or runway
lights or airport is in sight.
d. PAR-final approach. After being
turned on final, the transfer to final
controller, final controller radio check,
and course guidance will be issued as in
ASR linal approach, except that the
controller must transmit at least once
each 5 seconds. Thewheels-down
check will be made and missed
approach instructions issued if required
(d above). Approximately 10 to 30
seconds before final descent, the aviator
wiil be informed that he is approaching
the glidepath. The decision height will be
issued only if he requests it. At the point
where final descent is to start, he will be
instructed to begin the descent.
Glidepath and course information and
distance Irom runway will be issued until
the aircraft is over the landing threshold.
The aviator will be informed when he is
at decision height.
e. No-gyro radar approaches. These
approaches, ASR or PAR, will be flown
as outlined above, except the controller
will issue instructions as to when to start
and stop the turns (headings will not be
issued) and when to make half-standard
rate turns on the final approach.
20-13. Monitoring of nonradar
approaches
a. Aircraft conducting precision or
non precision approaches will be
monitored by PAR equipment if the PAR
final approach course coincides with the
NAVAID final approach course from the
linal approach fix to the runway and if
one of the following conditions exists:
(1) The reported weather is below
basic VFR minima.
(2) The aviator makes a request.
b. Surveillance radar will not be used
to monitor nonradar approaches.
19
 VOR

Öo
~
~
\
>;-
~
>"A:) %
A:)
.,:10
>"0
"5-

eþ..S~

OUTER
FIX
/

Figure 20-2. Radar patterns to GCA final approach

200 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 c. The controller will inform the aviator
that his approach will be monitored. The
aviator should state the frequency to be
used if iI is not the same as the
communications frequency used for the
approach. In addition, the controller
will-
(1) Advise the aviator that when
executing a nonprecision approach that
glidepath advisories are not provided.
(2) Infonm the aviator when he is
passing the final approach fix.
(3) Advise the aviator if his aircraft
goes well above or below the glidepath,
well left or right of the course, and
whenever it exceeds the radar safety
limits. These will be repeated if no
correction is observed.
(4) Advise the aviator that if he is
unable to proceed visually, he should
make a missed approach after repeated
advisories if the aircraft is observed
proceeding outside the safety limits or if
a radical target deviation is observed.
(5) Provide monitor information until
the aircraft is over the landing threshold
or commences a circling approach.
20-14. VFR traffic expanded radar
service
As IFR traffic volume and radar capability
permit, future radar service will increase
assistance to VFR traffic. As more
airports and control centers become
equipped with modern radar, this
expanded service will become
widespread. For the types of service and
the existing procedures to employ them,
see current navigation publications.
Among these services to VFR traffic are
the followi"g:
arriving traffic.
a. Sequence of
b. Traffic advisories.
c. Weather advisories.
20-15. Radar assietance within air
defense Identification zones
is available on
a. Radar assistance a
24-hour basis to all identified aircraft
within the limits of any Air Defense
Identification Zone (ADIZ).
b. The following services will be
provided when and where military
commitments penmit, but no
responsibility for direct control of aircral!
is accepted:
(1) Track and ground speed checks.
(2) Position of aircraft in latituda and
longitude or by bearing and distance
from a known point.
(3) Magnetic heading to steer and
distance to the nearest aerodrome or
other designated points.
(4) Position of heavy cloud in relation
to the aircraft.
c. Procedures to be followed would be
to-
(1) Use frequency 122.2 megahertz.
(2) Call "Radar Assistance." The
subsequent call sign of the ground
station will be given by that station.
(3) Request the type of assistance
desired.
(4) Make inilial contact at the highest
practicable altitude.
d. The radar assistance is advisory
only and does not absolve the aviator of
the responsibility for safe navigation of
his aircraft and compliance with ATC
clearances or other required procedures.
If commitments preclude granting of
e.
assistance, the ground station will
transmit the word "unable." No further
explanation will be given.
f. All speeds are given in knots,
distances in nautical miles, and bearings
or headings in degrees magnetic.
NOTE: Canadian military assistance
provide bearings in true degrees.
Section III
Transponders
20-16. Capability
transponders have a
a. Airborne
select code capability on MODE 3A wilh
a 4,09B,code, four-digit select capability
that is compatible with ATC ground
interrogation equipment.
b. Some transponders are equipped
with a MODE C automatic altitude
reporting capability. This system converts
aircraft altitude (100-foot increments) to
coded digital infonmation which is
transmitted together with MODE C
framing pulses to the interrogating radar
facility. The manner in which transponder
paneis are designed differs. Therefore,
the aviator should be thoroughly familiar
with operation of the transponder so that
both he and ATC can reaiize its full
capabilities.
(1) The transponder is adjusted to
reply on the MODE 3A code specified by
ATC and (il equipped) to reply on MODE
C with allitude reporting capability
activated. This is unless deactivation is
directed by ATC or the installed aircraft
equipment has not been tested and
calibrated as required by FARs. If
deactivation is required by ATC, the
aviator should turn off the altitude
reporting feature of the transponder. An
instruction by ATC to "STOP ALTITUDE
SQUAWK, ALTITUDE DIFFERS (number
of feet) FEET," may be an indication that
the transponder is transmitting incorrect
altitude information or that there is an
incorrect altimeter setting. An incorrect
altimeter setting has no effect on the
MODE C altitude information transmitted
by the transponder (transponders are
preset at 29.92), but it would cause the
aviator to fiy at an actuai altitude
different from the assigned altitude.
When a controller indicates that an
aititude readout is invalid, the aviator
should initiate a check to verify that the
aircraft altimeter is set correctly.
(2) The aviator reports the exact
altitude or flight level to the nearest
hundred foot increment when both
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
establishing initial contact with an ATC
facility and when aircraft flying with
operating MODE C altitude reporting
transponders. Exact altitude or flight
level reports (on inilial contact) provides
ATC with information required prior to
using MODE C altitude information for
separation. This will significantly reduce
altitude verification requests.
c. When filing a domestic IFR flight
plan (DD Form 175 or equivalent),
indicate the radar beacon transponder or
special navigation equipment capability
or limitation by adding a slant (I) and the
appropriate symbol immediately following
the aircraft designation, such as CH-471
T or T -421 A. (Refer to the Airman's
Information Manual or FLIP to find
appropriate code ietters.)
d. Transponders will be operated in
"STBY" while taxiing for takeoff and
"OFF" after landing. (For transponder
operation, see operator's manual for
appropriate aircraft.)
NOTE: Pilots should be careful not to
reply on any code not specifically
assigned by a controller. To do so could
result in erroneous target information on
the controller's scope.
20-17. Phraseology
Radar beacon code word phraseoiogies
used by ATC controllers in air-to-ground
communications, plus expected pilot
action under specified conditions, are as
follows:
a. SQUAWK (number)-Operate
transponder on designated code in
MODE 3.
b. IDE NT-Active appropriate iDENT
control.
c. SQUAWK (number) AND
IDENT-Operate transponder on
designated code in MODE 3 and ectivate
appropriate IDENT control.
d. SQUAWK STANDBY-Switch
transponder to "STBY" position.
e. SQUAWK LOW/NORMAL-Operate
sensitivity as directed. Transponder is
operated in "NORMAL" position uniess
ATC specifies "LOW."
f. SQUAWK ALTiTUDE-Activate
MODE C with automatic aititude
reporting.
g. STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK-Turn
off altitude reporting switch and continue
transmitting MODE C framing pulses. If
the equipment does not have this
capability, turn off MODE C.
h. STOP SQUAWK (mode in
use)-Switch off designated mode.
i. STOP SQUAWK-Switch off
transponder. (STANDBY recommended.)
j. SQUAWK MAYDAY-Operate
transponder in the "EMERGENCY"
position-MODE 3, code 7700.
k. SQUAWK VFR-Operate transpon-
der on code 1200 or as assigned by
ATC.
20
Section IV
Ground Weather Radar

20-18. Operation
In addition to traffic control, there are
other applications of radar which
contribute to efficient aviation operations.
The Nationai Weather Service, the
United States Air Force, and United
States Navy operate radar storm
detection sites. Some ARTC centers
have access to radar sets designed tor
weather observation. As a result of these
efforts, a large part of the continental
United States and some oversea areas
provide radar weather service.

20-19. USAF pilot-to-metro service

(PMSV)
Direct communication service between
pilots and torecasters or observers is
provided at many locations by the USAF.
At locations where the service is
available. metro can be contacted on a
specified frequency. The forecaster or
observer will reply to the call and can
furnish an in-flight weather advisory by a
qualified weather forecaster or observer
who has access to weather radar
coverage of the flight area. While
operating on an IFR flight plan, the
aviator must obtain permission from the
controller to leave the control frequency
long enough to obtain a weather
advisory. Subsequent vectoring, which
may be necessary to avoid hazardous
storm areas, can be coordinated
between the aviator, observer or
forecaster, and controller. (For metro
service listings and frequencies, consult
the current navigation publications.)

20-20. FAA weather radar advisories

In some cases, FAA facilities obtain
weather information from weather radar
sets of the individual facility and relay
this Information to the control center or
flight service station (FSS) for broadcast
to pilots as a weather advisory. In other
cases, the traffic controller's facility may
have a weather radar set or the
controller may issue a weather advisory
based on weather data obtained from
the air traffic control radar set.

NOTE: Traffic control radar sets,

however, de-emphasize weather
phenomena since the image of storm
areas and precipitation tends to obscure
aircraft targets. Consequently, the sets
are designed to "filter out" echoes from
storms and precipitation. The resulting
display on these sets does not portray, in
great detail, the existing weather
phenomena. Therefore, the aviator
should obtain weather data from a
weather radar source if possible.

202 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Chapter 21
Tactical Instrument Flight
21-1. General
To perform tactical instrument flight
safely, the aviator must have a thorough
knowledge of the enemy situation and air
defense (AD) capability. With this
information and a knowledge of where
and when a covering force is employed,
an emoute course and flight altitude can
be planned which may decrease the
vulnerability of the aircraft to Threat
weapons. The degree of vulnerability that
remains after applying the procedures in
this chapter must be taken into
consideration before conducting
instrument flight in a high threat
environment. The aviator should be
aware that a friendly threat exists over
the battlefield. Unless the proper IFF
code and flight corridors are used, there
is a danger of being destroyed by
friendly AD
weapons. Additionally, the
aviator must recognize the enemy's
electronic warfare (EW) capability. This
threat may be used to degrade the radio
signal of the NAVAIDs or increase the
enemy's threat acquisition capability. The
success the aviator achieves on the
battlefield will depend on how he learns
to cope with the enemy threat. The
aviator must use every means to avoid,
suppress, or destroy the enemy AD and
EW systems.
Section I
Tactical Employment Considerations
21-2. Tactical Instrument flight
Tactical in.trument flight will only be
performed when meteorological
conditions at origin or enroute preclude
nap-of-the-earth (NOE) flight.
a. Tactical instrument flight is defined
as "flight under IMC in an area directly
affected by the Threat." It is used as a
means to complete an assigned mission
that is critical in nature when
meteorological conditions at origin or
enroute preclude NOE flight.
b. Tactical situations can be expected
which require single-ship operations to
be conducted within the threat
environment during IMC. In order to
survive during such missions, aviation
units must operate under instrument
conditions at altitudes well below the
eltitudes specified in civil instrument flight
rules (I FR). Standard civil rules shall be
terminated at the initiation of hostilities in
favor of joint military control throughout
the entire battle area. Though civil
facilities may continue to function,
procedural control will be translated into
tactical standards. Tactical instrument
flight will ensure maximum support of
ground tactical units by allowing aircraft
to move ,about the battlefield, even in
adverse weather under high threat
conditions. Survivability will require
techniques which go beyond the use of
today's conventional airways and
NAVAiDs. Sophisticated approach
procedures and equipment will not be
available. Instead, instrument flight will
be performed under marginal conditions
requiring the highest level of aviator
proficiency rather than equipment.
Aircraft will operate routinely at reduced
altitudes with minimum navigational aids
and minimum ATC facilities and
regulations. Increased dependence on
preflight pianning and aircrew proficiency
will be essential to accomplish the
mission using the tactical instrument
mode of flight. Both Threat weapons and
radar will dictate where and when
tacffcal instrument flight will be
performed.
21-3. Training
Tactical instrument flight can be
successfully accomplished through
diligent and thorough training of both
aircrews and air traffic management
personnel. Through testing, training, and
practice, the capability can become a
reality. Tactical instrument flight training
not only-should familiarize aviators with
the principles and employment of tactical
instrument flight in the high threat
environment, but it must teach them to
execute an instrument flight and
approach into a landing zone (LZ) using
minimum electronic communication and
navigation devices with confidence. Unit
training must be oriented toward
accomplishment of the unit's mission
under adverse weather and threat
conditions with a minimum of assistance
from electronic communication and
navigation devices. Air traffic
management personnel and aircrews
must be integrated into the training. Units
must incQI'Porate tactical instrument
functions into their everyday missions.
Lower altitude flying, minimal use of
navigation and communication
equipment, detailed premission planning,
and postmission debriefing are routine
training practices during normal
operations. Training must emphasize
flexibility in order for aviation elements to
respond quickly and reliably in a wide
range of adverse weather situations.
21-4. Principles of employment
Because tactical instrument flight is
performed under marginal conditions,
greater responsibility is placed on
planning and flight-following. When
operating under FAA control, the aviator
is issued low altitude enroute charts.
These charts identify the location of
NAVAIDs, headings, and altitudes. Flight-
following procedures are identified in
Army regulations and publications. When
performing tactical instrument flight in the
corps and division rear areas, these
procedures will be established by the
corps air management element (CAM E)
or the division air management eiement
(DAME). The principles listed beiow must
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
be considered in pianning and
conducting tactical instrument flight.
a. Threat weapons. Threat weapons
can engage aircraft operating in friendly
airspace. Normally, antiaircraft artillery
weapons cannot engage aircraft along
the FLOT when the covering force is
deployed, However, detection by the
weapons system is possible. The primary
threat to aircraft conducting tactical
instrument flight in the area along the
FLOT will be the air defense missile. To
degrade the effectiveness of these
weapons, suppression to include radio
jamming, artillery fires, and chaff should
be used when the mission is being flown.
b. Flight clearance and flight-following
procedures. Whenever tactical
instrument flight is planned, the aviator
must know the ATC procedures to be
followed. The procedures to be used will
be determined by the area where the
flight is conducted and whether
communications can be established with
an ATC facility. The followirig examples
specify areas and flight-following
procedures. The purpose of each
procedure is to maintain effective control
of airspace over the battlefield.
(1) Rear area to tacffcaloperations
area. Although there is currenlly no
requirement for radio contact or flight
following in areas forward of the division
rear, it is advisable to maintain contact
with an ATC facility as long as possible
and then assume responsibility for
making contact with other tactical
forward units for flight-following. Air
traffic control procedures are determined
by the aviator's location on the
battlefield.
(2) Tactical operations area to rear
area. The aviator serves as his own
initial clearance authority and attempts to
make contact with ATC elements
enroute. The flight should follow closely
the previously planned and coordinated
flight plan.
(3) Flight initiated from unit heliporf or
airfield.
(a) Clearance for tactical instrument
flights is secured from the division Flight
Coordination Center element through
company operations prior to takeoff if
communications exist.
(b) When radio contact is not possible
or feasible, the ATC elements should be
contacted by landline for flight filing and
clearance prior to takeoff.
(4) Flight originating from a tactical
site.
(a) In the event tactical instrument
flight is required from a forward tactical
location, such as a forward arming and
refueling point (FARP), and
communications cannot be established
with an ATC facility, the aviator must
serve as his own initial clearance
authority.
(b) As soon as practicai after the flight
is initiated, attempt should be made to
establish radio contact with an ATC
203
 AREA OF POSSIBLE COMMUNICA TIONS
JAMMING ANO MONITORING
\
/
/ \
I I
I I
,
I I
,
I
,
; '
-- I.k'-L
I
~---
FLIGHT
ROUTE
_.
REAR BOUNDARY
element or a ground tactical unit to relay
the flight plan. The aviator should follow
the original tactical instrument plan as
closely as possible until either direct
contact with an ATC element is made or
a ground unit relay is established.
(5) In-flight transition from terrain flying
to tactical instrument fiight. When the
, tactical mission requires the transition
from VMC to tactical instrument flight,
the aviator must carefully analyze his
map to select a route and altitude to
provide obstacle and terrain avoidance.
(a) When communication with an ATC
element is not possible, the aviator
serves as his own clearance authority
until direct communication with an ATC
element is made or contact with a
ground un;: relay is effected.
(b) Where communication with an ATC
element is possible, the aviator should
report his location and Intended flight
plan. He should also maintain direct ATC
communications as long as possible until
flight termination. If enroute
communication is lost, the reported flight
plan is followed as closely as possible
until contact is regained, either direct or
through a relay, or the flight is
terminated. If communications with an
ATC element cannot be reestablished,
flight-follow with a ground tactical unit.
(6) Flight in a severe EW threat or
radio silence environment.
(a) Of necessity, much of tactical flight
will be conducted in a severe EW threat
environment. To avoid electronic
detection, NAVAJOs must be restricted to
operation only when they are to be used
and then only intermittently. In order to
avoid detection and destruction, the
electronic signature of NAVAl Os and
aircraft must be kept to a minimum,
thereby making radio silence a requisite
for mission accomplishment.
(b) The aviator should use landline
communications when available for
coordinating and clearing tactical
204
A graphic side view of the Threat as it
might exist on a high thr~at battle-
EARL Y WARNING AND TRACKING
field. Hostile aircraft may be present
RADAR RANGE
-;-/---
- -
/-- ~~F;;C~IV-;R:~E-O;
over the entire combat lone.
/-
AIR DEFENSE MISSILES
{
I FRONTliNE ANTIAIRCRAFT MISSILES
\
L FRONTliNE ANTIAIRCRAFT ARTY
--- --\---------
)(
T
CORPS
---
~ -- --
I
I
'i
-- --:;--- ----L--l-----
HOT
num
Figure 21-1. Threat profile
instrument flights with an ATC element
prior to takeoff. Iflandline
communication is not possible, secure
radio channels should be used. Close
initial coordination with the ATC element
is essential prior to initiating the flight to
eliminate unnecessary radio
communications during flight.
(c) During a radio silence environment,
voice radio communica tron for naviga. tion
and fiight.foilowing is not possible. The
aviator must coordinate in detail prior to
takeoff when possible, serve as his own
clearance authority during in-flight
transitions from VMC to tactical
instrument flight, and often operate a
flight-following facility or unit while
'
enroute.
21-5. Flight altitudes
Flight altitude is determined by the height
of terrain obstructions and the availability
of terrain for masking. Flight altitudes will
be dictated by the enemy air defense
threat. The limits will be less than those
specified in AR 95-1 and may be as
close to the ground as the terrain
obstacles permit. Figure 21-1 shows an
example of how the AD threat will
appear on the modern battlefield. The
overriding concern in tactical instrument
flight is to remain below the enemy air
defense threat and continue to maintain
a safe altitude above terrain obstacles in
order to complete the mission. The
aviator can use instrument
meteorological conditions and
procedures in rear areas where the
effective range of the enemy air defense
missiles and other weapons are not a
threat. However, he may be within the
range of the enemy early warning and
tracking radar. It is important that the
aviator is aware that the aircraft is within
the radar range even though he is still
outside the effective range of the enemy
air defense missiles and other weapons.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
I
I
COVERING
/
ENEMY
FORCE AREA AREA
Although he may be beyond the range of
ground-based weapons, he may be
engaged by enemy aircraft.
a. As the aviator continues to move
forward toward the FLOT, he will come
within the effective range of the air
defense weapons. At this point, he must
remain Jow enough to avoid acquisition
by the early warning and tracking radar.
In doing so, the flight altitude is reduced
to a level below the enemy threat, yet
high enough to provide a safe clearance
of terrain obstacles. As the aviator flies
toward the FLOT, the capability of the
enemy radar to acquire the aircraft will
continue to increase even at lower
levels. He must continue to adjust the
flight altitude and route accordingiy to
remain below this threat or to be masked
by the terrain.
b. Upon reaching the forward area or
the destination point, the aviator will use
a tactical instru ment beacon to make the
approach if visual flight conditions are
not encountered. If visual conditions are
encountered at the destination, or while
enroute, he descends to terrain flight
altitude and continues the mission.
c. Conversely, as the aviator flies from
a forward location toward the rear of the
battlefield, he can progressively increase
the flight altitude. A unit's forward or rear
boundaries cannot be used as a reliable
indication of the altitude to be flown to
avoid the enemy air defense threat. This
is because these boundaries are highly
mobile, are not always the same
distance from the FLOT, or subject to
the same terrain formations. The unit
boundaries depicted on figure 21-1 are
presented only to show how the threat
will increase as the aviator flies nearer
the FLOT and is forced to select iower
flight aititudes. Each mission requiring
the use of tactical instrument flight must
be individually planned, along with an
appropriate altitude profile planned to
 remain clear of both the threat and
terrain obstacles.
21~. Flight routes
Flight routes will be determined by the
availability of NAVAIDs. The threat,
terrain, weather, and availability of radio
beacons all affect route selection.
Considerations for each factor essential
in establishing tactical instrument flight
routes include the following:
a. Straight-line flight between takeoff
pOint and destination will be precluded in
many instances by both the terrain and
the enemy air defense threat. in
selecting the flight route, the aviator
must carefully analyze the threat as it
affects potential flight routes. In most
instances, the threat will be the
overriding factor in selecting flight
routes.
The aviator should make a thorough map
reconnaissance of the possible route to
'the destination and return to determine
the best route which will provide threat
avoidance and terrain obstacle
clearance. In tactical instrument flight,
terrain obstacles can serve as valuabie
assets to deny enemy electronic
detection just as they are used for
concealment and masking during visual
terrain flying in forward areas of the
battlefield.
b. The availability and location of
navigational aids are significant factors in
route selection. Regardless of what the
weather condition may be, the aviator
shouid know the location and availabiiity
of the NAVAIDs within his area of
operation. NAVAIDs in the rear area will
be more widely spaced because the
radio signp' range can be received at a
greater range due to the higher altitude
where the aircraft is flown in this area.
NAVAIDs must be placed closer together
in the forward
area due to the limited
range where the radio signal can be
received at low altitudes. Route selection
in the forward
area will be restricted
because of the reduced range of the
beacons and limited number of beacons.
To increase the unit's capability to
conduct tactical instrument flight,
NAVAIDs must be mobile and highly
responsive. Routinely, they must be
capable of rapid displacement on short
notice.
c. The enemy will deploy highly
sophisticated electronic warfare systems.
Defeating this capability and protecting
aviation assets will require maximum
tactical ingenuity and resourcefulness.
One of the most effective tactics will be
to keep radio communications to a
minimum. In selecting a route,
communications security and a capability
for maintaining communications should
be prime considerations. Using terrain to
mask the aircraft from possible
acquisition by the enemy, early warning
radar may also mask the aircraft from
NAVAIDs and from communications with
friendly units. Considering also the threat
and the terrain, routes should be
selected which provide reliable
communications whenever feasible.
(1) Approaches. Tactical instrument
flight approaches
will vary according to
the area where the approach is to be
performed. In rear areas where standard
instrument flight procedures may be
followed, ground-controlled approach
(GCA) radar can be used for instrument
approaches. Approaches in forward
battle areas will be limited to using
nondirectional beacons. The altitude to
which descent can be made will depend
on factors such as crew proficiency,
aircraft instrumentation, approach
NAVAIDs, terrain, and visibility. The
ultimate goal of an approach is to allow
the aircraft to descend through restrictive
weather conditions to an altitude where
conditions exist for mission
accomplishment. Tactical instrument
flight approaches may be classified
according to facilities as follows:
(a) Class I-Approach using GCA or a
derivative of the national microwave
landing system (MLS) with its DME.
Guidance to 100 feet above ground level
(AGL) is reliable for property trained
aviators in appropriately instrumented
aircraft and air traffic management
personnel trained in installation and
operation of the equipment.
(b) Class II-Approach using one of
the following: An ILS or an NDS.
Centeriine guidance is reliable with a
positive position indication (fix) prior
to
start of letdown. Descent to 200 feet
AGL is allowed for property trained air
traffic management personnel and
aviators using appropriately instrumented
helicopters. Visibility must be such that
aviators Can proceed visually following
the approach.
(c) Class III-Approach using
frequency. modulated homer. Reliability of
directional guidance and station-passage
indication close to station is
questionable. Descent allilude is
dependent on terrain and visibility
conditions must be such that aviators
can operate visually before touching
Table 21-1
RadkÞ beacon capabilities
Capabilities
Pathfinder Mode (V 1)
.
1605-1750.5 kHz -
30
Frequency Range
200-535.5 kHz -
Antenna
15 ft.
1605-1750.5 kHz -
Antenna
Range (km) Below 15 km w/15 h. Masl Antenna
500 ft AHO
Range (km) Above 28 km w/15 ft. Antenna
500 ft AHO 46 km w/30 ft. Mas1 Antenna
Power ÛlJlDut 28W
Weioht 391bs.
Channels 964
Power Source SA 4840/U 24 VDC
External Source 28 :t4 VDC
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240
down or continuing the mission. Aviators
and air traffic management personnel
must be highly proficient.
(2) Navigational aids. Because of the
threat in forward areas of the battlefield,
it will not be possible to
operate
NAVAIDs full time. Operating
nondirectionai beacons and surveillance
radar NAVAIOs full time would risk enemy
acquisition of both the NAVAl D and the
aircraft as targets. It would also risk
enemy acquisition of the enemy
disrupting the mission by jamming the
NAVAID signal. In rear
areas where more
sophisticated NAVAIDs can be used
along with standard IFR, efforts should
also be made to limit the signal
transmission time to only those times
when needed as an aid. In the forward
battle areas, radio beacons should be
operated in the low power mode and
turned on intermittently or only upon
request. This procedure lessens the
chance of enemy detection.
(a) Portable radio beacon sets ANI
TRN-30(V)1 and AN/TRN-30M2 are
currently used by field units. They
transmit a radio signal that can be used
in conjunction with the ADF sets ANI
ARN-59 and ANIARN~3 installed in
most Army helicopters. These sets
provide an amplitude modulated radio
frequency signal on anyone of the 964
channels in the frequency range from
200 kilohertz to 535.5 kilohertz and 1605
kilohertz to 1750.5 kilohertz in tunable
increments of 500 hertz. The beacon can
be operated in either of three
mOdes-pathfinder, tactical, or semi-
fixed. The range of the beacon depends
upon the wattage and configuration of its
operation. The capabilities of the radio
beacon for each mode of operation are
shown in table 21-1.
(b) Frequency modulated homing can
be used for short distances as an
emergency tactical instrument
navigational aid when the onboard AOF
equipment malfunctions or the gròund-
based nondirectional beacon becomes
unreliable or inoperative. Frequency
modulated homing should be used only
Mode of Ooeraoon
Tactical Mode {V2' Semi-fixed Mode
ft.
200-535 kHz 200-535 kHz
93 km w/60 ft 185 km w/60 ft
Mast Antenna Mast Antenna
60W 1 BOW
1751bs 1751bs
672 672
E~rnal Source External Source
2B VDC 2B
:t' :t' VDC
205
 as backup NAVAID to return the aircraft
to VMC or to a rear area.
(c) Tactical instrument flight at night is
conducted primarily in the same manner
as it is conducted in the day. However,
during the transition from tactical
instrument flight to visual flight at the
point of letdown, a light source must be
present to provide a visual reference
point landing. The lighted "T," "Y," or
reference symbol may be used. If the
landing site is located at a location other
than the letdown point, a second light
source to assist in landing is also
necessary.
Section II
Tactical Instrument Flight Planning
, 21-7. Initial planning
,
The situation requiring an aviation
support mission to be flown using tactical
instrument procedures will be most
demanding, To perform this mission
i while minimizing the exposure of the
i aircraft to Threat weapons and
I avoidance of terrain features and
,
obstacles, the mission must be pianned
: in great detail and the flight maneuvers
! must be very precise. This section
I discusses the planning considerations
, and explains the procedures for
: determining the MEA, takeoff and climb
requirements, tactical instrument
i approach, holding pattern, missed
approach procedures, and emergency
procedures for tactical instrument flight.
, 21~. Preflight planning
,
Prior to actual weather conditions
requiring tectical instrument flight, the
aviator should have completed a portion
of the preflight planning procedure.
When the mission is received, an
additional leg or legs can be added to
thepreplanned route. By developing
preplanned routes, the time required to
complete the preflight planning is
reduced and less time is required to
respond to a mission request.
8. Because electronic emission of
radio beacons can be easily located by
the enemy, they will operate at specified
times or as needed and will be frequently
relocated. Each time they are moved, the
aviator should construct new tactical
instrument preplanned routes.
b. There is no existing document that
provides information as to the location,
frequency, or date-time group for
relocation of the radio beacon. It is
proposed that this information be
contained in the Communications-
Electronics Operation Instructions
(CEOI).
c. Although it is the responsibility of
the aviator to compute the information
required for tactical instrument flight,
flight operations personnel should
routinely develop tactical instrument
preplanned maps. These maps should
206
be available upon being assigned an
aviation support mission.
d. When planning for a mission
requiring tactical instrument flight, use a
checklist to ensure completeness, The
following factors are essential preflight
planning considerations:
(1) Mission requirements. When the
mission to conduct a tactical instrument
flight is recaived, the aviator can finalize
the premission planning that has already
been performed. The following factors
should be identified in the mission
request:
(a) What The nature of the aviation
support mission such as medical
evacuation or resupply must be
identified. Also, the number or weight of
materials to be transported must be
known.
(b) Where, The location of the pickup
and dropoff point must be identified. This
information is required to determine the
enroute course to the dropoff point and
to compute the enroute time and fuel
requirement.
(c) When. Once it is known when the
mission is to be performed, you can use
the backward planning sequence to
determine the takeoff time and when
NAVAIDs should be turned on.
(d) Who. The unit being supported
must be known. Coordination is required
to ensure the success of the mission.
(2) Enemy situation. The aviator
should know the location and posture of
friendly and ene,\,y forces. (To gain this
information, study the unit's tactical map
or contact the supported unit for detailed
information concerning the tactical
situation.)
(3) Threat air defense weapons, It is
important that unit operations personnel
obtain all available information which
identifies the location of enemy air
defense weapons. These locations
should be piotted on the tactical situation
map for review by the aircrews.
Intelligence information on the enemy's
tactical air capability must also be made
available. Based on the Threat and route
of flight, consideration should be given to
requesting suppression of Threat
weapons.
(4) Friendly air defense weapons. It is
also important that unit operations
personnel obtain-the locations of friendly
air defense weapons and that these
locations are plotted on the tactical
situation map for review by the aircrews.
Whenever possible, flying routes should
be avoided over or near friendly AD unit
locations to minimize possibility of
friendly AD engagement. When it is not
possible to avoid flying such routes,
coordination as to flight routes and times
must be made between the aviation
element and the Army air defense
element located at the division airspace
management element, G3, In either
case, coordination must be made with
the DAME to ensure that areas
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
coincident with AD weapon locations
have not been declared restricted flight
areas.
(5) Weather. An in-depth weather
briefing is desirable in determining
mission feasibility. Enroute weather and
destination weather at all intended points
of landing should be acquired, Pilot
reports (PIREPs) are helpful when
available. The US Air Force weather
service provides a valuable source of
weather information, especially in
forecasting area trends and changes.
Whenever possible, contact should be
attempted with destination units to
further enhance the accuracy of overall
weather factors for the proposed
mission.
(6) Communications. The frequencies
and call signs of the supported unit, ATC
facility and artillery units must be known.
A current CEO I should be available and
the aviators must be knowledgeable
concerning its use.
(7) NAVAIDs, Aviators should know the
location of the radio beacon, its
frequency, and when and where it will be
relocated. Other information includes the
FM radio frequency of the personnel
operating the beacon and any known
"dead spots" created by terrain features.
(8) Special equipment. The mission to
be performed will dictate what special
equipment will be carried aboard the
aircraft, such as litter, tiedowns, or night
vision goggles, Survival equipment
should be carried aboard the aircraft.
21-9, The course line
As the information becomes available,
location of NAVAIDs and the supported
units should be plotted on a tactical map,
An analysis of this information will allow
the aviator to select a route to his
destination that will minimize the
vulnerability of the aircraft to Threat
weapons and obstructions, Ideally, he
would select a route that would mask the
aircraft frol11 Threat weapons. However,
the terrain features that mask the aircraft
may require the minimum enroute
altitude to be so high that the aircraft
can be detected by electronic devices.
To ensure that all factors are considered
when selecting the tactical airway, the
following guidelines are provided:
a. The availability of radio beacons
and where they are positioned is a factor
in route following. In some situations,
there may be only one beacon available.
Because the reliable reception distance
of the beacon signai is approximately 15
kilometers, it may be necessary to use
dead-reckoning navigation during some
portion of the route, Even when two or
more radio beacons are available, they
may be so far apart that a segment of
the route must be conducted using dead
reckoning (fig 21-2), To avoid the danger
of exceeding the limits of the safety
zone, the dead-reckoning segment of the
route should not exceed 15 kilometers.
remain clear of both the threat and
terrain obstacles.
21-6. Flight routes
Flight routes will be determined by the
availability of NAVAIOs. The threat,
terrain, weather, and availability of radio
beacons all affect route selection.
Considerations for each factor essential
in establishing tactical instrument flight
routes include the following:
a.
Straight-line flight between takeoff
point and destination will be preciuded in
many instances by both the terrain and
the enemy air defense threat. In
selecting the flight route, the aviator
must carefully analyze the threat as it
affects potential flight routes. I n most
instances, the threat will be the
overriding factor in selecting flight routes.
The aviator should make a thorough map
reconnaissance of the possible route to
the destination and return to determine
the best route which will provide threat
avoidance and terrain obstacle
clearance. In tactical instrument flight,
terrain obstacles can serve as valuable
assets to deny enemy electronic
detection just as they are used for
concealment and masking during visual
terrain flying in forward areas of the
battlefield.
b. The availability and location of
navigational aids are signfficant factors in
route selection. Regardless of what the
weather condition may be, the aviator
should know the location and availability
of the NAVAl Os within his area of
operation. NAVAIDs in the rear area will
be more widely spaced because the
radio signpl range can be received at a
greater range due to the higher alii tude
where the aircraft is flown in this area.
NAVAIOs must be placed closer together
in the forward area due to the limited
range where the radio signal can be
received at low altitudes. Route selection
in the forward area will be restricted
because of the reduced range of the
beacons and limited number of beacons.
To increase the unit's capability to
conduct tactical instrument flight,
NAVAIOs must be mobile and highly
responsive. Routinely, they must be
capable of rapid displacement on short
notice.
c. The enemy will deploy highly
sophisticated electronic warfare systems.
Defeating this capability and protecting
aviation assets will require maximum
tactical ingenuity and resourcefulness.
One of the most effective tactics will be
to keep radio communications to a
minimum. In selecting a route,
communications security and a capability
for maintaining communications should
be prime considerations. Using terrain to
mask the aircraft from possible
acquisition by the enemy, early warning
radar may aiso mask the aircraft from
NAVAIOs and from communications with
friendly units. Considering aiso the threat
and the terrain, routes should be
selected which provide reliable
communications whenever feasible.
(1) Approaches. Tactical instrument
fiight approaches will vary according to
the area where the approach is to be
performed. In rear areas where standard
instrument flight procedures may be
followed, ground-controlled approach
(GCA) radar can be used for instrument
approaches. Approaches in forward
battle areas will be limited to using
non directional beacons. The altitude to
which descent can be made will depend
on factors such as crew proficiency,
aircraft instrumentation, approach
NAVAIDs, terrain, and visibility. The
uitimate goal of an approach is to allow
the aircraft to descend through restrictive
weather conditions to an altitude where
conditions exist for misston
accomplishment. Tactical instrument
flight approaches may be classified
according to facilities as follows:
(a) Class I-Approach using GCA or a
derivative of the national microwave
landing system (MLS) with its OME.
Guidance to 1 00 feet above ground level
(AGL) is reliable for property trained
aviators in appropriately Instrumented
aircraft and air traffic management
personnel trained in installation and
operation of the equipment.
(b) Class II-Approach using one of
the following: An ILS or an NOB.
Centerline guidance is reliable with a
positive position indication (fIX) prior to
start of letdown. Descent to 200 feet
AG L is allowed for properly trained air
traffic management personnel and
aviators using appropriately instrumented
helicopters. Visibility must be such that
aviators can proceed visually following
the approach.
(c) Class III-Approach using
frequency-modulated homer. Reliability of
directional guidance and station-passage
Indication close to station is
questionable. Descent altitude is
dependent on terrain and visibility
conditions must be such that aviators
can operate visually before touching
Table 21-1
Radio beacon C8D8bRities
Capabilities
Pathfinder Mode (V ,)
1605,-1750,5 kHz -
30 ft.
Frequency Range
Antenna
200-535.5 kHz -
15 ft.
1605-1750.5 kHz -
Antenna
Range (km) Below 15 km w/15 h. Mast Antenna
500 ft AHO
Range (km) Above 28 km w/15 ft. Antenna
46 km w/30 fl.. Mest An1enna
500 ft AHO
Power OutDul 2SW
WeÎL'Jhl 391bs.
Channels 984
Power SourC43 SA 4B40/U 24 VDC
External Source 28 :t4 VDC
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
down or continuing the mission. Aviators
and air traffic management personnel
must be highly proficient.
(2) Navigational aids. Because of the
threat in forward areas of the battlefield,
it will not be possible to operate
NAVAl Os full time. Operating
nondirectional beacons and surveillance
radar NAVAIOs full time would risk enemy
acquisition of both the NAVAIO and the
aircraft as targets. It would also risk
enemy acquisition of the enemy
disrupting the mission by jamming the
NAVAID signal. In rear areas where more
sophisticated NAVAl Os can be used
along with standard IFR, efforts should
also be made to limit the signal
transmission time to only those times
when needed as an aid. In the forward
battie areas, radio beacons should be
operated in the low power mode and
turned on intermittently or only upon
request. This procedure lessens the
chance of enemy detection.
(a) Portable radio beacon sets ANI
TRN-30(V)1 and AN/TRN-30(V]2 are
currently used by field units. They
transmit a radio signal that can be used
in conjunction with the ADF sets ANI
ARN-59 and ANI ARN-63 installed in
most Army helicoptens. These sets
provide an amplitude modulated radio
frequency signal on anyone of the 964
channels in the frequency range from
200 kilohertz to 535.5 kilohertz and 160f
kiiohertz to 1750.5 kilohertz in tunable
increments of SOO hertz. The beacon car
be operated in either of three
modes-pathfinder, tactical, or semi-
fixed. The range of the beacon depends
upon the wattage and configuration of it:
operation. The capabilities of the radio
beacon for each mode of oparation are
shown in table 21-1.
(b) Frequency modulated homing can
be used for short distances as an
emergency tactical instrument
navigational aid when the onboard AOF
equipment malfunctions or the ground-
based nondirectional beacon becomes
unreliable or inoperative. Frequency
modulated homing should be used only
Mode of DDBration
Tactical Mode (V 9) Semi-lixed Mode
200-535 kHz 200-535 kHz
93 km w/60 fI. 185 km w/60 fI.
Mast Antenna
Mast Antenna
SOW 180W
1751bs 1751bs
672 672
External Source External Source
28 :1::4 VDC 28 VOC
:t'
20
 as backup NAVAID to raturn the aircraft
to VMC or to a rear area.
(c) Tactical instrument flight at night is
conducted primarily in the same manner
as it is conducted in the day. However,
during the transition from tactical
instrument flight to visual flight at the
point of ietdown, a light source must be
present to provide a visual reference
point landing. The lighted "T," "Y," or
reference symbol may be used. If the
landing site is located at a location other
than the letdown point, a second light
source to assist in landing is also
necessary .
Section II
Tactical Instrument Flight Planning
21-7. Initial planning
The situation requiring an aviation
support mission to be flown using tactical
instrument procedures will be most
demanding. To pertorm this mission
while minimizing the exposure of the
aircraft to Threat weapons and
avoidance of terrain features and
obstacies, the mission must be planned
in great detail and the flight maneuvers
must be very precise. This section
discusses the planning considerations
and explains the procedures for
I determining the MEA, takeoff and climb
requirements, tactical instrument
approach, holding pattern, missed
approach procedures, and emergency
procedures for tactical instrument flight
21-8. Preflight planning
Prior to actual weather conditions
requiring tActical instrument flight, the
aviator should have completed a portion
of the preflight planning procedure.
When the mission is received, an
additional leg or legs can be added to
the preplanned route. By developing
preplanned routes. the time required to
complete the preflight planning is
reduced and less time is required to
respond to a mission request.
a. Because electronic emission of
radio beacons can be easily located by
the enemy, they will operate at specified
times or as needed and will be frequently
relocated. Each time they are moved, the
aviator should construct new tactical
instrument preplanned routes.
b. There is no existing document that
provides information as to the location,
frequency, or date-time group for
relocation of the radio beacon. It is
proposed that this information be
contained in the Communications-
Electronics Operation Instructions
(CEDI).
c.
Although it is the responsibility of
the aviator to compute the information
required for tactical instrument flight,
flight operations personnel should
routinely develop tactical instrument
preplanned maps. These maps should
206
be available upon being assigned an
aviation support mission.
d When planning for a mission
requiring tactical instrument flight, use a
checklist to ensure completeness. The
following factors are essential preflight
planning considerations:
(1) Mission requirements. When the
mission to conduct a tactical instrument
flight is received, the aviator can finalize
the premission planning that has already
been pertormed. The following factors
should be identified in the mission
request:
(a) What The nature of the aviation
support mission such as medical
evacuation or resupply must be
identified. Also, the number or weight of
materials to be transported must be
known.
(b) Where. The location of the pickup
and dropoff point must be identified. This
information is required to determine the
enroute course to the dropoff point and
to compute the enroute time and fuel
requirement.
(c) When. Once it is known when the
mission is to be performed, you can use
the backward planning sequence to
determine the takeoff time and when
NAVAl Os should be turned on.
(d) Who. The unit being supported
must be known. Coordination is required
to ensure the success of the mission.
(2) Enemy situation The aviator
should know the location and posture of
friendly and enemy forces. (To gain this
information, study the unit's tactical map
or contact the supported unit for detailed
information concerning the tactical
situation.)
(3) Threat air defense weapons. It is
important that unit operations personnel
obtain all available information which
identifies the location of enemy air
defense weapons. These locations
should be piotted on the tactical situation
map for review by the aircrews.
Intelligence information on the enemy's
tactical air capability must also be made
available. Based on the Threat and route
of flight, consideration should be given to
requesting suppression of Threat
weapons.
(4) Friendiy air defense weapons. It is
also important that unit operations
personnel obtain the locations of friendly
air defense weapons and that these
locations are plotted on the tactical
situation map for review by the aircrews.
Whenever possible, flying routes should
be avoided over or near friendly AD unit
locations to minimize possibility of
friendly AD engagement When it is not
possible to avoid flying such routes,
coordination as to flight routes and times
must be made between the aviation
element and the Army air defense
element located at the division airspace
management element, G3. In either
case, coordination must be made with
Jhe DAMEto..ensurethat areas
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
coincident with AD weapon locations
have not been declared restricted flight
areas.
(5) Weather. An in-depth weather
briefing is desirable in determining
mission feasibility. Enroute weather and
destination weather at all intended points
of landing should be acquired. Pilot
reports (PI REPs) are helpful when
available. The US Air Force weather
service provides a vaiuable source of
weather information, especialiy in
forecasting area trends and changes.
Whenever possible, contact should be
attempted with destination units to
further enhance the accuracy of overall
weather factors for the proposed
mission.
(6) Communications. The frequencies
and call signs of the supported unit, ATC
facility and artillery units must be known.
A current CEDI should be available and
the aviators must be knowledgeable
concerning its use.
(7) NAVAlDs. Aviators should know the
location of the radio beacon, its
frequency, and when and where it will be
relocated. Other information includes the
FM radio frequency of the personnel
operating the beacon and any known
"dead spots" created by terrain features.
(8) Special equipment. The mission to
be performed will dictate what special
equipment will be carried aboard the
aircraft, such as litter, tied owns, or night
vision goggles. Survival equipment
should be carried aboard the aircraft
21-9. The course line
As the information becomes available,
location of NAVAl Os and the supported
units should be plotted on a tactical map.
An analysis of this information will allow
the aviator to select a route to his
destination that will minimize the
vulnerability of the aircraft to Threat
weapons and obstructions. Ideally, he
would select a route that would mask the
aircraft from Threat weapons. However,
the terrain features that mask the aircraft
may require the minimum enroute
altitude to be so high that the aircraft
can be detected by electronic devices.
To ensure that all factors are considered
when selecting the tactical airway, the
following guidelines are provided:
a. The availability of radio beacons
and where they are positioned is a factor
in route following. In some situations,
there may be only one beacon available.
Because the reliable reception distance
of the beacon signal is approximately 15
kilometers, it may be necessary to use
dead-reckoning navigation during some
portion of the route. Even when two or
more radio beacons are available, they
may be so far apart that a segment of
the route must be conducted using dead
reckoning (fig 21-2). To avoid the danger
of exceeding the limits of the safety
zone, the dead-reckoning segment of the
route should not exceed 15 kilometers.
Using this criteria, it would be possible to
navigate 60 kilometers using one radio
beacon before receiving the signal from
a second beacon along the course line
(fig 21-2, number 1). If the beacon is
tactical instrument map depicting the
route that has been selected in the
-."'-''''''--- ~.._..:::::.::.~-~o'"
miscellaneous data block on the back of
the DA Form 2283 (Army Aviation
Instrument Flight Log). The route should
-

located at the beginning or end of the be oriented in relation to the actual route ..-"ÞJDD/o
,~.,
enroute course, the maximum safe planned. Grid course must be converted -- - .. .... -

distance the aviator could navigate using .n' ~ "~-

to magneUc course. s

dead reckoning and radio navigation = "

- . - -

would be 30 kilometers (fig 21-2, number c. The exact scale of the map is not ..~
" "
...
2). Before final selection of the tactical
critical. The distance (kilometers) of each ."
~T"II.T 0" "
.. ..
"/ ..
.s.
airway is made, the terrain should be
leg and magnetic course should be
recorded on the map (fig 21-3). If a
ONU.
flllDDI'
"" ~ "
-y "

studied within the enroute safety zone to
determine the MEA. After determining
the MEA for each leg of the route, the
aviator may find the MEA subjects the
aircraft to detection by Threat weapons.
To avoid this danger, another route
should be selected that would permit the
aviator to fly at a lower MEA. After it has
been determined that the selected route
providas the bast protection from Threat
weapons and terrain obstacles, the
azimuth and distance of each leg should
be measured. The grid course of each
leg must be converted to magnetic
course. Also, when conducting dead.
reckoning navigation, correction for wind
drift and instrument error must be
applied to ensure accurate navigation.
b. After determining the magnetic
course and distance of each leg, draw a
u.
portion 01 the lag is conducted using .. u, ~ .
'Y ..
STAInOf' ... u.
dead.reckoning navigation, the point PfZ 1.1'&
"" 'Y ..
where radio reception can be anticipated
should be marked. Because the enroute Figure 21-4. Flight log
altitude is normally below 1,000 feet
AG L, surface winds should be used lor 21-10. Minimum enroute altitude
computing enroute time and wind Due to the low altitude the aviator will be
correction. This information should be flying when conducting tactical
recorded on the flight log (fig 21-4). (If instrument flight, it is essential to perform
a thorough
the diagram is too small for sufficient map analysis to determine
detail to be included, a separate 5- by 8. the highest obstacle within the safety
inch sheet of paper may be used.) If the zone bordering the course line. Failure to
leg is flown using both radio and dead- recognize the highest obstruction could
reckoning navigation, the aviator should result in the aircraft being flown at an
compute the time for each portion of the altitude below an obstruction within the
leg separately. After completing preflight
planning, the minimum enroute altitude
for each leg 01 the route can then be
added.

CD 60 KM
^

(' '\
@ 15 @ @ 15 @ 15
". ;'1):::::>':::
I
,".0,''''

(8090 270 :!i#tjii*

090 L I 270 .'.' .:.:.
.:::~::::~:::;., ~~\~~~.~~~~~
15 15
TAKEOFF
L:ANDING

\. )
v

@
@ 30 KM
DEAD-RECKONING NAVIGATION

@ RADIO NAVIGATION

Figure 21-2. Enroute navigation

\..:::.:.."16151 ~::1:~.~.5
0090 ~ 850
@~f~t} 720 f 090 ::~I?
12 13
TAK EOFF
lANDING

Figure 21-3. Tactical Instrument map

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 20;

emoute safety zone, thus creating an
unsafe condition of flight. In addition to
the information contained on the map,
the aviator should consider any PIREPs
of man-made features that have been
consfructed since the map was printed.
Although obstruction clearance is of
primary concern, consideration must also
be given to avoid detection by enemy
electronic devices. The aviator may find
that if the aircraft is flown at the MEA, it
would be detected by Threat weapons.
When this condition exists, the aviator
should select another route where the
MEA is lower. The aviator should always
remember to fly at the lowest MEA
possible. This means that each leg of
the route may be flown at a different
altitude. The following procedures
describe the method for determining the
MEA:
a. The MEA for each ieg of a tactical
instrument airway may be different. To
determine the MEA for each leg of the
route, consider one or more of the
following safety zones: takeoff, emoute,
or approach. For exampie, the MEA for
I~
'l-~#
/ "
"-/ ')
0- V
, ,
12
'<-",
"1:
'"
208
the first leg is determined by the highest
obstructions within the takeoff safety
zone and the emoute safety zone (fig
21-5). If the route has three or more
.
legs, the MEA for the leg(s), other than
the takeoff and landing leg, is
determined by the highest obstacle
within the emoute safety zone (fig 21-5).
the MEA for the final leg is determined
by the highest obstacle within the
emoute safety zone and the approach
safety zone. For the purpose of the
discussion in this paragraph, it will be
assumed that the highest obstacle within
the takeoff and approach safety zone is
lower than the emoute safety zone.
b. The method of navigation that is
used to maneuver the aircraft along the
tactical airway (radio navigation or dead-
reckoning navigation) will determine the
procedure for computing the width of the
safety zone. The following criteria will be
used for determining the safety zone for
each type of navigation:
(1) Radio navigation. Radio navigation
is within15 kilometers of a radio beacon.
~/':.\iii;..Îl;;
13
fIVAOUl"fS~ft.''< 1.0 N~
Figure 21-5. Factors for determining MEA
Figure 21-6. Safety zone for radio navigation
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
The width of the safety zone should be 2
kilometers wide at the beacon (1
kilometer each side of the beacon) and
graduaily broaden to a point equal to
one-fifth the distance of the leg at 15
kilometers from the beacon. In the case
of a leg with two beacons, the point is
one-fifth of the total distance at the
midpoint. If a fraction of a kilometer
results, the whole kilometer is used (fig
21-6). The boundary line is drawn on
each side of the course leg from a point
1 kilometer abeam the beacon to a point
3 kilometers from the centerline of the
course at the midpoint (fig 21-6).
EXAMPLE: The tactical mission requires
the aviator to perform an aviation
support mission during IMC. The route
consists of two legs fixed by three radio
beacons. Radio navigation is possible for
the entire route. To determine the safety
zone for each leg, the aviator should first
measure the total distance of each leg.
The widest part of the safety zone is
one-fifth the total distance or 6
kilometers for each leg in the example.
IJ,PPROA,CH
~O!::...E
S4F fry
~i!w\ I ;:r
'5 ---:':":'::':::----1:1~
-
3KM
/--../
3KM
.
 (2) Dead-reckoning navigation. Dead-
reckoning is used lor the portion 01 the
leg that is more than 15 kilometers lrom
a beacon and should not exceed 15
kilometers in length. The width 01 the
salely zone shall be one-fifth the length
of the course leg. If a fraction of a
kilometer results, the aviator should
round up to the whole kilometer (fig
21-7.)
EXAMPLE: The tactical situation requires
that the aviator perform an aviation
support mission during IMC. The route
requires that the initial portion of the
flight be flown using dead-reckoning . LANDING

navigation. To determine the safely zone

for this portion of the leg, the aviator
I
must first measure the total distance of
the leg (30 kilometers). The width of the
safely zone is one-fifth the total distance t
of the leg or 6 kilometers. Draw the 3KM
boundary line 3 kilometers on each side
I

~90-
of the centertine for that portion of the
leg flown using dead-reckoning
T AICEOFF t I~
.)0

navigation.
3KM
J2
'-"-1-,,-
(3) Radio and dead-reckoning
navigalion. When Ihe course leg is flown
~ '-
using both radio navigation and dead-
reckoning, the length of the leg should Figure 21-7. Safety zone for dead-reckoning navigation and turning
not exceed a total of 30 kilometers. The
wid1h of the safely zone should be 2
kilometers at the beacon (1 kilometers
each side of the beacon) and gradually
broaden to a point equal to one-fifth the
total distance of the leg at 15 kilometers
from the beacon. Then maintain that
wid1h for the length of the dead-
reckoning leg.
c. When the enroute course changes
more than 45 degrees, the aircraft can
be flown outside the enroute safely zone
during the turn. To ensure obstacle
clearance, a turn safely zone should be
constructed on the side of the enroute
course where the turning radius of the
aircraft would extend outside the enroute
safely zone. The turning safely zone
should be 3 kilometers wide and extend
3 kilometers beyond the radio beacon or
fix where the turn will be performed (fig
21-7). Taper the safely zone as shown
in figure 21-8.
Dr-lme from OU18lde
8dge of 3K tQlJI'" 10
81IW11V'..midpoi"t

Figure 21-8. Safety zones for radio navigation

segment and enroute turn (greater than 45 degrees)

t5 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 20'

EXAMPLE: The tactical situation requires
that the aviator perform an aviation
supporf mission during IMC. The route
requires that each leg of the route be
formed using both dead-reckoning and
radio navigation. To determine the safety
zone for the portion of each leg flown
using dead-reckoning navigation, the
aviator should follow the procedures
described in the dead-reckoning
navigation exam pie. To determine the
limits of the safety zone for the portion of
each leg flown using radio navigation, a
line has to be drawn from the safety
zone boundary limits where dead-
reckoning navigation ends or begins to
the safety boundary limits at the beacon
(fig 21-9).
CAUTION: The indicated airspeed for
enroute travel shouid not exceed 90
knots. Airspeeds greater than 90 knots
may cause the aircraft to be flown
outside the safety zones. Also, difficulty
will be experienced when decelerating
the aircraft to 60 knots during the
approach.
TAKEOFF
Figure 21-9. Safety zone for dead-reckoning and radio navigation
210
d. After determining the boundary of
the safety zone for each leg of the route,
construct the boundary for the takeoff
and landing safety zone. The procedure
for determining the takeoff and landing
safety zone will be discussed in the
following paragraphs. For the purpose of
this discussion, it may be assumed that
the highest obstruction is located within
the enroute safety zones. The aviator
should study the area within the safety
zone and identify the aititude of the
highest terrain or obstruction. Once the
highest altitude is located, then 400 feet
is added to the figure. This altitude is the
recommended MEA for tactical
instrument flight.
NOTE: The recommended safe minimum
clearance altitude of 400 feet above the
highest obstacle (AHO) incorporates a
safety margin for the variables of
altimeter error, pilot error, obstacle
elevations, and height of vegetation not
depicted on tactical maps. At 200 feet
AHO, the lowest beacon reliable
reception altitude, the safety margin for
15 DECEMBER 1 964 UPDATE. FM 1-240
the variables is not adequate. Altimeter
error, variation in obstacle elevation, and
heights of vegetation may be greater
than 100 feet. Flights at 300 feet AHO
would be satisfactory without considering
potential pilot error. To allow for pilot
error, an additional 100 feet is added as
a safety margin, making the
recommended safe minimum clearance
altitude 400 feet AHO. Depending on the
type of terrain-flat desert, broken
woodlands, or mountainous-the safe
minimum clearance altitude for flight
planning purposes can and should be
adjusted commensurate with the threat
and terrain. For example, the safety
margin can be reduced over flat desert
terrain since vegetation or man. made
obstacles are usually absent. In
mountainous terrain, the margin may
need to be increased to provide for
downdrafts and unexpectedly high terrain
obstacles.
MEA HIGHEST OBSTRUCTION IN
=
SAFETY ZONE + 400 FEET
~
SAFETY BOUNDARY LIMITS
EXAMPLE (fig 21-10): The tactical
situation requires that the aviator perform
an aviation support mission during IMC.
After constructing the safely zones for
each leg of the route and the takeoff and
landing safely zone, the aviator identifies
the altitude of the highest obstruction on
the first leg to be 450 feet, 320 feet for
the second leg, and 500 feet for the third
ieg. The MEA for the first leg is
determined to be 850 feet AGL, 720 feet
AGL for the second leg, and 900 feet
AGL for the third leg (fig 21-10).
NOTE: Obstructions shown on the map
identify the height of the obstruction
above the ground. To determine the
altitude of the òbstruction, the height of
obstruction must be added to the terrain
elevation.
21-11. Takeoff planning
Planning for the takeoff should include
all the factors for a normal VMC takeoff
such as wind direction and velocily,
longest axis of the area, barriers on the
takeoff path, or power requirements. In
LEG 1
HIGHEST OBSTACLE 450
SAFETY MARGIN 400
MEA B60
Figure 21-10. The highest obstruction for each leg of the route determines MEA for that leg
TAKEOFF HEAOING
LESS THAN 900
DIRECT TURN TO
C\OURSE
('~(~~--
--
H ~
TAKEOH HEADING MORE THAN 900 TEARDROP
TURN TO COURSE
Figure 21-11. -Takeoff to intercept enroute course
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
addition, since the takeoff
may be in
actual weather conditions, the terrain
within the takeoff safely zone must be
evaluated to ensure the climb
performance of the aircraft will allow the
aviator to climb to an altitude above the
obstacle before reaching it. When
possible, the takeoff direction should be
planned to be on or near the heading of
the firstleg of the course. Because this
cannot always be accomplished,
procedures have been established which
will allow the aviator to maneuver the
aircraft safely to the desired course. If
there is a navigational aid at the takeoff
point, standard tracking procedures can
be used to establish the aircraft on the
desired course.
a. When the takeoff heading is within
90 degrees of the enroute course, a
direct turn is made to the enroute course
heading after reaching an altitude tOO
feet above the highest obstruction within
the takeoff safely zone (fig 21-11).
b. When the takeoff heading is more
than 90 degrees from the enroute course
heading, a teardrop turn is used to
LEG2
HIGHEST OBSTACLE 320 HIGHEST OBSTACLE
SAFETY MARGIN 400 SAFETY MARGIN
MEA 720
--- -:f-'~"''''"'
- -
-, ""''''~
.~.
15
reverse direction and establish the
course heading. After reaching an
altitude 1 00 feet AHa within the takeoff
safely zone, execute a 210-degree turn
(fig 21-11). The turn should be made in
the direction of the lowest terrain
obstacles. Where terrain obstacles are
not a consideration, the turn should be
made into the wind. After starting the
turn, the heading is flown in the same
length of time as the takeoff heading
was flown. After this period of time
elapses, the aviator turns to the heading
which will allow him to make good the
desired course and accelerate to the
desired enroute airspeed.
c. When executing any of the tactical
instrument takeoff maneuvers, a
maximum takeoff power setting should
be used while acceierating to 60 knots.
After reaching 100 feet AHa in the
takeoff safely zone, an acceleration to
90 knots and a power reduction to 500
feet per minute should be initiated. The
initial high rate of climb and slower
airspeed is necessary to gain altitude in
a short distance. When the takeoff
LEG 3
500
400
MEA 900
'".w::;;\'
21
heading is more than 90 degrees from
the enroute course heading, there is no
acceleration to the enroute airspeed until
the Inbound time has lapsed.
d. If the takeof1 heading is aligned with
the en route course, a takeof1 safety zone
is not required, but a takeof1 climb zone
is plotted to ensure obstacle clearance
during initial climb to MEA (figs 21-12
and 21-13). In all other cases, both a
takeof1 safety zone and a climb zone to
ensure obstacle clearance must be
constructed (fig 21-14).
(1) To develop a takeoff safety zone,
the aviator should construct a box 4 x 3
kilometers with the line dividing the
maneuvering and non maneuvering sides
of the safety zone aligned on the takeoff
heading (figs 21-14 and 21-16). The
origin of this line is at the takeoff point.
The 3 x 3 kilometer box of the takeoff
safety zOne will always be located on the
turning side. The aviator should draw a
climb safety zone within the takeof1
safety zone.
(2) The climb safety zone should be
drawn 30 degrees each side of the
takeoff heading and should extend from
the takeoff point until intercepting the
would be a difference of 300 feet. This
difference of 300 feet will be plotted on
the takeoff obstruction chart (fig 21-15)
at the appropriate distance from the
takeoff point. Using the takeoff
obstruction chart, the aviator can
determine the rate of climb required to
clear any obstacle within the climb safety
zone.
EXAMPLE: It is determined that there are
two obstacles within the climb zone. By
plotting these two obstacles on the
takeoff obstruction chart, it can be
determined that a climb rate of 500 feet
per minute is required to clear these

1-",-1 1
boundary of the takeoff zone. The
aviator should identify the height of the
obstacles by a safe margin.
e. The aviator should determine the

AKE Ff
\~
8:)0
2'
I
"
highest man-made or natural obstacles
within the climb zone and the distance
highest terrain feature or obstacle within
the takeoff safety zone. This altitude plus
CLIMB lONE

J<:;;ô>
1 from the takeoff paint. The difference
between the height of the highest
2'
I obstacie in the climb zone and the
elevation of the takeoff point should be
r--DEAD.RECKONING SEGMENT--j
plotted on the takeoff óbstruction chart.
If the highest obstruction in the climb
Figure 21-12. Takeoff climb zone, zone is 790 feet and the elevation of the
dead.reckoning segment takeoff point is 490 feet, then there
100 feet is the altitude the aviator must
climb to before turning to intercept the
enroute course.
(1) The aviator locates the altitude of
the highest terrain feature or obstacle
within the takeoff safety zone and the
safety zone for the first enroute leg. The
aviator adds 400 feet to the highest

TAKEOFF

;;r
CLIMB ZONE

~
60"
f 5
1
4K

'1 '5
!
-- 3K-

DISTANCE FROM ALTITUDE ABOVE

C1BSTACLE TAKEOFF POINT TAKEOFF POINT

NO.1 HILL 1.5 KILOMETERS 300 FEET

NO.2 TOWER 2.0 KILOMETERS 225 FEET

ENROUTE COURSE ':::a~:::::::::"

:::::.
;"..
<-:. ',','
'0::>'..".:.:-::'
....~.:.'.'

Figure 21-14. Takeoff climb zone

212 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 -

::~
w
w

~
O4OC
w
"
.. TOWER
~nJ
w 225 FEET
>
0
'" ,1/
<"" '^'

DISTANCE fROM TAKEOFF POINT' Ite:MI

Figure 21-15. Takeoff obstruction chart for a ground speed of 60 knots

TAKEOFF HEADING GREATER

THAN 900 FROM COURSE

15

TAKEOFF HEADING LESS

THAN goo FROM COURSE

"

15

Figure 21-16. Takeoff safely zone

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 2

obstruction within these two safety
zones. This is the MEA for the tirst leg of
the route and the aircraft must be flown
to this altitude while turning to intercept
the enroute heading.
(2) The MEA for succeeding legs of
the route may be different. To minimize
detection, the aviator flies each leg at its
MEA rather than the entire route at the
altitude of the highest MEA. If the
succeeding leg of fhe course is higher,
the climb is planned so as to cross the
radio beacon at the highest MEA. If the
altitude is lower, the aviator descends to
the MEA after passing the radio beacon.
(3) (Refer to fig 21-17.) When flying
outbound from beacon A to B, the 500.
foot hill boosts MEA to 900 feet MSL.
MEA can be reduced to 550 feet by
plotting an offset course (030 degrees
Figure 21-17. Offsetting course to bypass direct route obstacle
214
outbound from beacon A) to avoid hill.
Initially, on a 030.degree course, the
plotted relative bearing to B is 20
degrees (050 minus 030). As the flight
progresses outbound, the relative
bearing gradually increases until it finally
doubles (40 degrees relative bearing) at
intermediate fix. Since 030 degrees has
been maintained outbound from A,
cross.tune back and forth to B in order
to maintain the outbound track and note
the relative bearing increase. When the
angle doubles (40 degrees), the aviator
is at the intermediate fix and will turn
right to B on a 070.degree course.
Distence from A to fix is same es from
fix to B. Time enroute from either beacon
to fix will be the same in calm wind. By
using relative bearing change and
\ ~
~"'l'''
DIRECT ROUTE MEA: 900 FT
OFFSET ROUTE MEA: 550 FT
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
doubling the relative bearing angle, the
MEA has been reduced while bypassing
the 500.foot hill. Doubling the angle
technique works only inbound to a
beacon. A left crosswind increases
relative beering by the same amount of
crab angle. A right crosswind reduces
relative bearing by amount of crab angle.
21-12. Approach procedures
The tactical instrument approach
incorporates the normal flight procedures
used for the standard instrument
approach. However, the MDA for the
tactical approach is lower. There are two
types of tactical approaches: the terminal
approach and the straight-in approach.
The flight maneuvers and procedures for
constructing the approach safety zone
for the tactical approach are as follows:

a. Terminal approach. The
radio
beacon used for the terminal approach is
located at the landing point. There is no
finai fix where the descent is iniüated.
The standard 1-minute racetrack pattern
is used to maneuver the aircraft into
position for the descent (fig 21-18).
Because there is limited space within the
approach safety zone, the aircraft should
be flown at 60 knots airspeed. Reduction
in airspeed should be made after
completing the outbound turn. Also, the
aircraft must be flown to the minimum
maneuver altitude within the approach
safety zone (400 feet above the highest
obstruction within the approach safety
zone) prior to iniüating the approach. If
the MEA is higher than the minimum
--8-
- -
Figure 21-19. Approach safety zone (tsrmlnal approach)
maneuver aijitude, descend to the lower
altitude in the pattern. Upon intercepting
the approach course, the descent is
begun to arrive at the MDA prior to
reaching the beacon. The aviator
maintains track and MDA until station
passage. The approach safety zone for
the terminal approach provides a safe
maneuvering area for entering the
racetrack pattern, holding and missed
approach. Following are the procedures
for constructing the approach safety
.zpne:
/( (1) The lateral boundaries of the
approach safety zone are 3 kilometers
on the maneuvering side and 1 kilometer
on the nonmaneuvering side (fig 21-19).
The linear boundaries extend 3
I/,,----8-------"',
',I- -I) , M'NUTE
'-----------_.,,(/
~~.
\.'
Figure 21-18. Terminal approach pattern
I 4.
3KM
'4
ffè-l.
\
, .
_:::::_----
15
APPROACH SAFETY ZONE
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
kilometers on each side of the beacon.
The maneuvering side should be located
on the side where the terrain is the
lowest. Where terrain is not a factor, it
should be posiüoned on the upwind side.
(2) Study the area within the approach
safety zone and locate the highest
obstruction. The MDA is derived by
adding 200 feet to the altitude of the
highest obstruction. As discussed
previously, the MEA for the final leg of
the course may be determined by the
highest obstruction wilhin the approach
safety zone.
A diagram of the approach should
~3)
be drawn to provide a visualization of the
maneuvers to be performed during the
execufion of the approach.
\
LANDING POINT
...1.. 3KM
... I
@--=1
/
,
3KM
I
lKM
.--J
21,
MDA HIGHEST OBSTRUCTION
= (5) After 1-minute outbound, the
WITHIN APPROACH SAFETY ZONE + aviator turns to the inbound course. If
200 FEET the descent to the minimum maneuver
aititude for the approach safety zone
EXAMPLE (fig 21-20): (BOO)is completed prior to intercepting
the final approach course, the aviator
Altitude of highest obstruction within the continues the approach inbound to the
approach safety zone. . . . .
landing point. If additional time is
.. .. .. ..
. .

. . . 400 feet (MSL) required for the descent, the pattern is

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. .

Minimum enroute altitude. . . . . . . . . . .

flown until reaching the minimum
. . .

maneuver altitude. On subsequent

.1,000 feet (MSL)
... ... patterns, time outbound is adjusted to
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Minimum maneuver altitude within achieve a 1-minute inbound leg. Upon

approach safety zone. . . . . . . . . . . intercepting the final course inbound,
.,
BOO feet (MS~ descent is begun to MDA.
.....................
Minimum descent altitude. . . . .
(6) If at any time on the approach
visual contact is made with the ground, a
600 feet (MSL)
.. transition is made to VMC flight. If visual
.

(4) After passing the beacon, a contact is not possible, a missed

standard rate turn is made to the approach procedure is executed upon
station passage.
outbound heading while simultaneously
t b. Straight-in approach. To perform a
beginning descent to minimum
straight-in approach, the aviator must be
maneuvering altitude within the approach able to identify a pOint along the enroute
safety zone. Airspeed is decreased to 60 course where the approach begins. This
knots after completing the outbound turn. point may be identified by an intersection

APPROACH
SAFETY
ZONE
~,=
I ".,,~, ""'"" aoo MSL

I,---B----
II. .,'\ , MIN \
I
MEA. l000MSL \, .
.

LAN[\ING

L -,. ,..'

~400'
600MSL

'--MDA600MSL
400MSL
'; ,
- -

.... ,

LANDING
VERTICAL VIEW

Figure 21-20. Terminal approach procedures

216 15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE. FM 1-240

formed by the two magnetic bearings or
by passing over an enroute
nondirectional beacon (fig 21-21).
Normally, there is sufficient distance
between the final fix and the landing
point to permit a standard rate of
descent from the enroute altitude to
MDA prior to reaching the landing point.
However, when necessary, the aviator
may enter holding on the inbound course
to the fix and descend to the minimum
maneuver altitude within the approach
safety zone. A reduction in airspeed to
60 knots should be made after crossing
the fix. Upon passing the fix, the aviator
descends to MDA and tracks on the
inbound course.
(1) When using a radio beacon or the
intersection of magnetic bearings as the
final fix, the following factors must be
considered:
(e) The location is determined along
the course where reliable intersection
idenmication can be established. Tarrain
obstructions will limit the range and
altitude at which a reliable signal can be
received.
(b) The secondary radio beacon
should be no more than 1 0 kilometers
from the intersection. This restriction is
necessary to ensure accurate
intersection identification.
(e) The intersection is located so the
magnetic bearings forming the
intersection are as close to 90 degrees
as possible.
(d) The landing point should be no
less than 2 kilometers and no more than
8 kilometers from the final fix.
(2) The approach safety zone for the
straight-in approach provides a safe
maneuvering area for holding. approach,
and missed approach. The lateral
boundaries are 3 kilometers on the
maneuvering side and 1 kilometer on the
onmaneuvering side (fig 21-22). The

IBN=:'. 16151 I PEZ :---172

-.'-=

-.-~ f ~
360
0~1:
LANDING ......,:.'

14
\ILDR ...-,: ~ Z691
.)1<.,

g: ......' IPEl ~-_-:: lilll

18N=:"~
15
~
-
,.:.:.
t. ~:-090
"':::.:t::. f14
~
oo:-'~"$:."'",,1()

\--:..ß::
v
/0 LANDING

FIgure 21-21. Stralght.1n approach

3KM 3KM .1
\. .1 \-

,- ~400T-l-
I .13KM
APPROACH SAFETY
ZONE

~
~ ~~
--'\~
,~.,.
-
~ ~^..~~ ~,.,,(I"I
r-
I ~""o~ ~
~.,.

-~.,
Figure 21-22. Approach safety zone (straight-In approach)

21
15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE. FM 1-240
 ZO~
APPROACH SAFETY
"II
I /---B ----,
I FOR DESCENT}
HOLDING OR
\ TO LOWER AL TITUDE;:Eï::!,: I
:~~;!ì~e

-~T~ I
G'ROUND
SPEED DISTANCE
~"---- TIME
MDA 600MSA
FIELD ELEVATION
275MSL

60K I 3KM I 137

VERTICAL VIEW
3KM

Figure 21-23. Stralght~ln approach procedure

linear boundaries wili vary depending on
the distance the intersection is from the
landing point. Regardless of what this
distance may be, the safety zone wili
extend 3 kilometers in front of the
offset of the approach leg should not Threat weapons. Entry into holding wili
exceed 30 degrees from the enroute be by standard holding entry procedure
course, When the final approach course such as paraliel, teardrop, or direct entry.
is offset more than 45 degrees from the The decision whether to make left or
enroute course, a turning safety zone right turns is optional. However, the

![beYond
,
intersection to a point 3 kilometers
the landing point. The guidelines
I for the construction of the approach
. safety zone are applicable both when the
should be constructed as discussed in
paragraph 21-10c,
EXAMPLE (Fig 21-23),
"
direction of turn wili be determined while
on the ground during preflight planning.
Idealiy, the holding pattern wili be flown
over the lowest terrain obstruction and
: approach '.g is aligned with the enroute Minimum
enroute altitude, 1,000 on the upwind side of the course line.
~inimum
, , . . . . . .

i course and when offset from the enroute maneuver altitude within the b. The holding pattern is limited to the
course, approach safety zone. 800 standard I-minute inbound leg. Airspeed

'r
. . . . . . . . . . .

(3) The aViator should study the area

,

inimum descent altitude. 600

. . . . . . . . . .
while in the holding pattern is 60 knots.
! within the approach safety zone and Time to landing point. 1 :37 The approach safety zone includes a
..
. . . . . . . . . . .

locate the highest obstruction. He adds safe area for holding and is planned for
200 feet to the highest obstacle within (6) Airspeed should be decreased to in every approach, Holding should be

}thesafety zone to determine the.,MQA.

The aviator also detemnines the minimum
i maneuver altitude within the approach
safety zone by adding ~O feet to the
,
highest obstruction. As previously
discussed, this altitude may determine
the MEA for the final leg of the route. If
the minimum maneuver altitude for the
approach safety zone is lower than the
MEA he can descend to this altitude
I whil~in the holding pattern.
60 k~otsupon crossing the fln~1fix. After
passing the fiX,.the aViator begins the
conducted at the minimum maneuver
altitude within the safety zone--400 feet
descent and aligns the aircraft on the AGL.
inbound course. In this example, entry
Into the holding pattern IS not necessary EXAMPLE (fig 21-24):
because the minimum rate of descent
Indicated Distance Time
reqUired to arnve at the MDA before Airspeed
reaching the landing point can be
60 3 Kilometers 1:37
achieved.
(7) The aviator continues to track Minimum enroute altitude.. 1,000 MSL
inbound and descends to MEA. If at any ..
Minimum maneuver altitude within the

r
! (4) The aviator measures the distance
I from the FAF to the landing point and
, computes the time required to travel this
:
distance at 60 knots indicated airspeed
! corrected for winds. It
may be necessary
! to enter holding if a high rate of descent
,
is required to descend to MEA from a
straight-in approach. Missed approach
procedures wili be executed when the
time inbound from the fix elapses.
time on the approach visual contact is approach safety zone. 800 MSL
Minimum descent altitude., ,., 600 MSL
made with the ground, transition is made .,
'"
to VMC flight. If visual contact is not
possible, a missed approach IS executed c. Airspeed should be decreased to 60
when the inbound time has elapsed. knots upon crossing the fix, After passing
the fix, the aviator turns to the outbound
heading. Direction of turn should be
21-13. Holding procedures
toward the maneuvering side as
a. Upon arrival at the destination, the
aviator may have to enter holding due to determined in preflight planning. The
the tactical situation or may have to let descent to minimum maneuver altitude
(800 feet) is begun after passing the fix,

,
I

[ (5) A diagram of the approach should

'bedrawn
to, Vi,SU,
P,ro,v,','de,a
ali,z,a"t"io"n,
"O,f
: maneuvers to be performed during the
executionof the approach, Also, the
the
down to a lower altitude before executing
the approach. The time flown in the
holding pattern must be minimized to
avoid detection andengagel11ent by
d. The aviator should fly 1 minute
outbound initialiy, On subsequent legs,
time should be noted abeam the fix and

218 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 TERMINAL APPROACH

~ J
- -

LAN biNG

--0 '.
.

I (1_1MIN_1
0.,
~ <@400
I
',- __-i"
[APPROACH
J ZONE
SAFETY

--1---
STRAIGHT.IN APPROACH

F- I-~
-

I
. APPROACH SAFETY

I
J ZONE

/
,
"
,,----
1-' MIN-I
\,Q
.....

I\!f'"
400
I I

_=.1"
"~"G r-o
600

@j)
~
~""';:::i;'
.:::: .
) 0::::'
.
,

Figure 21-24. Holding pattern

the aviator should allow sufficient time to to the radio beacon. if the missed climbing turn. He continues the turn until
fly outbound to achieve a l-minute approach procedure is to intercept the on a direct course to the radio beacon 01
inbound leg. If abeam position cannot be reciprocal of the enroute course, the on an intercept heading to reciprocal of .

determined, the aviator starts the time
upon rolling out of turn to outbound leg.
Wind correction is applied as necessary,
both outbound and inbound. The aviator
continues flight with holding pattern as
required.
21-14. Missed approach procedures
a. Weather conditions or the enemy
situation may not állow the aviator to
land at his destination after initiating the
approach. When either of these
conditions exists, the aviator must
execute a missed approach. The
requirement to perform a missed
approach must be anticipated for every
tactical instrument flight. To ensure
obstruction clearance for the missed
approach, a safe maneuver area is
provided for in the approach safety
zone.
aviator should use a 45-degree or more the enroute course. The climb should be
intercept heading. expedited to the minimum enroute
b. During the preflight planning, the aititude. An airspeed of 60 knots should
aviator must determine the direction of be maintained during the climb.
turn. Normally, it is on the same side the e. Radio contact should be
holding pattern is flown. HIowever, the established with the FCC to advise of th,
aviator is not restricted to this procedure aviator's intentions. If contact cannot be
provided he plans a missed approach mede, the aviator should contact the
safety zone (fig 21-25). The location of ground unit to relay his request to the
highest terrain obstructions and wind ATC personnel.
direction will dictate the direction of turn.
c. A diagram of the planned missed 21-15. Emergency procedures
approach should be drawn to provide a The emergencies that the aviator may
visualization of the maneuver to be experience while conducting tactical
performed during the execution of the instrument flight will vary. The best
missed approach. procedures to cope with the emergency
will be determined by the conditions tha
EXAMPLE (fig 21-25):
exist at the time of the emergency. Goo,
Minimum descent altitude. 600 MSL . . . . .
judgment and positive action are
essential to ensure survival of both the
Minimum maneuvering altitude. . . . . . . . .

The manewer for the missed approach MSL aircraft and aircrew. Although not
.. .. .. .. .. .. 800 MSL
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

is basically the same for both the ..

Minimum enroute altitude. complete, the following are emergency
.. 1,000
.

terminal approach and the straight-in conditions that might be experienced.

approach. It consists of a climbing left d. Upon reaching the position where Also presented are recommended
turn or right turn to intercept the the missed approach must be executed, actions.
-reciprocal of the .enroute <:OUfse ~f ,.eturn .
the aviator immediately initiates a

15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE .FM 1-240 21

 ,::Im::.
-li:i!I:::.
.:::1iI::.
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH

I
I
ri ~
/' I \
I )
APPROA
-

~
2g~EsAFEry
'

I
)L =t
'~:;f!:?:'
~600
.:;:X'.'%::':
-....... .
280 ,...ø.:,
...0,' ."."
~......
~..........
,.'.-..
~. :0.:::. -
.:...-.".

'.'.'.'.'
~:::,:::.,

I
I ''''0:;;; <Am, I
-

TERMINAL APPROACH
I ~..
ZONE

I
/-('\ '\ I
,. A)
~
-y.~~
@600
-
-\./
.~
0:- ./
..~:.(~.
~ao J
Figure 21-25. Missed approach procedure

220 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240


a. Air defense emergency procedures.
Although visual means of enemy air
defense acquisition are degraded during
periods of IMC, his electronic capabilities
relain their effectiveness. The route the
aviator flies should minimize vuinerability
to Threat weapons. However, while en
route, the ANI APR-39 radar detector
may activate, indicating the aircraft is
being tracked by enemy radar. Unless
immediate action is taken to reduce
altitude, the aviator will soon be
engaged. To descend below the MEA is
dangerous. However, the aviator must
break eiectronic line-of-sight by
descending. To minimize the danger
involved, he should decelerate the
aircraft to the minimum controilable
forward airspeed. He should
simultaneously initiate a descent. At a
specific altitude, he will lose radar line-of-
sight. Descent below this altitude is not
required unless he has flown into VMC. If
he is still in the clouds, he must decide
whether to continue to his destination or
reverse course. Primary factors that he
must consider include the following:
(1) What are the weather conditions?
(2) What is the altitude above the
highest obstruction?
(3) In which direction are the lowest
obstructions located?
(4) Is the landing point or takeoff point
closer?
(5) Are there suppressive
countermeasures available to degrade
the Threat weapons?
(6) is there any battle damage to the
aircraft? If so, what effect does it have
on continued flight?
b. Loss "f radio navigational aids.
While en route to the landing point, the
aviator may experience a loss of signal
from the radio beacon. Each situation of
this nature requires good judgment.
General guidance that may be followed
is shown below.
(1) If the radio beacon tails when the
aviator's pos~ion Is within 15 kiiometers
of the beacon, he reduces airspeed to
60 knots and continues on the route for
2 minutes. If the signal is not received
w~hin this period of time, he reverses
course and uses dead-reckoning
navigation as required to return to the
takeoff point.
(2) If the radio beacon fails when he is
beyond the effective range of the radio
beacon, he will not know immediately
that it has failed. If no audio signal is
received upon reaching the time where
the radio signal shouid be received, a
course reversal is executed.
(3) If the radio beacon fails during the
approach, the approach is continued to
the MDA. However, the aviator does not
continue inbound after reaching the MDA
unless visual contact is made with the
ground.
(4) If the radio beacon fails while
holding, the aviator does not initiate the
approach. Instead, the aviator turns to
the reciprocal of the enroute heading
and returns to the takeoff point.
(5) If in close proximity to the landing
point and ground personnel can identify
the aviator's position by sound, the
aviator uses ground personnel to talk
him down.
(6) If radio contact can be established
with the operator at the beacon,
frequency modulated homing can be
used as an emergency means of
navigation.
c. Aircraft deficiency. Any number of
aircraft emergencies may occur during a
tactical instrument flight. These
emergencies can be categorized as land
immediately, land as soon as possible, or
land within a specified time. The first two
emergencies are simple go or no-go
indications of flight. The third condition
must be evaluated to determine if the
aviator should continue or abort the
mission. Factors that must be evaluated
to determine what emergency action
should be taken include the following:
(1) Has the aviator reached the point
of no return where it would be closer to
continue on to the intended point of
landing?
(2) Can a safe landing be made at the
landing point based on the emergency,
the nature of the landing area, the load
and the enemy s~uation?
(3) If the emergency requires the
aviator to perform a full stop landing
from the approach, even if visual
conditions cannot be established, he
slows the aircraft to minimum
controllable airspeed and descends at a
slow rate. If visual contact is not
established at MDA, the descent is
continued until visual contact is made
with the ground.
(4) Can a takeoff be made after
landing at a field site? Due to the nature
of the emergency, a safe takeoff from a
field s~e may not be possible. However,
return flight to the takeoff point can be
accomplished.
(5) How critical is the mission? It may
be more important to get the cargo to its
destination and let the aircraft remain on
the ground at the field site until further
flight is possible.
Section III
Aviator Training
21-16. Training programs
a. Units qualifying aviators
in tactical
instrument flight are responsible for
conducting a well.organized training
program. The program of instruction
(POI) must instill confidence within the
student that tactical instrument flight can
be performed safely in a high threat
environment and at low altitudes. The
student undergoing this training should
be quaiified and proficient in instrument
flight. Before conducting the flight portion
of the training, the student should
demonstrate knowledge of preflight
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
training that is required for instrument
flight. Teamwork between the pilot and
copilot is essential. Whereas 50 feet to
100 feet above or below assigned
altitude is not critical for normal
instrument flight, it is very serious when
conducting tactical instrument flight. The
copilot should advise the pilot when the
aircraft deviates from an assigned
altitude or is being flown oil-course.
Maintaining precise positioning of the
aircraft is essential for tactical instrument
flight
b. To acquire the proficiency that is
required to conduct tactical instrument
flight, the training must be continuous.
Command emphasis is essential to
ensure that the aviators assigned to the
unit achieve and maintain the required
proficiency to conduct tactical instrument
flight in an actual combat environment.
Where possible, the synthetic flight
training systems (SFTS), in conjunction
with actual in-flight training, should be
used to obtain and maintain the required
degree of proficiency.
c. Tactical instrument
training flights
conducted during VMC require no
unusual precautions. However, when
conducted during actual instrument
conditions, the commander must ensure
that-
(1) Actual tactical instrument training
flights are conducted in a controlled
training environment and only on
predetermined routes with all obstacles
clearly noted. These routes must be
coordinated with local and government
air trallic authorities such as the
coordination for major training exercises
or local coordination to establish semi-
permanent training routes. Authorities
must then determine the necessity of
publishing the proposed air routes or th<
notification of civil airspace users as
necessary.
(2) Actual tactical instrument training
flights are conducted only when
destination weather is expected to be a
or greater than, minimum descent
altitude at time of arrival plus 1 hour.
(3) Missed approach procedures are
coordinated with local airspace
authorities to allow immediate transition
to necessary alternate airfields. Alterna
airfields should be selected in
accordance with criteria established for
normal IFR flight in AR 95-1.
21-17. Flight training for tactical
Instrument flight
A recommended program of instructior
for tactical instrument flight is provided
appendix C. This information explains t
tasks, conditions, types of instruction,
references, and the training or evaluati
standards.
;
 Appendix A AR 310-50
References Catalog of Abbreviations and Brevity
Codes

Field Manuals
Section I
Required Publications
FM 1-103
Required publications are sources that users must Airspace Management and Army Air
read in order to understand Of to comply with this Traffic in a Combat Zone
publication.
FM 1-203
Army Regulations Fundamentals of Flight

AR 95-1 FM 1-301
Army Aviation: General Provisions and Aeromedical Training for Flight Personnel
Flight Regulations
Technical Manual
Field Manuals
TM 95-226
United States Standard for Terminal
FM 1-88
Instrument Procedures (TERP)
Aviator's Recognition Manual

(To order copies 01 TM 95-226, write

FM 1-230
to S&I DirectOr, ATTN: CCQ-A5-AI,
Meteorology for Army Aviators
Cameron Station, ALEX, VA 22134.)
: FM 44-30 Other Publications
.

Visual Aircraft Recognition

FAA 7110.65
: Other Publications Air Traffic Control

DOD Flight Information Publications Section III

(FLIP)
(To order DaD FLIP's, write to Defense
Mapping Agency (DMS), USAATCA
Aeronautical Services Office, Cameron
Station, Alexandria, VA 22314.)
Airman's Information Manual: Basic
Flight Information and ATC
Procedures
,
FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 97-1
.
Projected Publications
Projected publications are sources of additional
information that BTe scheduled for printing but not
yet available.
NOTE: These are publications that are scheduled for
printing. After printing, they will be distributed
automatically via pinpoint distriblrtion and will not be
available for requisition from US Army AG
Publications Center, Baltimore. Maryland, until
indexed in DA Pam 310-1.

Runway Visual Range Field Manual

FM 1-402
. FAR, Part 91
i General Operating and Flight Rules Aviator's Recognition Manual

: (To order FAA and FAR publications,

,
write to Superintendent of
Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402.)

Section II
Related Publications

! Aelated publications are merely sources 01 additional

I information.Users do no1. have to read them to
! undersand this manual.

i Army Regulations

AR 95-serles
,
Aviation

AR 310-serles
Military Publications

AR 310-25
Dictionary of United States Army Terms
,

222 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Appendix B
IFR Right Planning
B-1. General
Planning for an IFR flight can be a
simple operation requiring 10 minutes or
a complex operation requiring many
hours. The exlent of planning needed
depends on the nature of the mission,
the type and number of aircraft on the
mission, distance to be flown, selected
route, weather conditions, and available
navigational facilities. The checklist items
presented in this appendix are for the
aviator's general guidance. They are
especially applicable to instrument flight
planning within the United States. The
aviator's proficiency and judgment wiil
dictate necessary modifications to these
procedures and techniques.
B-2. Planning
When a specific mission is assigned,
usually the flight is planned so that it
arrives at a fixed destination at a defin~e
time. The type aircraft, the ioad, and the
personnel on board are often
predetermined by the mission. However,
when aviators plan proficiency flights,
usually they can choose aircraft,
destination, route, time, and other factors
which have a bearing on the flight.
Where possible, the variable factors
affecting the mission should be
controiled to produce optimum flight
conditions.
B-3. Flight planning checklist
A
a. Weatl1er briefing sources.
weather briefing can be obtained from
the foilowing:
(1) A military or civilian forecaster-in
person.
(2) A forecaster-by local telephone.
(3) A recorded forecast-by local
telephone.
(4) Flight service stations-in person.
(5) Flight service stations-by local or
exchange telephone.
(6) Military or weather bureau
forecasters-by long-distance collect
telephone.
NOTE: Current operational publications
should be checked for procedures and
listings.
b. Weather data briefing. The weather
briefing should include the following:
(1) A forecast for destination and
alternate airfields at estimated time of
arrival to include-
(a) Ceiling and visibility. Applicable
regulations should be checked for
compliance. The destination forecast will
determine the requirement for selecting
an alternate. If the minimum conditions
specified by AR 95-1 will exist at the
destination, an alternate airport is not
required.
(b) Weather phenomena producing
low ceilings and visibility.
(e) Hazards to flight, such as
thunderstorms, icing, gusty winds, and
high density altitude.
(d) Height of cloud tops.
(2) An en route forecast to destination
and alternate airfields to include-
(a) Hazards to flight.
(b) Freezing level.
(c) Height of cloud tops and bases.
(d) Flight level winds and
temperatures.
(3) An overall weather picture. With
the aid of a forecaster, if available, a
clear mental picture of the overall
weather situation should be obtained,
including locations of frontal systems and
high- or low-pressure areas. The rate
and direction of their movement and the
associated weather conditions should be
clearly understood.
c. Aircraft equipment. Check the
aircraft logbook or other available source
for onboard navigational equipment.
Check for any restrictions that might
effect the mission (oil samples due,
equipment inoperative, and so on).
d. FLIP research.
(1) Check appropriate Enroute
Supplement (IFR or VFR) for departure,
destination, and alternate if required.
(2) Check availability of fuel at
destination and alternate.
(3) Check low alt~ude enroute chart
for effective control zone hours.
(4) Check both Class I and II NOTAMs
and the flight information bulletin for
information that will affect the flight.
(5) Review SID, published
nonstandard departure procedures and
weather minimums, and approach plate
for departure airfield. This information wiil
heip in maintaining obstruction clearance
during the takeoff and departure phases
and will aid in planning an orderly
trans~ion to the enroute phase.
(6) Review approach plate for
destination and alternate. Become
familiar not only with the approach
planned but also other available
approaches. Check for outlying IAFs or
published feeder routes that may provide
an orderly trans~ion from enroute to
approach phases.
e. Route selection. Select the best
route based on the following:
(1) Weather conditions.
(2) Preferred routes. Check current
operational publications for listings.
Deviate from preferred routes only when
safety or the mission requires ~.
Depar1ure information and IAF and
feeder route information should also be
considered. It is recommended that the
closest available IAF or transition fix be
planned, since It will normaily be
assigned by ATC.
(3) Direct routing. File for direct flight
only if the mission requires it or if
considerable savings of fuel or time can
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATEoFM 1-240
be realized. If the flight penetrates
uncontrolled airspace, air traffic control
will not provide traffic separation.
NOTE: When direct routes are planned,
there are two basic considerations. FAR
91.119 must be complied with to ensure
obstruction clearance, and NAVAID
ranges and restrictions must be
researched to ensure reception for the
entire leg.
f. Route survey. Conduct a route
survey to the destination and alternate
airfields, using navigational charts to
determine the following:
(1) Primary radio aids for enroute
navigation. List frequencies, station
identifiers, courses, and radiais on the
flight log.
(2) Supplementary radio aids to be
used for position fixing and secondary
navigation.
(3) Availability of ATC and weather
radar enroute.
(4) Distance between reporting points
and total flight distance. Total distance i:
computed from takeoff to the destinatior
airport via the flight planned route.
(5) MEA, MaCA, MAA, MRA, and
MCA.
NOTE: Check NOTAMs and chart
revision notices for the latest changes ir
the status of NAVAl Os. Check the listinc
-
of VOR shutdown information for
alternate routing where appropriate.
g. Altitude selection. Select the best
altitude for the flight based on the
following:
(1) Weather conditions. Avoid altitudE
where icing and turbulence will be
hazardous.
(2) Direction. Uniess otherwise
required to avoid flight hazards or if
requested by ATC, direction of flight in
controlled airspace should be based or
the hemispherical rule. Hemispherical
rule application in controlled airspace
should consider the overall flight
direction, rather than individual legs th&
may vary from easterly to westerly
directions." In uncontrolled airspace.
hemispherical rule is MANDATORY for
each individual leg.
(a) Odd altitudes apply to magnetic
courses from 0 to 179 degrees.
(b) Even alt~udes apply to magnetic
courses from 180 to 359 degrees.
(3) MEA, MDCA, MAA, MRA, and
MCA.
(a) Seiect altitudes that comply with
published minimum altitudes applicablE
to the flight.
(b) On direct flights, determine
minimum altitude based on charted
obstacles and regulation requirements.
(c) Do not plan a flight at the MEA i
the flight level temperature wili be
significantly below standard. Lowering
pressure levels in air significantly cold,
,
,
 than standard will result in the true
altitude being significantly lower than the
indicated altitude. Request an altitude
assignment above the MEA under these
cold air temperature conditions.
(4) Aircraft performance and
equipment. In selecting a flight altitude,
cons;der-
(a) Optimum operating conditions for
the aircraft.
(b) Oxygen availability.
(c) Radio equipment limitations (range,
altitude, and so on).
(5) Air traffic control.
(a) Avoid relatively low altitudes which
may conflict with approach control
service in complex terminal areas,
(b) Do not request unnecessary
altitude changes.
h. Departure.
(1) Plan the departure to comply with
SIDs at airports for which they have
been established, since ATC normally will
employ SIDs if they are available. Be
familiar with all SIDs since the controller
.
may assign one 01her than the one
.
requested.
. (2) Check for availability of departure
,
control (conventional or radar). Note the
.
appropriate frequencies.
(3) Study the local area chart if one is
published, or study the departure area on
the enroute chart. Become familiar with
, the radio facilities and intersections
within the departure area.
.
i. Performance planning card (PPC).
(1) Consult the operator's manual to
determine the PPC information required,
to include TAS, Vne, cruise power
setting, and cruise fuel consumption.
.
(2) Corr,~ute and file the TAS
accurately, Recompute the TAS later in
flight to verify preflight calculations. If the
i actual TAS varies more than 10 knots
from the filed TAS, notify ATC of the
,
: fuel requirements specified in (2)(a)
difference.
I NOTE: True airspeeds of a given aircraft
i can vary considerabiy depending on
,
weight, altitude, and desired cruise
: condition. Do not guess-consult the
aircraft operator's manual.
j. Ground speed. Compute GS for
! each leg of the flight by combining the
forecast winds with the planned courses
and the TAS.
k. Estimated time enraute (ETE).
(1) Based on ground speed and
.
distance, compute 1he ETE for each leg
: of the flight between reporting points.
(a) On the initial ieg, allow sufficient
additional time for the planned departure
and climb to flight altitude.
.
(b) If enroute climbs are made at
reduced airspeed, allow additional time
I for significant changes on the leg.
,
(2) Compute the total ETE for the
flight. This will be the estimated time
required enroute from the airport of
departure to the destination airport
.
based upon flight plan route.. Remember
224
that ETE is exclusive of the time required
for planned enroute delays.
(3) The ETE to the aiternate airfield
should include-
(a) Time from the missed approach
point to the missed approach holding
point to include one circuit in the holding
pattern.
(b) Time from the missed approach
holding point to the alternate to include
time for approach and landing,
,. Fuel.
(1) Compute the fuel-an-board flight
plan entry by subtracting the warmup,
takeoff, and taxi fuel allowance (see the
aircraft operator's manual) from the total
fuel on board. Then divide this quantity
by the cruise consumption rate. The
cruise consumption rate is determined by
the cruise conditions and aircraft gross
weight, as explained in the aircraft
operator's manual.
(2) Compute the total fuel required for
the flight based on the appropriate
consumption rate specified in the
operator's manual and include allowance
for-
(a) Warmup and taxi.
(b) Initial climb (consult aircraft
operator's manual for extended climbs).
(c) Enroute cruise to destination and
alternate. Allow time in addition to ETE
for known enroute delays required by the
mission. Enroute ATC delays usually
cannot be anticipated. Also allow time
for the approach.
(d) Fuel reserves required for IFR
flight.
(3) Compute surplus fuel by
subtracting total fuel required from total
fuel capacity.
NOTE: Surpius fuel is important since
enroute traffic delays and holding at the
destination are not provided for in the
through (d) above. Reserve fuel is for
UNFORESEEN circumstances. Do not
plan to use reserves for routine delays.
m. Terminal area.
(1) If an area chart is published for the
destination, study it carefully to become
familiar with-
(a) Radio facilities and intersections.
(b) Published transitions and STARs.
(2) Study all of the published
destination approaches which the aircraft
is equipped to make. Become familiar
with-
(a) Transitions.
(b) Final approach courses.
(c) Procedure turns.
(d) Approach minimums (DH or MDA,
ceiling, and visibility).
(e) Restriction, warning, and caution
notes.
n. Aircraft clear!,nce form (flight plan).
Army aviators will use a military flight
plan according to 000 FLIP. FAA flight
plans may be used in lieu of military
forms when departing US installations
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
not having a military base operations
facility.
o. Flight log. The use of an instrument
flight log is recommended. This provides
for a concise summary of data required
to execute the flight, allows for in-flight
revision of data, and provides an
accurate record of the flight. The flight
log normally is supplemented by
reference to the appropriate radio
navigation chart.
B--4. Sample plan
a. Initial weather check,
(1) Takeoff.
(2) Destination and alternate.
(3) Enroute.
(4) Winds aloft and temperature.
(5) Freezing level, thunderstorms, ice,
and turbulence,
b. Preparation.
(1) Check aircraft equipment.
(2) Check enroute supplement for
departure, destination, and alternate
airfields,
(3) Check en route chart for control
zone effective hours.
(4) Check NOTAMs-Classes I and II.
c. Planning.
(1) Review SID departures and
approach plates, if available, for
departure airfield.
(2) Review enroute chart. Consider
departures and arrival procedure when
determining flight route.
(3) Fill in flight plan information except
TAS, time, and distance,
(4) Consult the operator's manual.
Compute PPC.
(5) Compute flight log.
(6) Complete flight plan entries.
(7) Receive weather briefing.
(6) File flight plan.
(9) Brief copilot.
(10) Conduct preflight according to
current checklist.
NOTE: If the weather briefing void time
cannot be extended by using the aircraft
radio, it may be advisabe 10 perform the
preflight procedures and crew briefing
before obtaining the weather briefing.

Appendix C
Sample Program of Instruction for Tactical Instrument Flight
Task .
Identify the prerequisite for conducting
tactical instrument flight.
Identify Ihe Threat ancl how it affects
tactícaJ instrument flight
klentUy the condition during which tactical
instrument flight win be conducted.
Identify the principles of employment 101
instrumenl flight in the cormal zone.
Identify the factors that must be considered
when planning a tactical instrument flight.
Describe the two types of navigation used
for tactical navigation.
Describe the procecklre for delermining the
enrouta course.
.
Oesa1D9 the procedures for construction of
.
the enroute safety zone.
Descrme the procedures tor determining the
MEA.
prOcedure tor intercepting the
Descnbe the
enroute course after takeoff.
Describe the procedure for determining the
takeoff dimb zone.
Describe the procedures for detennining the
takeoff safety zone.
-
Condition Type ~nstruction References Training/Evaluatioo Standards
Classroom Conference AR 95-1 The student must demonstrate a knowtedge
FM 1-240 of instrument flight procedures, regulations.
TERPs and flight techniques.
Classroom Conlerence FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
FM 1-402 of Threat weapons and 1tIeir capabilities.
FM 44-30 The sludent must also know the planning
requirements that will avoid Of minimize
detection of the aircraft by Threat weapons
systems.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student musl demonstrate B knowledge
of the meteorological conditions that require
the use of tactical instrument flight.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowtedge
of the different flight altitudes that will be
Ilown within the diftBfent areas of the
combat zone, NAVAIDs. classes of
approaches, and the control procedures to
be followed.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledQf
of the factors that are required for initial
planning of a tactical instrument flight. This
inctudes the mission requirements (what,
where, when, and who), enemy situation,
location of ADA weapons, weather
condition, communications, NAVAIDs, and
.
special equipment
Classroom Conlerence FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledg.
of the capabilities and limitations for both
dead-reckoning and radio navigation as
relales to tactical Instrument flight planning
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowteclg'
of the capabilities of the radio beacon,
conversion of grid course 10 magnetic
course, and measurement of distances in
kilometers.
Classroom Conference FM 1-.240 The student must demonstrate a knowledg
of how to construct an enroute safety zone
for dead-reckoning navigat;on, radio
navigation. or a combination of dead-
reckoning and radio navigation.
Classroom Conferençe FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowled~
of how to analyze the area within.the
enroute safety zone to determine the
highest obstruction. Atter identifying the
highest obstacle, the student must
determine the MEA for each leg of the
route.
FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowled~
Classroom Conterençe
of how to intercept the enroute course wh,
the takeoff heading i6 less than Of greater
than 900 from the enroute course.
aassroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowled~
01 how to construct the takeoff climb zone
analyze the area within the lone tOf the
highest obstruction, and determine when t
tum to intercept the enroute course can b
made.
Claosroom Conference FM 1-.240 The student must demonstrate a knowted
of the dimensions and orientation of the
takeoff safety zone, how to analyze the al
within the lakeoff safety zone to determin
the highest obstruction. and how 10
determine the MEA for the tirs11eg of the
route.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 2
 Task
Describe the procedures for determining
required rate of climb on takeoff.
Describe the procedures for performing
terminal approach.
Describe the procedures for performing
straight-in approach.
Describe the procedures for determining the
approach safety zone.
Describe the procedures for determining the
MDA for the approach.
Describe the holding procedure.
i Describe the missed approach procedure.
Identify the cfltegories of emergency
procedures and describe the recommended
actions.
Perform tactical instrument takeoff.
Perform enroute tactical instrument
I
navigation.
Perform tactical instrument approach
(terminal).
Perform tactical instrument approach
(straight.in).
226
Condi1ion Type Inslruc1ion Relerences Training/EvaluationStandards
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
01 how to construct a takeoff obstruction
chart and how to determine the required
climb rate to clear obstacles within the
takeoff climb 20ne.
a Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
01 entry into the approach pattern, descent
to the minimum maneuver altitude, the
descent to MOA, and when to execute
missed approach.
a Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
of how to fix the final fix inbound; descend
in the pattern, when necessary; descend to
MDA; and when to execute a missed
approach.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
of the dimensions and orientation of the
approach safety 20ne, how to analyze the
area within the approach safety zone to
determine the highest obstruction, and how
to determine the MEA lor the final leg of the
route.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
of how tD determine the highest obstructiDn
within the approach safety zone. Using this
information, determine the MDA.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
01 how to enter the holding pattern, the time
01 the inbound leg, direction of turn; how to
determine the minimum maneuver altitude
lor holding, and size of the maneuver area.
Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demDnstrate a knDwledge
of when to execute the missed approach,
the direction of turn, method 01 course
interception, climb requirements, and size of
the maneuver area.
Classroom Conference FM '-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
01 emergency conditions that may result
from acquisition of the aircraft by Threat
weapons, loss of radio navigational aids, or
aircraft deficiencies.
A tactical instrument Practicat FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
takeoff will be exercise procedure tor an instrument takeoff,
performed. Takeoff required rate of climb, course interception,
heading will be less and climb to MEA.
than or greater than
90 degrees from the
enroute course.
Aircraft or SFTS will Practical FM 1-240 The student must demDnstrate the proper
be flown over tactical exercise procedures for dead reckoning and radio
Instrument route at navigation, maintain required altitude,
MEA. identify intersection or beacon passage, and
attain accurate estimates of enroute time
(:t1 minute).
A tactical instrument Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
approach will be exercise procedure for entry into the approach
performed. pattern, descent tD minimum maneuver
altitude within the approach salety zone,
descent to minimum descent altitude,
tracking, transition to VFR llight, and
execution of missed approach.
A tactical instrument Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
approach will be exercise procedure for identifying the finallix,
performed. descent to MDA, tracking transition to VFR
flight, el(8cution of missed approach, and
when necessary, entry into holding to
descend to the minimum maneuver altitude
prior to initiating approach.
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Tos!< Condition Aererences Training/Evaluaüon Standards
Type Instruction

Perform holding at the radio beacon or Tactical holding will Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
intersection. be performed. exercise procedUfe for entry into the holding pattern,
wind correction, and descent to minimum
maneuver altitude.

Perform missed approach procedure. Missed approach Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
procedure will be exercise procedure for entry into the missed
performed following approach. direction of tum, climb to MEA,
tactical approach. and interception of the smouts course.

Perform simulated emergency procedure. Simulated emergency Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
conditions will be exercise emergency procedures to be perfOfmed
performed. when confronted with an air defense
emergency, loss of radio navigalional aids,
or aircraft deficiency.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 22

 Appendix D
ATC Shorthand Symbols

D-1. General
The number of flight clearances which
must be delivered by ATC does not
permit excessive repetitions of a
clearance. Also the speaking rate is too
rapid for longhand copying of the
clearance. Occasionally ATC will issue a
clearance which differs from the original
flight plan. In such cases, aviators should
be particularly alert to receive and
understand the clearance given.
Clarification should be requested if any
doubt exists. As an aid in copying ATC
clearances, a series of symbols has
been devised for use as clearance
shorthand.

D-2. Common ATC shorthand

symbols
See figure D-1.

D-3. Clearances and translations

Examples of clearances written in
shorthand symbols and thair translations
are given below. .

M RY HDG
a. Example: 1234 CAF
R
RV V18 SO 0700 DPC 120.4
,
Translation: Army 12345 is cleared as
! filed, maintain runway heading for radar
vector to Victor 18, Squawk 0700 just
i before departure, departure control
I frequency-120.4.
! OlR RY36 M
b. Example: C iLS AP
300L
Translation: Army 12345, cleared ILS
approach to Cairns, to runway 36,
maintain 3000 to outer compass locator,
over.
c. Exampie: ILS OlR LDG RY36
360/10 WX 6 OVC 2R-F 20.38
Transiation: Army 12345, except ILS
approach to Cairns, landing runway 36,
wind 360 degrees at one zero, weather
600 feet overcast, visibility 2 miles in
light rain and fog, altimeter 29.38, over.
d. Example: R 2 SE HOUND HDG 270
RV ILS OlR
Translation: Army 12345, radar contact
2 miles SE Hound intersection, fly
i heading 270 for radar vector to ILS
.

approach course at Cairns, over.

228 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

 Above Climb to (altitude-hundreds 01 feet) Expect lurther clearance
ABV 1'50 EFC
Above (altitude-hundreds 01 feef) Fan mBl'ker
Contact
...2Q.. CT FM
Advise Contact approach Final
ADV CAP F"
Mer (passing) Contact (Cairns) approach control Flight level
L eT OZR APe FL
Airway designation Contact (Denver) center Flight planned
route
V2.31 cT DEN ATR FPR
Airport Cleared to land For further clearance
A L FFC
All turns left Course For further headings
"\ CRS FF'H
From
Cross
Alternate instructions FR
X
( ) Heading
Cruise
Almude 6.000 ~ HDG
Hold (direction)
60 Delay indefinite
H-E
And
&
DLI Holding pattern
Depart
Approach
AP
DP
Departure control
C)
If nol possible

DPe OR
Approach control ILS approach
APC Descend to (anllude-hundreds 01 leel)
IL5
Army .J.30 Initial approach
R Direct
I.
At DR Intersection
@ Direction (bcund): INT
A TC advises Eastbound Join or intercept airway, jet
route, track. or
course
CA Ee -

A TC clears Westbound :;:;:-

e we Left turn after takeoff
A TC requests Northbound LT
CR N6 Locator outer marker

Ass lix
Southbound LOM
FX 58 Maintain (or magnetic)

Back course Inbound M

Be 18 Maintain VFR condilions on top
Baaring Outbound
VFR
BR OB Middle compass locator
DME lix (mije)
Before (passing, reaching) ML.
.::::::.. @ Middle marker
Below
Each MM
BLO Nondirec1ional beacon approach
Below (altitude-hundreds olleet) EA NDB
Enter control area
On course
5õ ~ OC
Center
Estimated time 01 arrival Outer marker
CTR
Cleared as filed
ETA OM
Expect Out 01 (leave) control area
CAF
EX 8

figure 0..1. Common ATC Shorthand Symbol.

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240

22E
 Track
Over (slation) Report over
OZR RO TR
Report passing Until
Outer compass locator
RP U
OL Report reaching Until advised (by)
Precision radar approach
PAR RR VA
Reverse course Until further advised
Procedure turn
RC
PT Right turn after lakeoft
UFA
Radar vector Via

RV RT vIA
Radial (045. radial) Runway (numerical designation) Visual approach

045R RYI8 VA
Squawk Victor (airway number)
Remain well to left side
SQ
LS Standby VOR
VI+
Remain well. to right side
R5 5ay 8
Straight~in approach
Report crossing VORTAC
51.
\;;:x
Surveillance radar approach ø
Report departing
ASR Weather
RD
Report leaving
Take oft (direction) WX
While in control area
RL ,"'N
Report on course
Tawer b.
R-CRS TWR

Figure 0-1. Common ATC Shorthand Symbols-Continued

230 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240

Glossary of Acronyms and CG FLOT
Abbreviations center of gravity forward line of own troops

CH FM
AAF compass heading field manual; frequency modulated
Army airfield
chap FSS
AD chapter flight service station
air defense
D G
ADF deviation gravity
automatic direction finder
DAME G3
ADIZ. division air management element
Assistant Chief of Staff, G3 (Operations
Air Defense Identification Zone and Plans)
DC
AF drift correction
GCA
audio frequency ground-controlled approach
DCA
AGL drift correction angle
GPH
above ground level gallons per hour
DH
AHO decision height
GS
above highest obstacle ground speed
DME
AM distance measuring equipment
HF
amplitude modulated
DOD high frequency

ANDS Department of Defense

HIRL
acceleration-northl deceleration-south high intensity runway lights
DR
AR dead rackoning
Hz
Army regulation E hertz
ARSR east
air route surveillance radar
IAF
ECM initial approach fix
electronic countermeasures
ARTC
IF
air route traffic control
EFC intermediate fix
expect further clearance
ARTCC
air route traffic control center IFF
EHF identification, friend or foe (radar)
extremely high frequency
ASDE
airport surface detection equipment IFR
ETE
instrument flight rules
estimated time enroute
ASR
ILS
airport surveillance radar EW
instrument landing system
electronic warfare
ATC
air traffic control 1M
FAA
inner marker
Federal Aviation Administration
ATCRBS
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System FAF IMC
final approach fix instrument meteorological conditions
ATIS
automatic terminal information service FARP IVSI
forward arming and refueling point instantaneous vertical speed indicator
BFO
beat frequency oscillator FAT kHz
free air temperature kilohertz
BIT
built-in test fig km
figure kilometer(s)
CAME
corps air management element FL LDA
flight level localizer-type directional aid
CEDI
Communications-Electronics Operation FLIP LF
Instructions .

flight information pubiication Jow frequency

15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 2:
 NM TACAN
LlRL
tactical air navigation
low intensity runway lights nautical mile

LOC NOE TAS

localizer radio course nap-of-the-earth true airspeed

LOS NOTAM TC
notice to airmen true course
line of sight

OM TERPS
LZ
landing zone outer marker terminal instrument procedures

PAR TH
MAA
precision approach radar true heading
maximum authorized altitude
UHF
MAP para
paragraph ultra high frequency
missed approach point
US
MCA PIREP
United States
minimum crossing altitude pi lot report
VASI
MDA PMSV
visual approach slope indicator
minimum descent altitude pilot-to-metro service
VFR
MEA POI
visual flight rules
minimum enroute altitude program of instruction
VHF
MEF PPC
very high frequency
maximum elevation figure performance planning card
VLF
METAR PT
point of touchdown, procedure turn
very low frequency
meteorological terminal aviation report
VMC
; MF RDF visual meteorological conditions
medium frequency radio direction finder
Vne
MH REIL velocity never exceed
magnetic heading runway end identifier lights
VOR-VHF
MHz RMI omnidirectional range
megahertz radio magnetic indicator
VORTAC
MIRL RPM collocated VOR and TACAN navigational
medium intensity runway lights revolutions per minute aid

MLS RPS W
microwave landing system revolutions per second west

MM RVR WV
middle marker runway visual range wind velocity

MOCA S
minimum obstruction clearance altitude south

MRA SDF
minimum reception altitude simplified directional facility

MSL SFTS
mean sea level synthetic flight training systems

MTI SHF
moving target indicator super high frequency

N SID
north standard instrument departure

NAVAID SM
navigational aid statute mile

NDB STAR
nondirectional radio beacon standard terminal arrival route

232 15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Index
This indS)( is
organized alphabeticaUy by topic and
subtopic. Topics and subtopics are iden1ified by
paragraph number and page numbers.
A
pattern, 5-3, 59
Common errors,
~, 59
Absolute altitude, 2-29, 23
Accelerations and decelerations
(rotary wing), 4-29, 57
Common errors, 4-29, 57
Accelerator error, 2-5, 10
ADF
Beat frequency oscillator, 14-23, 128
Course interception, 14-1 0, 120;
14-20,127; 14-21, 128
Homing, 14-27, 129
Indicator (radio compass),
Loop operation, 14-23, 128
Maintaining a course, 14-16, 124;
14-18, 125
Nondirectional beacon approach
Charts, 18-10, 180
Clearance, 18-11, 182
Descent, 18-14, 184
Final, 18-15, 184
Holding, 18-12, 182; 18-13, 183
Missed approach, 18-15, 184
Procedure turn, 18-14, 184
Orientation, 14-5, 118; 14-14, 123
Position fixing, 14-9, 120
Receiver, 14-2,118; 118
1~,
Relative bearing, 14-13, 123;
14-17, ~24
Station passage, 14-7, 119;
14-15, 123
Time and distance to station, 14-12,
123; 14-22,128; 14-26, 129
Aeronautical charts. See Charts:
aeronautical
Agonlc line, 2-5, 10
AIMS altimeter (counter-clrum-
pointer), 2-26, 20
Aircraft categories, 16-4, 123
Air navigation, 8-1, 62
Air navigation charts. See Charts:
aeronautical
Airport surveillance radar, 20-3, 197
Air route surveillance radar, 20-3, 197
Airspeed
Calibrated, 2-33, 26
Computations, 11-13, 86
Constant, 3-7, 29
Indicated, 2-33, 26
Indicator, 9-5, 78
True, 2-33, 26
Airspeed Indicator, 2-31, 26
Construction, 2-31, 26
Operation. 2-32, 26
-.
Airspeed settings
Fixed wing, 4-3, 40
Rotary wing, 4-15, 47
Air traffic control equipment. See
Radar
Air traffic control procedures. See
Radar
Air traffic shorthand symbols, D-2,
228
Airways, 13-12,99
Alternate airport, 17-9, 160
Alternate source
Static pressure, 2-23, 19
Vacuum, 2-10, 12
Altimeter, pressure, 2-24, 19
Construction, 2-25, 20
Effects of nonstandard temperatures
and pressures, 2-27, 21
Errors, 2-27, 21
118
1~, indications, 2-26, 20
Setting, 2-28, 22; 9-7, 78
Altimeter, radar, 2-30, 25
Altitude computations (CPU-26A/P),
11-15,86
Altitudes
Absolute, 2-29, 23
Constant, 3-8, 29
Density, 2-29, 23
Indicated, 2-29, 23
Pressure, 2-29, 23
True, 2-29, 23
Ambiguity (loop), 14-24, 128
Angles, &-6, 63
Apparent precession, 2-8, 12
Approach, See ADF, ILS, VOR, and
Radar
Approach charts, 17-1, 159
Circling minimums, 17-11, 161
Concentric rings, 17-3, 159
Legend pages, 17-2, 159
Format, 17-4, 159
Margin identification, 17-5, 159
Minimums section, 17-8, 160
Mission approach, 17-12, 161
Plan views, 17-6, 159
Procedural component operation,
17-13,161
Profile views, 17-7, 160
Runway visual range minimums,
17-14,161
Atmospheric iIIuston, 1-8, 7
Attenuation, 12-10,99
Attitude indicator
Banking attitude, 3-19, 37
Electric, 2-13, 13
Caging, 2-15, 15
Construction, 2-14, 15
Errors, 2-15, 15
Operation, 2-12, 13
Positioning, 2-14, 15
Electric (Lear Mode14005G), 2-13,13
Navigation (10-882),
2-13, 13
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Pitch attitude, 3-12, 32
Power sources, 2-13, 13
Attitude instrument flying
Definition, 3-2, 27
Power, pitch, and bank control, 3-2,
27; 3-12, 32; 3-19, 37
Aural null, 14-1, 118; 14-25, 129
Autorotations, 4-28, 57
Common errors, 4-28, 57
Average ground speed, 1!Hì, 80
Azimuth. See Measurement: direction
Autokinesis, 1-3, 5
B
pattern, 5-4, 61
Common errors, 5-4, 61
Back course, 19-9, 192
Ball, 2-18, 21
Bank control
Common errors, 3-24, 39
To produce balanced straight flight,
3-19, 37
Trim, 3-23, 39
Bank Indicating Instruments
Attrtude indicator, 3-20, 37
Heading indicator, 3-21, 37
Turn-and-slip indicator, 3-22, 37
Barometric scale, 2-26, 20
Beacons, marker, 19-5, 189
Beacon passage
ADF, 14-7, 119; 14-15, 123
ILS, 19-5, 189
Loop, 14-27, 129
Radio magnetic indicator, 13-11, 108
VOR, 13-11, 108
Beat frequency oscillator, 14-23, 128
Calibrated airspeed, 2-33, 26
Cardinal points, 8-13, 65
Charts
Aeronautical
Photomaps, 7-12, 75
Sectional, 7-10, 74
Tactical, 7-13, 75
World Aeronautical, 7-11, 75
Air navigation, 7-1, 68
Approach, 17-1, 159
Characteristics, 7-4, 68
Conformality, 7-7, 71
Distortion, 7-3, 68
Graticule, 7-5, 70
Grid system,
6-6, 63
Lambert, 7-7, 71
Mercator, 7-8, 72
Polar stereographic, 7-9, 74
Projects. See Projection
Scales, 7-2, 68
Standard parallels, 7-7, 71
Checkpoints. See Intersections
Circles
Arcs, 6-6, 63
Center angle, 6-6, 63
Diameter, 6-2, 62
Great, 6-7, 64; 6-18, 68
23~

Radius, 6-7, 64
Reference
Equator, 6-9, 65
Latitude, 6-12, 65
Longitude, 6-12, 65
Meridians, 6-11, 65
Parallels, 6-8,65; 6-10, 65
Poles, 6-8, 65
Small, 6-7, 64
Circling approach, 16-2, 143
Clearance
Expected approach, 18-7, 179
Final approach, 1 B-7, 179
Holding, 16-23, 155; 16-25, 157
Missed approach, 17-12, 161
Shorthand, D-2, 22B
Straight-in, 16-6, 145
Transition/feeder, 16--8, 147
Climbing turns
Fixed wing, 4-10, 44
Common errors, 4-10, 44
Rotary wing, 4-25, 55
Common errors, 4-25, 55
Climbs, straight, See straight climbs
(fixed and rotary wing)
Clock, 9-8, 78
Coarse azimuth pattern (TACAN),
15-3, 130
Co-channel interference (TACAN),
,
16-5, 132
Codes (transponder), 20-16, 201
Compass
Errors, 2-5, 10
Magnetic, 2-20, 16
Transmitter, 2-20, 16
Radio, 13-6, 103
Compass turns
Fixed wing, 4-11, 45
Common errors, 4-11, 45
Rotary wing, 4-11, 45
Common errors, 4-11, 45
Compensator assembly, 2-4, 10
Cone of confusion (azimuth), 15-5,
132
Constant airspeed, 3-7, 29
Control
Airspeed, constant, 3-7, 29
Altitude, constant, 3-8, 29
Attitude, 3-9, 31
Bank, 3-19, 37
Pitch, 3-12, 32
Power, 3-5, 27
Coordinates, 6-6, 63
Corlolls illusion, 1-3, 5
Course
Magnetic, B-4, 75
Measuring, 6-14, 65
Plotting, 8-4, 75
Course Indicator (VOR)
Components, 13-5, 101
Course selector
Description, 13-5, 101
Selecting a course, 13-9,1D4
234
Using the course reciprocal, 13-11,
10B
Deviation indicator (needle)
Centered, 13-5, 101
Deflected, 13-5, 101
Description, 13-5, 101
Sensitivity, 13-5, 101
Giide slope indicator, 13--5, 101
TO-FROM indicator, 13--5, 101
Warning flags, 13-5, 101
Course selector (VOR), 13-5, 101
CPU-26A/P dead-reckoning computer
(grid side)
Correcting the reported wind, 11-27,
93
Description, 11-19, BB
Heading and airspeed computations,
11-25,91
Heading and ground speed
computations, 11-24, 91
Sliding grid, 11-20, BB
Wind triangle, 11-21,89; 11-22, 90;
11-2B,94
Wind velocity computations, 11-23, 90;
11-26,92
CPU-26A/P dead-reckoning computer
(slide rule face)
Airspeed computation, 11-13, 86
Altitude computations, 11-15, B6
Density aititude computation,
11-14, B6
Description, 11-1, B2
Distance, 11-B, B4
Distance conversion, 11-3, B3
Drift correction, 11-17, 87
Fuel consumption calculations, 11-10,
85; 11-11, B5
Ground speed computation, 11-6, B4
Indexes, 11-2,82; 11-9, B5
Oft-course correction, 11-16, B6
Proportion, 11-4, B4
Radius of action (fixed base),
11-1B,87
Ratio. See Proportion
Rule of 60, 11-16, B6
Scales, 11-20, BB
Time-distance computation, 11-5, 84;
11-9, B5
Time requirement, 11-7,84
Crab angle, 1 ~3, 80
Cross-checking
Bank instruments, 3-24, 39
Pitch attitude instruments, 3-1 B, 36
Power instruments, 3-11,31
Crosswind, 10-2,78; 10-6,80
Current, electrical, 12-3, 95
Cycle, 12-2, 95
Dead reckoning
Computers, See CPU-26A1P dead-
reckoning computer
Instruments, 9-1, 77
Decelerations (rotary wing), 4-29, 57
Degrees (angular), 6-7, 64
Demonstrations of spatial
disorientation, 1-4, 5
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
Density altitude, 2-29, 23
Descending turns
Fixed wing, 4-10, 44
Common errors, 4-10, 44
Rotary wing, 4-26, 57
Common errors, 4-26, 57
Descents, straight (fixed wing), 4-5,
40
Deviation, 2-5, 10
Deviation card, 2-5, 10
Deviation errors, magnetic compass,
9-2,77
Dip angle, 2-3, 9
Direction finding steers, radar, 20-15,
201
Directional gyro. See heading
indicator
Distance conversion computation
(CPU-26A/P), 11-1, 82
Distance measuring equipment,
TACAN, 15-4, 132
Distance measurement. See
Measurement: distance
Distortion, 7-3, 68
Dividers, 8-3, 75
Double.the.angle course interception,
13-13,112
Drift corrections. See Wind: drift
correction
Application, 10-3, 80
Computation, CPU-26A/P, 11-16, 86;
11-17,87
Course, 10-3, 80; 10-4, 80
During tracking
ADF, 14--6, 119; 14-9, 120
VOR, 13-10, 104
Heading, 9-2, 77
Holding, 16-24, 156
Procedure turn, 16-15, 149
Earth
Direction measuring, 6-14, 65
Distance, 6-17, 6B; 6-18, 68
Inclination, 6-5, 62
Measurement. See Measurement:
direction and distance
Position designation, 6-6, 63
Revolution, 6-4, 62
Rotation, 6-3, 62
Shape, 6-2, 62
Electric attitude Indicator (Lear Model
4005G), 2-13, 13
Electric heading Indicator ID-5671
ASN, 2-20, 16
Electrically driven gyros, 2-9, 12
Elevator illusion, 1-3, 5
Equator, 6-9, 65; 6-10, 65
Erroneous navigational signal, TACAN,
15-5, 132
Errors
Acceieration, 2-5, 10
 Bank control, 3-24, 39
Magnetic compass, 2-5, 10
Pitch attitude control, 3-18, 36
Establi shing interseçtions, TACAN,
15-10, 136
Expect approach clearance, 18-4, 177
FAA weather advisories, 20-20, 202
False horizon iHusion, 1-3, 5
Featureless terrain illusion, 1-6, 7
Feeder routes, 16-5, 144; 16-8, 147;
16-9, 147
Final approach. See ADF, VOR, and
ILS approaches
Final approach segment, 16-5, 144
Fine azimuth pattern, TACAN, 15-3,
130
Fixes. See Position fixing
ADF, 14-9, 120
Approach, 15-15, 149
VOR, 13-12, 110
Flicker vertigo inusion, 1-3, 5
Flight clearance. See Clearance: flight
Flight Instruments and systems, 2-1, 9
Flight log, 223
~,
Free air temperature gauge, 9-6, 78
Frequency
Classification, 12-2,95; 12-7,98
TACAN, 15-2, 130
Front course, 19-7, 192
Fuel consumption (CPU-26A/P),
11-11, 85; 11-12,85
Fuel cons...mptlon planning, B-3, 223
GCA. See Ground-controlled approach
Geographic North Pole, 6-3, 62
Glide slope, ILS, 19-4, 187
Great circle, 6-7, 64; 6-18, 68
Greenwich meridian, 6-11, 65
Grid system (charts), 6-6, 63
Graveyard spin illusion, 1-3, 5
Graveyard spiral Illusion, 1-3, 5
Ground-controlled approach. See
Radar: air traffic controi
procedures: approach control
(GCA)
Airport surveillance radar, 20-1, 196;
20-6,198; 20-12, 199
Precision approach radar, 20-1, 196;
20-6, 198; 20-12, 199
Ground lighting illusion, 1-6, 9
Ground speed, 10-6, 80
Ground weather radar, 20-18, 202
Gyros
Definition,
2-6, 10
Electrically driven, 2-11, 12
Heading indicator, 2-20, 16
Instrument power source, 2-9, 12
Mode of operation, 2-1 9, 16
Mountings, 2-7, 12
Vacuum driven, 2-10, 12
Gyroscopic properties
Precession, 2-8, 12
Rigidity in space,
2-8, 12
Heading
Compass, 2-4, 10
Drift and ground speed, 10-2, 78
Magnetic, 2-4, 10; 10-2,78
Track and ground speed, 10-2,78
True, 9-2, 77
Heading and airspeed computations
(CPU-26A1P), 11-13, 86
Heading and ground speed
computations, 11-24, 91
Heading Indicator
Banking or turning, 2-20, 16
Course indicator 10-883, 2-20, 16
Electric 1D-567/ASN, 2-20, 16
Magnetic compass. See Magnetic
compass
Radio magnetic
1D-250/ARN, 2-20, 16
1D-998/ ASN, 2-20, 16
Headwind, 10-2,78
High frequency propagation, 12-12,99
Holding
ADF
Aiffipeeds, 15-20, 153
Clearances and reports, 16-25, 157
Drift correction, 16-24, 156
Entry, 15-22, 154
Stacking, 15-26, 158
VOR
Airspeeds, 16-20, 153
Clearances and reports, 15-25, 157
Drift correction, 16-24, 156
Entry, 15-22, 154
Stacking, 15-26, 158
Homing
ADF, 14-27, 129
Loop, 14-27, 129
IFR flight planning
Aircraft equipmenL B-3, 223
Altitude selection, B-3, 223
Checklist, B-3, 223
Departure, B-3, 223
Estimated time enroute, B-3, 223
Flight log,
B-3, 223
Flight plan, B-3, 223
FLIP research, B-3, 223
Ground speed, B-3, 223
Performance planning card, B-3, 223
Planning, B-2, 223
Route selection, B-3, 223
Route survey, B-3, 223
Sample plan, 8-4, 223
Terminal area, B-3, 223
Weather sources, B-3, 223
illusions in ffight, 1-1, 5
Illusions leading to spatial
disorientation, 1-3, 5
Illusions
Autokinesis, 1-3, 5
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Coriolis, 1-3, 5
Elevator, 1-3, 5
False horizon, 1-3, 5
Flicker vertigo, 1-3, 5
Graveyard spin, 1-3, 5
Graveyard spiral, 1-3,5
Inveffiion, 1-3, 5
Landing error, 1-6, 7
Leans, 1-3, 5
Somatgravic, 1-3, 5
ILS. See Instrument landing system
Impact pressure, 2-22, 19
Inclination, 6-5, 62
Indicated airspeed, 2-33, 26
Indicated altitude, 2-29, 23
Indicator
Aiffipeed, 2-31, 26
Altimeter, 2-24, 19
Attitude, 2-12, 13
Course, indicator, 10-883, 2-20, 16
Heading, 2-20, 16
Navigation attitude, 10-882, 2-14, 15
Slaved gyro magnetic. See Slaved
gyro magnetic heading indicators
Turn-and-slip, 2-16, 16
Vertical speed, 2-34, 26
Initial approach segmen1, 16-5, 144
Instantaneous vertical speed
Indicator, 2-38, 27; 3-15, 35
Instrument approach procedures. See
Approach: Instrument and ILS
Briefing, 15-27, 158
Holding, 16-17, 153
Identification, 16-2, 143
Missed approach, 15-6, 145
Procedures, 15-5, 144
Procedure turns, 15-7, 146;
15-11,147
Straight-in, 16-6, 145
Transitionslfeeders, 15-5, 144;
16-8, 147
Instrument flylng- See Attitude
Instrument flying
Instruments indicating pitch attttude
Attitude indicator, 3-20, 37
Heading indicator, 3-21, 37
Turn-and-slip indicator, 3-22, 37
Ball, 3-22, 37
Turn needle, 3-22, 37
Instruments Indicating pitch attitude
Airspeed indicator, 3-16, 36
Altimeter, 3-14, 34
Attitude indicator, 3-13, 33
Vertical speed indicator, 3-15, 35
Instrument landing system
Approach procedures
Arrival, 19-8, 190
Charts, 17-1, 159
Compass locator, 19-2, 185
Front COUffie, 19-7, 192
Glide slope, 19-4, 187
LDA, 19-12, 194
Localizer, 19-3, 185
Localizer back course, 19-9, 192
Localizer only, 19-8, 192
23,

Marker beacons, 19-5, 189
Missed approach, 19-7, 192
Procedure turn, 19-7, 192
Runway visual range, 19-10, 192
SDF, 19-12, 194
Ground components, 19-2, 185
Visual approach slope indicator,
19-11,194
Instrument takeoll
Fixed wing, 4-3, 40
Common errors, 4-3, 40
Beacon passage, 14-27, 129 Meridians
Homing, 14-24, 128 Greenwich (prime), 6-11, 65; 6-12, 65
Longitude, 6-11, 65; 6-12, 65
Null, 14-25, 129
Orientation, 14-24, 128 Middle marker, 19-5, 189
Time and distance, 14-26, 129
Tracking, 14-25, 129 Miles
Nautical, 6-17, 68
Low frequency, See LF/MF Statute, 6-17, 68
propagation
Minimum authorized altitude, 16-9,
Loxodromic curve, 6-16, 66 147
Lubber line, 2-4, 10
.

Minimum enroute altitude, 20-10, 198

Rotary wing, 4-15, 47
Common errors, 4-15, 47 Magnetism, 2-2, 9 Minimum obstruction clearance
Compass, 2-4, 10 altitude, 20-10, 198
Intercardinal points, 6-13, 65 Compensator assembly, 2-4, 10
Construction, 2-4, 10 Missed approach, 16-16, 151
Interception, course
Errors, 9-2, 77 Missed approach segment, 16-5, 144
ADF, 14-20, 127; 14-21, 128
Deviation, 9-2, 77
Double-the-angle, 13-13, 112 Magnetic dip, 2-5, 10 Modulation
Loop, 14-25, 129 Amplitude, 16-5, 144
Acceleration, 2-5, 10
VOR, 13-13, 123 Frequency, 12-5, 96
Magnetic field, 2-2, 9
Interception of TACAN arcs, 15-11, Northerly turning, 2-5, 10 Monitor, nonradar, 20-13, 199
! 136 Constructon compensation, 2-4,
I 10; 2-5, 10 Nautical mile, 6-17, 68
Immediate approach segment, 16-5,
,

Oscillation, 2-5, 10 Needle (VOR). See VOR: Course

144
Variation, 2-5, 10; 9-2, 77 Indicator
Intersections, 15-10, 136 Float assembly, 2-4, 10
Lubber line, 2-4, 10 Nonstandard atmospheric pressure,
Inversion illusion, 1-3, 5; 13-12, 110
Swinging, 2-4, 10 2-27, 21
,
Isogonic lines, 2-5, 10 Course, 9-2, 77 Nonstandard temperature, 2-27, 21
Deviation, 2-5, 10; 9-2, 77
; Kilometer, 6-17, 68 Northerly turning error, 2-5, 10
I Direction, 9-1, 77
i Kollsman window, 2-26, 20 Fields, 2-2, 9
NOTAM, B-3, 223
Heading, 10-2, 78
Lag, vertical speed Indicator, 2-36, 26 Indicator, radio. See Radio magnetic Null, 14-1, 118; 14-25, 129
Lambert conformal projection, 7-7, 71 indicator
Oil-course correction (drift)
Landing error illusion, 1-6, 7 Lines of force, 2-2, 9 (CPU-26A/P), 11-16, 86
North Pole, 2-2, 9
Atmospheric illusion, 1-6, 7
Poles, location, 2-3, 9 Omnidirectional range. See VOR
Featureless terrain illusion, 1-5, 7
Variation, 2-5, 10
Ground lighting illusion, 1-6, 7 Orientation
Preventiùn of, 1-7, 9 Manual loop procedures, 14-23, 128 ADF, 14-5, 118
Runway and terrain siope illusion, FM homing, 14-23, 128
Map. See Charts Loop, 14-23, 128
1-6,7
Runway width illusion, 1-6, 7 Measurements. See PLU-2/C plotter VOR, 13-9, 104
Latitude, 6-8, 65 Direction Oscillation error, 2-5, 10
Altitudes, 16-3, 143
Leans illusion, 1-3, 5 Bearing, 16-3, 143 Outer marker, 19-5, 189
Bearing (relative), 14-13, 123
Level turns Parallels, 6-8, 65; 6-10, 65
Fixed wing, 4-6, 41 Cardinal points, 6-13, 65
Common errors, 4-6, 41 Compass rose, 6-14, 65 Pattern A, 5-3, 59
Rotary wing, 4-20, 52 Course, 16-3, 143 Pattern B, 5-4, 61
Common errors, 4-20, 52 Degree, 8-4, 75
Distances, 16-3, 143 Photomaps, 7-12, 75
Light system (ILS), 19-2, 185 Radial, 16-3, 143
Phraseology, radio 20-17, 201
Line-of-sight transmission, 12-13,99 Track, 10-2, 78
Distance Pitch
Lines Angular, 6-7, 64 Attitude, 3-2, 27
Agonic, 2-5, 10 Arcs, 6-7, 64 Common errors, 3-18, 36
Isogonic, 2-5, 10 Degrees, 6-7, 64 Control, 3-12, 32
Dividers, 8-3, 75 Cross-checking of instruments, 3-3,
Localizer, ILS
Great circle, 6-7, 64 27; 3-18,36
Back course, 19-9, 192
Blue sector, 19-3, 185 Linear 6-7, 64 Trim, 3-4, 27
Radius, 6-7, 64
Front course, 19-7, 192; 19-6, 192 Pitch Indicating instruments
Needie deflection, 19-3, 185 Scale, 7-2, 68 Airspeed indicator, 3-16, 36
Receiver, 19-3, 185 Statute and nautical miles, 6-17, 68
Altimeter, 3-14, 34
Tracking, 19-3, 185 Tactical air navigation, 15-4, 132
Attitude indicator, 3-13, 33
Units, 6-17, 68
Yellow sector, 15-5, 132 Vertical speed indicator, 3-15, 35
Position (geographical), 6-6, 63
Lock-on, TACAN, 15-5, 132 Pltot-static system, 2-21, 18
Measuring, 6-17, 68 Impact pressure, 2-22, 19
Loop, ADF
Ambiguity, 14-24, 128 Mercator chart, 7-8, 72 Static pressure, 2-23, 19

236 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240

Pitottube, 2-22, 19
Plotter. See PLU-2/C plotter
Plotting (position), 8-1, 75
PLU-2/C plotter, 8-4, 75
Polar stereographlc proJection, 7-9, 74
Position fixing
ADF, 14-9, 120
VOR, 13-12, 110
Position reports, 16-25, 157
Power
Airspeed settings, rotary wing, 3-9, 31
Changes, 3-10, 31
Control, 3-5, 27
Defin~ion, 3-1, 27
Instruments, 3--6, 27
Precision approach radar, 20-12, 199
Pressure altitude, 2-29, 23
Pressure altimeter, 2-25, 20
Procedure turns
Adjustment for wind, 16-15, 149
Area, 16-13, 149
Minimum altitude, 16-14, 149
Teardrop, 16-12, 148
Turning rate, 16-15, 149
Proficiency maneuvers (fixed wing)
Pattern A, 5-3, 59
Common errors, 5-3, 59
Pattern B, 5-4, 61
Common errors, 5-4, 61
Vertical S and 8-1, 5-2, 59
Corrmon errors, 5-2, 59
Projection
Lambert, 7-7, 71
Merætor, 7~, 72
Modified polar stereographic, 7-9,74
Polar stereographic, 7-9, 74
Radar
Airport surveillance, 20-6, 197
Air route surveillance,
20-5, 197
Air traflic control procedures:
Approaches (ASR and PAR), 20-1,
196; 198; 20-12,199
2~,
Arrival control, 20-11, 199;
20-13, 199
Departure control, 20-11, 199;
20-12, 199
Enroute control, 20-10, 198
Expanded service, 20-14, 201;
20-19, 202
Handoff, 20-9, 196
Limitations, 20-7, 197
Monitor service, 20-13, 199
Prmary, 20-3, 197
Secondary, 20-4, 197
Transfer of control, 20-9, 198
Transitions/feeder, 20-11,199;
20-13, 199
Weather advisories, 20-20, 202
Within ADIZ, 20-15, 201
Radar altimeter, 2-30, 25
Phraseology
Transponder, 20-17, 201
Vectors, 20-19,202
Weather: ground, 20-18, 202
Radial, 13-9, 104
Radiated test signal, VOT, 13-16, 115
Radio
Cycle, 12-2, 95
Frequencies, 12-2, 95; 12-7, 98
Frequency modulation, 12-5, 96
Principles, 12-1, 94
Receivers
Signal propagation, 12-ð, 98
Transmitters, 12-5, 96
Wavelengths, 12-2, 95
Waves, 12-2, 95
Radio compass indicator, ADF, 14-5,
118
Radio magnetic indicator, 13--6, 103
Radius, 6-7, 64
Radius of action (CPU-26A1P), 11-18,
87
Ratio and proportion (CPU-26A1P),
11-14,86
Real precession, 12
2~,
Recoveries from unusual attitudes
Fixed wing, 4-12, 45
Common errors, 4-12, 45
Rotary wing, 4-27, 57
Common errors, 4-27, 57
Reference circles. See Circles:
references
Relative bearing
Course interception, 14-20, 127;
14-21,128
Homing, 14-25, 129
Maintaining a course, 14-16, 124
Orientation, 14-4, 118
Position fixing, 14-19, 126
Station passage, 14-15, 123
Time and distance, 14-22, 128
Rhumb line, 6-16, 66
RMI. See Radio magnetic indicator
Rose, compass, 6-14, 65
Rotation, 6-3, 62
Runway and terrain slope illusion,
1"'{;, 7
Runway visual range, 19-10, 192
Runway width illusion, 1-6, 7
Sand 5-1 maneuvers. See Proficiency
maneuvers (fixed wing)
Scales
Chart, 7-2, 68
CPU-26A/P computer, 8-4, 75
Sectional charts, 7-10, 74
Sensory system, 1-2, 5
Signal patterns
Glide slope, ILS, 19-4, 187
Loælizer, ILS, 19-3, 185
Marker beacon, 19-5, 189
VOR, 13-3, 100
Skip distance, 12-9, 99
Skip zone, 12-9, 99
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Slaved gyro compass system
Operation, 2-19, 16; 9-4, 78
Components, 2-20, 16
Slaved gyro magnetic heading
Indicators
Course indicator, ID-883, 2-20, 16
Electric, 1D-567/ ASN, 2-20, 16
Radio magnetic, 1D-250/ ARN,
2-20,16
Radio magnetic, ID-998/ ASN,
2-20, 16
Somatogravic illusion, 1-3, 5
Spatial disorientation, 4-12, 45
Climbing while accelerating,
1-4, 5
Climbing while turning, 1-4, 5
Diving while turning,
1-4, 5
Tilting to right or left, 1-4, 5
Reversing of motion, 1-4, 5
Diving or rolling beyond the vertical
plane, 1-4, 5
Standard instrument departures, B-3,
223
Standard terminal arrival routes, 16~,
147; 16-9, 147; 16-10, 147
Static pressure, 2-23, 19; 2-26, 20
Static, radio, 13-2, 99
Station passage, VOR 13-11, 108
Statute mile, 6-17, 68
Steep turns
Fixed wing, 4-8, 42
Common errors, 4-8, 42
Rotary wing, 4-23, 54
Common errors, 4-23, 54
Straight-and-Ievel flight
Fixed wing,
4-4, 40
Common errors, 4-4, 40
Rotary wing, 4-17, 49
Common errors, 4-17, 49
Straight climbs and descents (fixed
wing), 4-5, 40
Common errors, 4-5, 40
Straight climbs (rotary wing), 4-16, 47
Common errors, 4-16, 47
Straight descents (rotary wing), 4-18,
51
Common errors, 4-18, 51
Straight-In
Approach, 16-2, 143; 16-6, 145
Minimums, 17-10, 161
Surveillance radar, 20-5, 197
TACAN, 15-1, 130
Tactical Instrument flight
Aids, navigational, 21-8, 205
Altitudes, 21-5, 204
Approaches, 21-6, 205
Communications, 21-4, 203
Course line, determining the,
21-9, 206
Defini1ion, 21-2, 203
Employment, principles of, 21-4, 203
Flight clearance, 21-4, 203
Flight-following, 21-4, 203
Threat avoidance, 21-4, 203
237

Flight routes selection, 21-6, 205
Navigation, radio and dead reckoning,
21-10,207
Planning
Preflight, 21-7, 206; 21-8, 206
Takeoff, 21-11, 211
Prerequisites, 21-2, 203
Procedures
Approach, 21-12, 214
Missed, 21-14, 219
Straight-in, 21-12, 214
Terminal, 21-12, 214
Emergency, 21-15, 219
Aircraft deficiency, 21-15, 219
Air defense, 21-15, 219
Radio navigational aids, loss of,
21-15,219
Holding, 21-13, 218
Threat, 21-1, 203; 21-4, 203
Training, 21-3, 203; 21-16, 221;
G-1,225
Tailwind, 10-2, 78
Takeoff, instrument
Fixed wing, 4-3, 40
Rotary wing, 4-15, 47
Teardrop turns, 16-12, 148
Terrain and runway slope illusion, 1-6,
7
Time-distance compulations
(CPU-26A/P), 11-4, 84
Time-distance to beacon
ADF, 14-12, 122; 14-26, 129
VOR, 13-14, 114
Time turns
Fixed wing, 4-9, 43
Common errors, 4-9, 43
Rotary "'ing, 4-24, 54
Common errors, 4-24, 54
TO-FROM indicator (VOR), 13-5, 101
Tracking
ADF, 14-5, 118
ILS localizer, 19-3, 185
Loop, 14-23, 128
VOR, 13-10, 104
Track interception, See Interception,
track
Traffic control centers, air route,
20-5, 197
Transmlssometer, 19-2, 185
Transmitter
ADF, 14-3, 118
ILS glide slope, 19-4, 187
ILS iocalizer, 19-3, 185
VOR, 13-3, 100
Transponder, use of, 20-16, 201
Trim, 3-4, 27
Bank attitude, 3-23, 39
Pitch attitude, 3-17, 36
True airspeed, 2-33, 26; 9-5, 78
True altitude, 2-29, 23
Turn-and-sllp indicator, 2-16, 16
238
2-18,16; 3-22, 37 VOR (VHF omnidirectional range)
Ball,
Turn needle, 2-17, 16; 3-22, 37 Approach, 18-7, 179
Charts, 18--2, 176
Turn coordinator, 3-22, 37 Clearance, 18-4, 177
Descent, 18--6, 179
Turns
Banking. See Bank control Holding, 18-5, 177
Landing, 18--8, 180
Climbing (rotary wing), 4-16, 47
Common errors, 4-16, 47 Missed approach, 18--9, 180
Climbing and descending (fixed wing), Procedure turn, 18-7, 179
Receiver, 13-4, 100
4-10, 44
Common errors, 4-10, 44 Transmitter, 13-3, 100
Compass Warning flags
Fixed wing, 4-11, 45
Course indicator, VOR, 13-5, 101
Common errors, 4-11, 45 Glide slope, 13-5, 101
Rotary wing, 4-22, 54
Common errors, 4-11,45 Wavelength, 12-2,95
Descending (rotary wing), 4-26, 57
Wave, radio, 12-2,95; 12-4,95
Common errors, 4-26, 57
Level Wave, transmission, 12-2, 95
Fixed wing, 4--6, 41 Weather
Common errors, 4-6, 41 Flight planning, B-2, 233
Rotary wing, 4-20, 52 Radar, ground, 20-18, 202
Common errors, 4-20, 52
Procedure. See Procedure turns Wind
Steep Crosswind, 10-2, 78; 1 0-6, 80
Direction and speed, 10-2, 78
Fixed wing, 4-8, 42
Common errors, 4-8, 42 Downwind, 10-2, 78
Rotary wing, 4-23, 54 Drift, 1 0-2, 78
Common errors, 4-23, 54 Drift correction. See Drift correction
Timed Headwind, 10-6, 80; 1 0-2, 78
Fixed wing, 4-9, 43 Tailwind, 10-6, 80; 10-2,78
Common erors, 4-9, 45 Triangle, 11-21, 89; 11-22, 90;
Rolary wing, 4-24, 54 11-28,94
Common errors, 4-24, 54 Upwind, 10-4, 80'
To headings (gyro) Vectors, 11-23, 90
Fixed wlng,.4-7, 42 Velocity computation, 11-26, 92
Common errors, 4-7, 42 World aeronautical chart, 7-11, 75
Rotary wing, 4-21, 54
Common errors, 4-21, 54
True airspeed, 2-33, 26
Unusual attitudes and recoveries
.
Fixed wing, 4-12, 45
Common errors, 4-12, 45
Rotary wing, 4-27, 57
Common errors, 4-27, 57
Variation, magnetic, 2-5, 10; 9-2, 77
Vectors
Radar, 20-4, 197
Wind, 11-21, 89
Velocities, triangle, 11-21, 89
Velocity, wind, See Wind: direction
and speed
Vertical Sand 8-1, 5-2, 59
Common errors, 5-2, 59
Vertical speed indicator
Adjustment, 2-37, 27
.
Construction, 2-34, 26
IVSI, 2-38, 27
Lag, 2-36, 26
Operation, 2-35, 26
VHF omnidirectional range, See VOR
Victor airways, 13-12, 110
Voice communications, See Radio:
communications
., IJ GOVERNME.NT PRINTING OFFICE: 1984- 461-027:20044
Voice procedures. See Radio: .5.
communications
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240