PHYSICS

Quantities and Units

Scalar quantities: Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called scalar quantities. Example:
Mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy etc.
Vector quantity: Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both and which obey triangle law are called vector
quantities.
Example: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque etc. Electric current, though has a direction, is a
scalar quantity because it does not obey triangle law. Moment of inertia, pressure, refractive index, stress are tensor quantities.
Angstrom : length of light waves. Barrel : measuring liquids. One barrel is equal to 31½ gallons. Cable: For measuring length
of cables. It is about 183m. in length. Carat : measuring precious stones. measure for the purity of gold alloy. Fathom:
measuring depth of water. One fathom = 4 inches. Knot: measuring speed of ships
Conversion factors:
1 m = 100 cm = 39.4 inch = 3.28 ft. 1 mile = 1.61 km = 5280 ft. 1 inch = 2.54 cm. 1 nm = 10–9m = 10 Å. 1000 L =
264 gal
Force and Pressure - 1 lb = 4.45 N. 1 ton = 2000 lb. 1 atm = 76 cm Hg

MECHANICS
Distance: Distance is the actual path traveled by a body in a given period of time.
Displacement: The change in the position of the object in a given period of time. Distance is a scalar quantity whereas
displacement is a vector quantity both having the same unit (metre). Displacement may be positive, negative or zero whereas
distance is always positive.
Speed: Distance travelled by the moving object in unit time interval is called speed i.e. speed = Distance/ Time. It is a scalar
quantity and its SI unit is metre/second (m/s). Speed of an object at any instant is called instantaneous speed. An object is said
to be traveled with non-uniform speed if it covers unequal distance in equal interval of time.
Velocity: Velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement of the object in unit time interval i.e., velocity. It is a
vector quantity and its SI unit is metre/second. If a body goes equal displacement in equal interval of time then it is called
uniform velocity. If a body undergoes unequal displacement in equal interval of time then it is called variable velocity.
Relative velocity = V1 +V2 if two travels in opposite direction
=V1-V2 if two travels in same direction
Acceleration: Acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of change of velocity of the object . It is a vector quantity and
its SI units is
metre /second2 (m/s2). If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is negative and is called retardation. If acceleration
does not change with time it is called constant acceleration. Some equation of acceleration;
V=u+at S=ut+at2/2 V2= u2+2as Here v=final velocity, u is initial velocity, t is time ineterval, a is acceleration
and s is the distance travel.

Angular Displacement and Velocity: The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by a body moving along the circumference
of the circle is called angular displacement of the body. It unit is radian. Angular displacement= length of arc/radius of circle
Time rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity. w=angle/time
Force: Force is that external cause which when acts on a body changes or tries to change the initial state of the body. Its SI
unit is Newton(N). A body is said to be in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces acts on the body is Zero. Nuclear force is the
strongest force.
Momentum: Momentum is the property of a moving body and is defined as the product of mass and velocity of the body i.e.
Momentum = mass × velocity. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is kgm/s.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

First Law: Everybody maintains its initial state of rest or motion with uniform speed on a straight line unless an external force
acts on it. It is also called Galileo's law or law of inertia. Example While jumping from a slowly moving train/bus one must
run for short distance, in the direction of motion.
Inertia of Rest: Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform
motion. When a bus or train at rest starts to move suddenly the passengers sitting in it feels jerk in backward direction due to
inertia of rest. Dust particle come out of a carpet if we beat it with stick. A passenger jumping out of a train is advised to jump
in the direction of bus and ran for a short distance.
Inertia of Motion: When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction due to
inertia of motion.
Second Law: The form acting on an object is directly proportioned to the product of the mass of the object and the acceleration
produced on it.. A body of mass m under an acceleration a experiences a force F given by : F = ma
Third Law: To every action, There is an equal and opposite reaction. Whenever a body A exerts a force F on another body B,
the second body B exerts force -F on A. Example Bogies of the trains are provided with buffers to avoid severe jerks during
shunting of trains. Rocket moves up due to reaction of downward ejection of gas.

CIRCULAR MOTION
When an object moves along a circular path, its motion is called circular motion. The external force required to act radially
inward over the circular motion of the body is called Centripetal force. Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force that. is equal
and opposite to Centripetal force. Cream separator, centrifugal dryer work on the principle of centrifugal force.
Centripetal Force: When a body is in circular motion, a force always acts on the body towards the centre of the circular path,
this force is called centripiatl force.
If a body of mass m is moving on a circular path of radius R with uniform speed v, then the required centripetal force
Centrifugal Force: Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force. It is equal and opposite to centripetal force.
Application of centripetal and Centrifugal forces: Roads are banked at turns to provide required centripetal force for taking
a turm. Cream is separated form milk when it is rotated in a vessel about the same axis. Gravitational force of attraction
between earth and sun acts as centripetal force.
• Orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus. Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required centripetal
force.
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: If no external force acts on a system of bodies, the total linear momentum
of the system of bodies remains constant. As a consequence, the total momentum of bodies before and after collision remains
the same. As in case of rocket, ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps in accelerating the rocket in forward direction.
Impulse: When a large force acts on a body for very small time, then force is called impulsive force. Impulse is defined as the
product of force and time. Impulse = force x time = change in momentum. It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction
of force. Its SI unit is newton second (Ns).
Friction: It is force which acts on a body when two body are in contact and one tries to move over other.
Types of Friction:
Static Friction: The opposing force which acts on acts on a body when it tries to move over the other but actual motion has
yet not started.
Limiting friction: It is the force that comes to play, when a body is at the verge of moving over the other body.
Kinetic Friction: This is the opposing force that comes to play when one body actually moves over the surface of another
body is called kinetic friction. It is of two types which are as follows:
Sliding Friction: When a body slides over the surface of other
Rolling Friction: When a body rolls over the surface of another body. It is easier to roll a body than to slide because the
sliding friction is greater than the rolling friction. It is easy to drive a bicycle when its tyres are fully inflated because it
decreases rolling friction.
Application of Friction: A ball bearing is used to reduce the rotational friction. Friction is necessary for walking and to apply
breaks in vehicles.
• When a pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction on rear wheel is in forward direction and on front wheel it
is in the backward direction.
• Friction can be reduced by applying the polishing or applying any lubricants. The tyre are made up of synthetic
rubber because its coefficient of friction with road is larger and stops sliding the bicycle.
Due to friction we are able to move on the surface of Earth. While applying brakes in automobiles, it stops only due to friction.

HYDROSTATICS
PRESSURE : Unit - bar, decibar, millibar. Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood
vessels. For a healthy adult human the pressure should be 115 mm Hg (systolic) and 75 mm Hg (diastolic)
Caisson Disease occurs due to sudden change in atmospheric pressure. includes divers returning from depth.
Pascal's Law of Pressure -Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes are based on the Pascal's law of pressure.
Archimedes' Principle -When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid, there is an apparent loss in the weight of the
body, which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body. The weight of water displaced by an iron ball is less than
its own weight. Whereas water displaced by the immersed portion of a ship is equal to its weight. So, small ball of iron ball
sink in water, but large ship float. A fat person will quickly learn the swimming as compared to a slim person because he will
displace more water. So, it will be more balanced. Hydrogen filled balloon float in air because hydrogen is lighter than air. A
person can lift more weight in water.

Surface Tension : A molecule of the liquid near the surface is attracted by fewer molecules of the liquid (there is only air on
one side) then molecule deep inside. Therefore, the molecule of the free surface has less attractive force than the deeper one,
and so it is energetically unfavaourable for a liquid to have a surface. This property of liquid surface is called surface tension.
When the water touches the glass, it 'rises up' the glass surface then forms a concave meniscus. Mercury behaves in a different
manner. Mercury molecules are attracted more strongly to other mercury molecules than they are attracted to glass molecules.
Here, the cohesive force is stronger than adhesive force. That is why, when mercury touches the glass surface, it 'rises down'
the glass forming a convex meniscus.
Pascal Law : When pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid. This is called
Pascal's law. Pascal's law holds, both for liquid and gases.
Buoyancy : Every liquid exerts an upwards force on objects immersed in it. This upward force is called Buoyant force and
this phenomenon is called Buoyancy.
Archimedes' Principle states that the buoyant force is equal to the weight of this displaced liquid. The buoyant force exerted
by a liquid, therefore, depends on the volume of the object immersed on it.
When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, there is apparent loss in weight of the body, which is equal to the
weight of the displaced liquid by the body. The rise or depression of liquids in small diameter tubes is called capillarity.
The faster the air, the lower the pressure.
GRAVITATION
Everybody in the universe attracts other body by a force called force of gravitation. The gravitational force of the earth is
called gravity. The acceleration produced in a body due to force of gravity is called acceleration due to gravity (g) and its value
is 9.8 m/s'
Newton's law of Gravitation.
The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. Gravitational force (F) = Gm1m2/ r 2
• Where G is the gravitational constant its value is 6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2.. m1, m2 are the mass of two bodies and
r is the distance between them.
• Gravitational force is central as well as conservative force. Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature.
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of shape, size and mass of the body. Escape velocity is the minimum velocity with,
which an object just crosses the Earth's gravitational field and never returns. Escape velocity at the Earth's surface is 11.2 km/s.
Escape velocity at the Moon's surface is 2.4 km/s. Due to low escape velocity there is no atmosphere on the moon. Value of g
decreases with height or depth from Earth surface. g is maximum at poles. g is minimum at equator. g decreases due to rotation
of Earth.
g decreases if angular speed of Earth increases and increases if angular speed of Earth decreases. The acceleration due to
gravity at the moon is one-sixth that of the Earth. So, the weight of a person on the surface of the moon will be 1/6 of his actual
weight on the Earth.
1687: Isaac Newton proposes law of universal gravitation
1915: Albert Einstein proposes theory of general relativity
Objects falling freely towards the earth's surface have an acceleration due to gravity This is also known as g-
force
Condition affecting the value of g:
• Shape of Earth: Earth shape also affect the value of acceleration due to gravity that's why g is maximum at poles
and minimum at the equator.
• Rotation of Earth on its axis:
• Effects of Altitude: The value of g decreases with the increase in height.
• Effects of depth: The value of g decreases with depth and become zero at the centre earth.
Weight of a body in a lift:
• When lift is at rest or in uniform motion then apparent weight is equal to the real weight of the body, w=mg.
• When lift is accelerating upward then apparent weight is greater than the real weight of the body i.e. w=m(g+a)
• When lift is accelerating downward then apparent weight of the body is less than the real weight of the body i.e.
w=m(g-a).
• When lift is falling freely under gravity the apparent weight of the body is zero i.e. W=m(g-g) as a = g, w=0
• Weight of the body on moon is lesser than the weight of the body on earth as the acceleration due to gravity at the
moon is less than the acceleration due to gravity on earth. Acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 6 times than that
of on the moon.

Simple Pendulum - Simple pendulum is a heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of an elastic and
inextensible string. The maximum time period of a simple pendulum is 84.6 min. The time period of a simple pendulum does
not depend upon the mass, shape and size of the bob and its amplitude of oscillation. A pendulum clock goes slow in summer
and fast in winter. If a simple pendulum is suspended in a lift descending down with acceleration, then time period of pendulum
will increase. If lift is ascending, then time period of pendulum will decrease. If a lift falling freely under gravity, then the time
period of the pendulum is infinite.

SATELLITE
Satellites are natural or artificial bodies revolving around a planet under its gravitational force of attraction. Moon is a natural
satellite, while INSAT-B is an artificial satellite of Earth. The period of revolution of satellite revolving near the surface of
earth is 1 hour 24 minutes (34 minutes). Geo-stationary satellite revolves around the Earth at a height 36000 km (approx).
Time period of rotation of geo-stationary satellite is 24 h. The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East. This rotation makes
the Sun and the stars appear to be moving across the sky from East to West. Geo-stationary satellite is used to telecast. TV
programmes from one part of the world to another, in weather forecasting, in predictions of floods and droughts. Polar Satellite
Revolves around the earth in polar orbit at a height of 800km (app.) Time periods of these satellites is 84 min.
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion: gives three laws which are as follows: i) All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical
orbits with the sun at its one focus. ii) The areal speed of planet around the sun is constant. iii) The square of the time period
of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit
Period of Revolution of a satellite: Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called its period of
revolution. Period of revolution= Circumference of orbit/ orbital speed. Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the
height of satellite from the surface of earth, greater its height from earth surface more will be its period of revolution. Period
of revolution is independent of its mass.

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Cathode Rays - discovered by Sir William Crooke. travel in straight lines. Produce fluorescence. can penetrate through thin
foils of metal and deflected by both electric and magnetic fields. have velocity ranging 1/30th to 1/10th of the velocity of light.
Positive or Canal Rays -These rays were discovered by Goldstein. The positive ray consists of positively charged particles.
These rays travel in straight line. These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. These rays can produce ionization
in gases.
X-Rays -X-rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelength range 0.1 A-100 A. X-rays were discovered by Roentgen. X-rays
travels in straight line. Long exposures of X rays in injurious for human body. X rays shows photoelectric effect.
Uses of X-Rays -In medical sciences X-rays are used in surgery for the detection of fracture, diseased organs, foreign matter
like bullet, stones etc. They are used in treatment of cancer and in skin diseases. In Engineering, X-rays are used in detecting
faults, cracks, flaws and gas pockets in the finished metal products and in heavy metal sheets. In Scientific Work, X-rays are
used in studying crystal structure and complex molecules. In Custom Department X-rays are used in custom department for
detection of banned materials kept hidden.
Radioactivity -Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre Curie for which they jointly won
Nobel Prize.
Nuclear Fission - reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts. Nuclear fission can either release energy
or absorb energy: for nuclei lighter than iron fission absorbs energy, while for nuclei heavier than iron it releases energy. The
atom bomb or fission bomb is based on nuclear fission
Atom Bomb is based on nuclear fission. U235 and Pu239 are used as fissionable material. Nuclear fission was first
demonstrated by Halin and Fritz Strassmann.
Nuclear Fusion - two or more light nuclei combined together to form a heavier nucleus. For it, a temperature of the order of
108 K is required. Hydrogen Bomb was made by the American Scientist in 1952. This is based on nuclear fusion. It is 1000
times more powerful than atom bomb. Nuclear fusion is the source of energy of stars.
Invention: J J Thomson- Electron (1897), Henri Becquerel- Radioactivity (1896), Ernest Rutherford- Structure of atom (1907),
James Chadwick- Neutron (1932),
Nuclear research facilities - European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)-Geneva, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(1954) at Bombay made Indian first reactor Apsara. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) at Kalpakkam made
fast breeder reactor Kamini. Saha Institute for Nuclear Physics at Kolkata in 1949, Tata Institute for Fundamental Research
(TIFR) at Bombay in 1945

NON-INVASIVE IMAGING: the method of producing images of internal tissues without surgical procedures. X-rays,
tomography, MRI etc. X-rays were discovered by Wilhem Conrad Rontgen (Germany) in 1895.
Ultrasound was first developed for medical use by John Wild (Britain) in 1949. Ultrasonography uses ultrasound (high
frequency sound waves) to visualize soft tissues in the body in real time. Ultrasound does not involve any ionizing radiation,
hence it considered safer than X-rays or CT and is used for obstetrical imaging
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was invented by Paul Lauterbur (USA) and Sir Peter Mansfield (Britain) in the
1970s.MRI uses strong magnetic fields . MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all imaging modalities
MRI does not use any ionizing radiation.
Nuclear Reactor -Nuclear reactor is an arrangement, in which controlled nuclear fission reaction takes place. First nuclear
reactor was established in Chicago University under the supervision of Prof Enrico Fermi. Heavy water, graphite and beryllium
oxide are used to slow down the fast moving neutrons. They are called moderate. Uses of Nuclear Reactor (i)To produce
electrical energy from the energy released during fission. (ii)To produce different isotopes, this can be used medical, physical
and agriculture science.
There are several components of nuclear reactor which are as follows -Fissionable Fuel U235 or U239 is used. Moderator
decreases the energy of neutrons, so that they can be further used for fission reaction. Heavy water and graphite are used as
moderator. Control Rod rods of cadmium or boron are used to absorb the excess neutrons produced in fission of uranium
nucleus, so that the chain reaction.
PARTICLE PHYSICS: The atom was discovered by John Dalton in 1802. The Standard Model was developed by Sheldon
Glashow, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam in the 1960s. They won Nobel in Physics in 1979. The Model contains 24
fundamental particles. It predicts the existence of the Higgs Boson, which is yet to discovered. All particles of the Standard
Model have been observed in experiments, except the Higgs Boson

WAVE - A wave is a disturbance, which propagates energy from one place to the other without the transportation of matter.
Waves are broadly of two types: Mechanical wave (longitudinal wave and transverse wave) , Electromagnetic wave
Longitudinal Waves -In this wave the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of wave. Waves on
springs or sound waves in air are examples of longitudinal waves.
Transverse Waves -In this wave the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.
Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of water are the examples of transverse waves.
Electromagnetic Waves-The waves, which do not require medium for their propagation i.e., which can propagate even
through the vacuum are called electromagnetic waves. Light radio waves, X-rays etc are the examples of electromagnetic
wave. These waves propagate with the velocity of light in vacuum.
Sound Waves -Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. Eased on their frequency range sound waves are divided into
following categories. The sound waves which lie in the frequency range 20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible waves. The
sound waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic. The sound waves having frequencies greater than 20000
Hz are called ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves are used for sending signals, measuring the depth of see, cleaning clothes
and machinery parts, remaining lamp short from chimney of factories and in ultrasonography.
Speed of Sound -Speed of sound is maximum in solids minimum in gases. When sound goes from one medium to another
medium, its speed and wave length changes, but frequency remain unchanged. The speed of sound remains unchanged by the
increase or decrease of pressure. The speed of sound increases with the increase of temperature of the medium. The speed of
sound is more in humid air than in dry air because the density of humid air is less than the density.
Echo: The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound waves is called an echo. Intensity: It is defined as amount of energy
passing normally per unit area held around that point per source unit time. Pitch: The sensation of a frequency is commonly
referred to as the pitch of a sound. Sonar: It stands for sound navigation and ranging. It is used to measure the depth of a sea,
to locate the enemy submarines and shipwrecks.
Doppler's Effect -If there is a relative motion between source of sound and observer, the apparent frequency of sound heard
by the observer is different from the actual frequency of sound emitted by the source. 1 his phenomenon is called Doppler's
Effect.

LIGHT - Light is a form of energy, which is propagated as electromagnetic wave. It is the radiation which make our eyes
able to 'see the object. It is the form of energy. It is a transverse wave. It takes 8 min 19s to reach on the earth from the sun and
the light reflected from moon takes 1.28s to reach earth. Particles of lights are photons. Speed is 3×m/s. The wavelength of
visible light 400 nm-700 nm (VIBGYOR). It causes reflection, refraction, Absorption.
Reflection of Light -When a ray of light falls on a boundary separating two media comes back into the same media, then this
phenomenon is called reflection of light. Rules for reflection-i) angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection ii)
the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie on same plane.
Reflection from Plane Mirror -If an object moves towards a plane mirror with speed v, relative to the object the moves
towards it with a speed 2v. To see his full image in a plane mirror, a person required a mirror of at least half of his height.
Characters of images on plane mirror: (i) the distance between object and mirror=the distance between mirror and image ii)
the image is virtual and erect iii) the image is laterally inverted
Spherical Mirror -Spherical mirror are of two types -Concave mirror, Convex mirror. Image formed by a convex mirror is
always virtual, erect and diminished. Image formed by a concave mirror is generally real and inverted.
Uses of Concave Mirror -As a shaving mirror. As a reflector for the head lights of a vehicle, search light. In ophthalmoscope
to examine eye, ear, nose by doctors. Generally makes real and inverted image but when the object is within focus virtual,
erect and larger image is formed. In Solar cooker, Torch, Shaving glass, dentist it is used.
Uses of Convex Mirror - makes virtual, smaller and erect image. Concave mirror converges light rays where as a convex
mirror diverges the light rays.
As a rear view mirror in vehicle because it provides the maximum rear field of view and image formed is always erect. In
sodium reflector lamp.
Real image can be obtained on screen but virtual image cannot, real image inverted whereas virtual image is erect.
Refraction of Light -The bending of the ray of light passing from one medium to other medium is called refraction. When a
ray of light enters from one medium to other medium, its frequency and phase do not change, but wavelength and velocity
change. Due to refraction form Earth's atmosphere, the stars appear to twinkle.
Refraction: if a light travels from a rearer to denser medium it slows down and bends toward normal. In diamond speed of
light is slowest.
Sin<i/Sin<r=constant is known as Snells law. Twinkling of star is for it.
Critical Angle -The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90°, is
called the critical angle.
Total Internal Reflection Sparkling of diamond, mirage and looming, shinning of air bubble in water and optical Fiber are
examples of total internal reflection. Rainbow, optic fibre, Diamond etc. Optical fibres are glass or plastic fibre that carries
light &works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection
Lens: Its power is known as Diopter
Convex lens-produces real and inverted image except in case when object is placed within focus, the virtual erect and larger
image is formed. It is used in magnifying glass. Also used to increase the intensity of light. Water bubble act as convex lens.
Concave lens: virtual, erect, small image is formed. It diverges the rays. Air bubble acts as concave lens.
Prism : Prism is a uniform transparent refracting medium bounded by plane surfaces inclined at some angles forming a
triangular shape.
Dispersion of light: When a light is incident on a glass prism, it splits into its seven colour comonents in the following
sequence VIBGYOR, and this is known as dispersion of white light. The refractive index of glass is maximum for violet colour
and minimum for red colour of light, therefore violet colour of light deviated maximum and red colour of light deviated least.

OPTICS : Light entering the eye passes through the cornea and the pupil. Lens focuses light onto an array of photoreceptor
cells in the back of the eye, called the retina
Rod cells: they are responsible for black and white vision, night vision and peripheral vision. They are more in number
Cone cells: they are responsible for colour vision. They are less numerous in number
Defects in vision: Presbyopia: as people age, the lens becomes less flexible and near point recedes from the eye. As a result
objects far away cannot be see. Can be corrected using a converging lens. Hypermetropia: lens cannot decrease focal length
to focus on nearby objects and so nearby objects cannot be see. Corrected using a converging lens. Myopia: lens cannot
increase focal length to focus on far away objects and so farther objects cannot be seen. Corrected using a diverging lens.
Astigmatism: occurs when the cornea is not spherical but instead elongated. Results in distorted images. Corrected using a
cylindrical surface lens. Colour blindness: due to deficiency of cone cells in eye one of primary colours i.e. red, blue, green
are not sensed. Ishihara chart is used to test. Night blindness: due to absence of rod cells in eye. Lack of Vit A.
Blue colour of sky - Higher frequencies (blue light) get more scattered than lower frequencies. Mirage- Due to Refraction,
Red colour of sunrise and sunset- Scattering due to suspended particles (like dust) when sun's rays have to travel longer
distance

MAGNETISM: All materials are influenced to a greater or lesser extent by the presence of a magnetic field. Some are
attracted (paramagnetism) while some are repulsed (diamagnetism)
Substances that are negligibly attracted by magnetic fields are called non-magnetic materials. Eg: copper, aluminium, water,
glass
Magnetic Substance : On the basis of magnetic behavior, substances can be divided into three categories.
Diamagnetic substance: Diamagnetic substances are such substances which when placed in a magnetic field, acquire feeble
magnetism opposite to the direction of magnetic field. Examples : Bismuth, Zinc, Copper, Silver, Gold, Diamond, Water,
Mercury, Water etc.
Paramagnetic Substance : Paramagnetic substances are such substances which when placed in a magnetic field acquire a
feeble magnetism in the direction of the field. Examples : Aluminum, Platinum, Manganese, Sodium, Oxygen etc.
Ferromagnetic substance : Ferromagnetic substances are those substance, which when placed in a magnetic field, are strongly
magnetized in the direction of field. Examples : Iron, Cobalt, Nickel etc.
Electromagnet is a magnet whose magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current
The earth's magnetic field is explained by dynamo theory. The theory explains the mechanism by which celestial bodies
like the earth, or a star generate magnetic fields. According to the theory, earth's magnetic field is produced by electric currents
in the liquid outer core
The magnetic north pole of the Earth is located near the geographic south pole, and the magnetic south pole is located near the
geographic north pole. The earth's magnetic poles move with time due to magnetic changes in the earth's core. Currently, the
magnetic north pole lies near Ellesmore Island in northern Canada, while the south pole is near Wilkes Land, Antarctica
HEAT - Heat is a form of energy, which measures the sensation or perception of warmness or coldness of a body or
environment. Its unit are calorie, kilocalorie or joule. 1 calorie = 4.18 joule.
Units of heat: Joules (J), Calories, British Thermal Unit (BTU)
Conduction is the most significant heat transfer mechanism in solids. It occurs as hot high energy molecules interact with
neighbouring and transfer heat to them. Eg: heat transfer from one end of a metal rod to another
Convection is most significant in liquids and gases. This happens when hot molecules move and transfer energy to other
molecules. Eg: boiling of water. When water is heated on a stove, hot water from the bottom rises and displaces colder liquid
which falls.
Radiation is the only form of heat transfer possible in the absence of a medium. Heat is transferred in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. Eg: heat from the sun reaching the earth.
Temperature-Temperature is the measurement of hotness or coldness of a body. When two bodies are placed in contact, het
always flows from a body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature. An instrument used to measure the
temperature of a body is called a thermometer. The normal temperature of a human body is 370C or 98.40 F. - 400 is the
temperature at which Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers read same. The clinical thermometer reads from 960F to 1100
• White roof keeps the house cooler in summer than black roof because white roof reflects more and absorbs less heat
rays whereas black roof absorbs more and reflects less heat rays.
• Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quick because woolen blanket is a bad conductor of heat.
• Silver is the best conductor of heat.
• Cooking utensils are made of aluminum, brass and steel because these substances have low specific heat and high
conductivity.
Thermal Expansion-Thermal expansion is the increase in size on heating. A solid can undergo three types of expansions
(i) Linear expansion (ii) Superficial expansion (iii) Cubical expansion
• Telephone wires are kept loose to allow the wires for contraction in winter.
• A gap is provided between two iron tracks of the railway track, so that rails can easily expand during summer and
do not bend.
Specific Heat-The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through 10C, is called its
specific heat. When temperature of water is increased from 00C, then its volume decreases upto 40C, becomes minimum at
40C and then increases. This behaviour of water around 40C is called anomalous expansion of water.
Latent Heat-The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for change of state is called the latent
heat. Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g. Latent heat of vaporization of steam is 536 cal/g. Hot water burns are less severe
than that of steam burns because steam has high latent heat.
Evaporation-It is the slow process of a conversion of liquid into its vapour even below its boiling temperature. The amount
of water vapour in air is called humidity. Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer. Relative humidity increase with the
increase of temperature.
Transmission of Heat-Transfer of heat from one place to other place is called transmission of heat. In solids, transmission of
heat takes place by conduction process. In liquids and gases, transmission of heat takes place by convection process. In room,
ventilators are provided to escape the hot air by convection. Heat from the Sun reaches the Earth by radiation.
• Air is a poor conductor, Eskimos live in snow huts because snow is a poor conductor of heat
Solar cooker: The box has a glass cover to retain heat inside by greenhouse effect.
Pressure cooker: increases the boiling point of water by increasing pressure.
Refrigerator and Air-conditioner: are heat pumps that transfer heat from inside to the external environment. They use a
refrigerantwhich is a compound that undergoes reversible phase change from gas to liquid.

ELECTRICITY
Electricity deals with the motion of the electric charge. Electricity produced by the friction between two bodies is called static
electricity or frictional electricity e.g. generation of electric charge on rubbing the plastic comb with dry hair. One body get
positive charge and other body get negatively charged.
Charge -Charge is the basic property associated with matter due to which it produces and experiences electrical and magnetic
effects. Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other. The SI unit of charge is coulomb.
Conductor: Conductors are those materials, which allow electricity to pass through them. Metals like silver, iron, copper and
earth acts like a conductor. Silver is the best conductor.
Insulator: Insulators are those materials which do not allow electricity to flow through them. Metals like wood, paper, mica,
glass, ebonite are insulators.
An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken because there is a vacuum inside the electric bulb, when the bulb is broken
air rushes at great speed from all sides to fill the vacuum. The rushing of air produces a noise generally referred to as the bang.
Electricity is flow of electron. Electricity flows in opposite direction of flow of electron. Electric current: a movement or
flow of charged particles. Its unit is Ampere. It is a scalar quantity.
Current (I) ampere= Charge (Q) coulomb/Time (t) second
The potential difference is known as voltage. It is measured by voltmeter. V(voltage)= I (current) × R (resistanc) …. Ohm's
law.
Resistance (R)= qL/A. q-unit of resistivity, L-length, A-area of cross section.
Combination of resistance-
1) Series combination- R=R1+R2. Value of current same. Votage are different in all resistances.
2) Parallel combination: 1/R=1/R1+1/R2. Current is not same. Voltage remains constant. Domestic current is this type.
Fuse - made up of lead alloy. It melts when current increases.
Electromagnetism: interaction between electric and magnetic fields
Resistors are materials that resist the flow of current through them. The unit of resistance is Ohm
Capacitors are devices that store electric energy in the form of electric charge. The unit of capacitance is Farad
Inductors are conductors that store energy in a magnetic field, which is produced in response to an electrical current. The unit
of inductance is Henry
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit into another. Transformers can be used to step-up
or step-down voltages from high voltage transmission lines to appliances in homes
Electric shock-A voltage applied to the human body causes an electric current through the tissues

Coulomb Law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force of interaction between two charge points is directly proportional to
the scalar multiplication of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Kq 1q 2
Electrostatic Force (F) = r2 ]
[q1, q2 electric charges of two properties, r = distance between them]

Electric Field: The space in the surrounding of any charge in which its influence can be experienced by other charge is called
electric field.
• At any point it is defined as the electrostatic force acting per unit positive test charge at that point. Its unit is newton
/ coulomb. E=F/q
• Electric field intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance r from the point charge.
Electric Field Lines: Electric field line is an imaginary lines or curve drawn through a region of space so that its tangent at any
point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point. Two lines an never intersect, electric field always start from
positive end and always ends on negative charge and do not start or stop in the mid.
Electric potential- Electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the work done per unit charge in carrying at
least a test charge from infinity to that point. Its unit is joule/coulomb. Potential difference between two points in electric field
is equal to the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive test charge from one point to the other point. Potential difference
decides the flow of charge between two points in electric field.
• Positive charge always tends to move from higher potential towards lower potential. Inside closed metallic body
electric field inside it is zero.
Electric current: Electric current is the flow of charge in respect to time. Electric current=q/t. An electric current whose
direction does not change with time is called direct current (D.C). An electric current whose direction changes with time is
called alternating current (A.C). In solids current flow due to flow of electrons and in liquid current flow due to flow of ions
as well as electrons and in semiconductors due to flow of electrons and holes.
Resistance: The resistance offered by any material in the flow of current is called as electrical resistance.
Its S.I unit is ohm and [ML2T-3A-2] is its dimension.
• Conductance - or conductivity is the reciprocal of resistance and the resistivity of the material respectively. Its SI
unit is mho.
Resistivity-The resistivity of a material is equal to the electrical resistance of its wire of unit length and of unit area of cross
section. It unit is ohm-meter. Resistivity of a material depends on the temperature and nature of material. It is independent of
dimensions of the conductor, i.e. length, area of cross-section. Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature.
Resistivity is low for metals, more for semiconductors and very high for alloys.

Kirchoff's Law: Kirchoff current law: states that the net current on a junction in an electrical circuit will be zero. It is based
on conservation of charge.
Kirchoff's Voltage Law: states that the algebraic sum of all potential difference along a closed loop is Zero. It is based on
conservation of energy.
Electric Cell: An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Electric cell are of two types:
Primary cell: cannot be charged. Voltaic, Daniell and Leclanche cells are primary cells. Secondary Cell: can be charged again
& again. Acid and alkali accumulators are secondary cells.
Joule's Law of Heating- Joule heating describes the process where the energy of an electric current is converted into heat as
it flows through a wire due to the resistance of wire. Heat produced in the conductor due to electric current in time “t” is given
(I = electric current, R = resistance, V = Voltage)
H=VIT=I2RT=V2t/r
Electric bulb and heater works on the basis of heating effect produced by the current.
Chemical Effect of Electric current: When an electric current is passed through an acidic or basic solution, it decomposes
into its positive and negative ions. The positive ions collect at the negative electrode(Cathode) and the negative ion is collected
at the positive electrode(anode).This phenomenon is called electrolysis.

Faraday's Law of Electrolysis : First law: The total mass (M) deposited at an electrode in the process of electrolysis is
directly proportional to the total charge (q) passed through the electrolyte. M=Zq, where Z is electrochemical equivalent of
the substance deposited at electrode.
Second law: If same strength of electric current is allowed to passed through different electrolytes for the same time, then
mass deposited at the electrodes is directly proportional to their chemical equivalent. M1/M2 =E1/E2

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work : In physics work is defined if force applied on object displaces the object in direction of force. We define the work as
Product of the force and displacement in the direction of applied force or Product of displacement and force in the direction
of displacement. W = Force × displacement
Unit of Work : The SI unit of force is a newton and the unit of length is a metre (m). So the SI unit of work is newton meter
which is written as Nm. This unit (Nm) is also called joule (J), i.e. 1 joule = 1 newton . 1 metre. Abbreviated, this is 1 J = 1
Nm
When a force of 1 newton moves a body through a distance of 1 metre in its own direction the work done is 1 Joule.
Energy : Anything which has the capacity to do work is said to possess energy. This implies that work can be done only at
the expense (cost) of energy i.e., to do work, we need to spend energy, whatsoever be its form.
Unit of Energy : Same as that of work i.e., Joules (J)
Power : The time rate of doing work is defined as power (P). If equal works are done in different times, power will be
different. More quickly work is done, power will be more.
Unit of Power : Unit of power is watt. 1 watt hour = 3600 Joule. 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 joule, 1HP = 746 watt

SOME IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Accumulator : Electrical energy is stored Altimeter : Used in aircraft for measuring altitudes Ammeter : Measuring the
electrical current in amperes
Anemometer : Measuring the strength of winds, Audiometer : Measuring intensity of wind, Audiophone : for improving
imperfect sense of hearing.
Barometer : Measuring atmospheric pressure Cardiogram : recording the heart movements Calorimeter : quantities of
heat
Chronometer : clock accurate to determine longitude at sea. Colorimeter : comparing intensities of colour. Dynamo :
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy Electroscope : detecting the presence of electric charge. Galvanometer
: For detecting and measuring electric current
Phonograph : For reproducing sound Quartz Clock :clock used in precision work Radar : Radio, angle, detection and
range
Rain Gauge: measuring rainfall Rectifier : conversion of AC into DC. Salinometer: measuring their densities salt
(Seismograph) : measuring and recording earthquake shock Sextant : For guiding ships or surveying land. Speedometer
: the speed at which the vehicle is moving Spherometer: measuring curvature of surfaces Sphygmomanometer : to detect
blood pressure
Spring Balance : for measuring weight Stroboscope: view rapidly moving objects. Tachometer : measuring speeds of aero
planes and motor boats.
Telescope : It views distant objects in space. Theodolite : measures horizontal and vertical angles. Vernier: measuring small
sub divisions of scale Viscometer : For measuring viscosity Voltmeter : measure potential difference between

Energy Transformed
Dynamo -Mechanical to electrical Candle- Chemical to light and heat Microphone- Sound into electrical Loud Speaker-
Electrical into sound
Solar cell -Solar to electrical Tube light -Electrical into light Electric Bulb -Electrical into light and heat Battery -Chemical
to electrical Electric motor- Electrical to mechanical to sound