International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 75 (2012) 83e88

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ibiod

Fungal biodeterioration of historical library materials stored in Compactus

movable shelves
Matteo Montanari a, *, Valeria Melloni a, Flavia Pinzari b, Gloria Innocenti a
a
Department of Agricoltural Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università degli Studi di Bologna, viale Fanin 46, 40127 Bologna, Italy
b
Istituto Centrale per il Restauro e la Conservazione del Patrimonio Archivistico e Librario, Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, via Milano 76, 00184 Roma, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mold deterioration of historical library materials in archives and libraries is a frequent and complex
Received 5 January 2012 phenomenon that may have important economic and cultural consequences. Compactus shelving is one
Received in revised form of the systems utilised for the conservation of library materials, because it allows for a more efficient use
7 March 2012
of space and protection against dust deposition. However, in the last ten years there have been many
Accepted 8 March 2012
Available online
reports on single species mould infections within Compactus shelves in spite of conventional control of
environmental temperature and humidity to recommended standards. Contamination was commonly
characterized by white spots of mycelium, measuring 0.5e1.0 cm in diameter and observed on volume
Keywords:
Eurotium halophilicum
binding, especially those of leather, parchment or textile. Until now, the identification of the causal agent
Aspergillus halophilicus at species level has not been reported since attempts to grow it on media for subsequent identification
Book deterioration were unsuccessful. Using a range of sampling techniques, including adhesive tape and nitrocellulose
Cultural heritage membrane, and a combination of conventional culturing methods, direct microscopic observations and
Mold contamination molecular methods, we have for the first time identified to species level the fungus causing infections
Xerophilic fungus inside Compactus shelves.
Compactus shelving Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction humidity exchange between the micro-environment within the

Storage of books and documents inside structures intended for
their preservation has created new manmade environments for
microbial species such as fungi and bacteria to inhabit (Kowalik,
1980; Zyska, 1997; Nittérus, 2000). High-density storage systems
referred to as “movable shelving” or “Compactus type shelving” are
employed by many libraries, archives and conservation institutions
suffering from limited space. These systems minimize the amount
of space required for storage by compacting blocks of shelves (or
cabinets of drawers) tightly together. These blocks slide along
tracks and can be moved apart (opened) for the retrieval of items
positioned on a particular block and then moved back together
(closed). Compactus shelves can also protect against dust deposi-
tion (Gallo and Regni, 1998) and fire. These characteristics are
advantageous for the preservation and storage of materials but can
also be problematical when used in conservation environments
lacking efficient climate control systems. Resistance to heat and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 (0) 512096581; fax: þ39 (0) 512096565.
E-mail addresses: montanari.matteo@gmail.com (M. Montanari), flavia.pinzari@
beniculturali.it (F. Pinzari).
Compactus units and the outer environment, can present risk to
stored objects, especially when these objects are composed of
hygroscopic materials. International Federation of Library Associ-
ations (IFLA) recommends 18e20
C air temperature and 50e60%
relative humidity (RH) for effective preservation of documents
like books and periodicals in archives and libraries. In practice, it is
difficult to maintain a stable temperature and relative humidity
level, even with the benefit of air conditioning.
In the last decade, several investigations in libraries and archives
especially within Compactus shelving blocks have reported mold
contamination and growth on volume bindings made of leather,
parchment or cotton fibres. Surprisingly these reports consistently
observed white and irregular spots of fungal spread mainly on the
exposed part of the volumes stored mainly in the lower shelves of
the blocks. Optical and scanning electron microscopy examination
of samples collected with transparent adhesive tapes revealed
the presence of conidiophores typical of the genus Aspergillus.
However, due to cultivation challenges and peculiarities of
morphology, identification to species level was not accomplished
(Pinzari and Montanari, 2011). In this study, specific identification
of this common, putative Aspergillus isolate contaminating books
stored inside Compactus shelves is reported.

0964-8305/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2012.03.011
84 M. Montanari et al. / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 75 (2012) 83e88
2. Material and methods
2.1. Case study
Our investigation was accomplished in a deposit of an historical
library in Rome, containing books and papers stored in Compactus
type shelves and contaminated by molds. Mold contamination was
spread all over the depository, mainly in the lower shelves of the
Compactus blocks, in a large number of volume binding made by
fabric or leather, especially on the exposed part of the book such as
spine, upper edge and fore edge. Infestation pattern on the books
was similar to those detected during previous surveys in other
archives and libraries in Italy, consisting of irregular white, mycelial
spots of variable diameter (Fig. 1). Observations of these spots at
low magnification with a digital microscope (DinoLite pro,
AM413TFVW-A, Italy) demonstrated many conidiophores scattered
on the mycelium.
2.2. Sampling
Sampling of fungal elements was performed on contiguous
fungal spots of eight contaminated volumes using the following
methods: (i) sterile cotton swabs (Cultiplast e LP Italiana SPA, Italy)
were wiped across fungal spots then transferred to the laboratory
in sterile tubes and used for fungal culturing and identification; (ii)
pieces (6  2 cm) of a removable transparent adhesive tape
specifically intended for microbiological sampling (Fungi Tape;
Scientific Device Lab., Glenview, Illinois, USA; 1 mm thick, n. 745),
were gently pressed over spots, to collect mycelium, fruiting
structures and spores. Tapes were aseptically mounted over sterile
glass slides and transferred to the laboratory. Each tape was then
bisected, one half was used for optical and electron microscope
examination, and the other half for direct DNA extraction; (iii)
sterile membranes of nitrocellulose (0.45 mm pore-size, Millipore;
47 mm in diameter) where gently pressed for 10 s over mycelial
spots, then immediately transferred to the surface of 6 cm Petri
dishes containing dichloran 18% glycerol (DG18) agar (Samson
et al., 2002).
All samples were transferred to the laboratory the same day of
collection and immediately processed.
2.3. Agar cultures
Each swab of fungal growth was immersed in a sterile glass vial
containing 5 ml of Ringer’s solution, and homogenized in
Fig. 1. Fungal elements on volume binding.
a sonication bath at 40  2 kHz frequency for 5 min (Trampuz et al.,
2007). Aliquots (100 ml) of homogenate were spread on each 9 cm
Petri dishes (4 plates per sample) containing separately Malt
Extract Agar 2% (MEA 2%), Czapek Yeast Agar with 20% sucrose
(CY20S) (Pitt and Hocking, 1985) and DG18 agar. Plates were
incubated for 7e14 days at 20
C in the dark and growth transferred
on DG18 agar for isolation in pure culture.
Nitrocellulose membrane on DG18 plates were incubated at
20
C in the dark. After fungal colony appearance, membranes were
removed and portions of mycelium were picked up for isolation in
pure culture on DG18 agar plates.
Fungal isolates were identified to genus level using biometric
and microscopic features (Ellis, 1971, 1976; Von Arx, 1981; Domsh
and Gams, 1993). Dominant fungal isolates were identified to
species level by DNA analysis.
2.4. Optical and scanning electron microscopic observations
Two fragments (1.5  2 cm) were bisected from half of each
fungi tape bearing captured fungal elements. The first fragment
was further divided in two parts (1  1.5 cm): one part was
transferred on a glass slide with a drop of cotton blue stain, the
other part on a glass slide with a drop of fluorescein diacetate (FDA)
solution (20 mg of FDA in 1 ml of phosphate buffer pH 7.3). Cotton
blue staining was used for observations of morphological fungal
structures at white light microscope. FDA staining was used for
observations of active structures using an inverted epifluorescent
microscope (Nikon eclipse T2000) equipped with a FITC filter (blue
excitation wave length: 495 nm). Active structures (positive stain-
ing) were assessed by the presence of a greenish fluorescence
emanating from the cytoplasm of spores and hyphae, due to the
liberation of fluorescein by enzymatic (hydrolytic) cleavage.
Samples stained with FDA were observed after 20 min of incubation
in the dark at 20
C. All slides were examined at 400 and 600x
magnification. Micrographs were acquired using a digital camera
connected to a PC equipped with NIS Elements software (Nikon).
The second fragment was observed using an EVO 50 Scanning
Electron Microscope produced by the Carl-Zeiss Electron Micros-
copy Group (Oxford, UK). Tape fragments measuring 5e10 mm in
diameter were cut and mounted on to a 12 mm metal stub using
double-sided carbon adhesive tape. Parts of agar cultures were also
observed by SEM imaging. Samples were examined using a 20 kV
electron beam, both at variable pressure (VPSE) and after metalli-
zation with high vacuum mode with gold (Goldstein et al., 2003).
Fungal samples supported on adhesive tape were directly metal-
ized without previousfixation. Elements were observed to be dry at
the time of the sampling, and fixation would have added artefacts.
For observation with the scanning electron microscope (SEM),
ascomata at various developmental stages on agar media were
excised, placed in phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), and fixed in glutaral-
dehyde buffer for 2 h, rinsed in distilled water and post-fixed in 2%
OsO4 for 12 h at 5
C, dehydrated in an ethanol series, taken to amyl
acetate, and critical point dried in a Polaron E-3000 dryer (Quorum
Technologies, Ringmer, UK) using carbon dioxide. Dried samples
were coated at 40 mA to obtain a 15 nm-thick layer of gold (Baltec
Sputter Coater) and examined using the SEM EVO 50 (Carl Zeiss,
Cambridge, UK).
2.5. Molecular analysis
2.5.1. DNA analysis of isolated fungal cultures
DNA was extracted from mycelium of fungal isolates using the
NucleoSpinÒ Plant II (MACHEREY-NAGEL, Düren, Germany) for
fungi, following the manufacturer instructions. ITS region of ribo-
somal DNA was amplified by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
 M. Montanari et al. / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 75 (2012) 83e88
Fig. 2. White fungal colonies growing on DG18 agar plate (6 cm diameter) after
sampling with sterile nitrocellulose membrane.
using for each reaction 25 ml of PCR master mix (Promega, Man-
nheim, Germany), 50 pmole of both ITS1f and ITS4 as fungal
primers (White et al., 1990; Gardes and Bruns, 1993), 1 ml of Bovine
Serum Albumin (BSA 20 mg/ml, Fermentas), 4 ml of DNA template
and water nuclease-free to a final volume of 50 ml. The thermocy-
cling program was as follows: 3 min denaturation at 94
C, followed
by 35 cycles of 30 s denaturation at 94
C, 30 s annealing at 55
C,
and 1 min extension at 72
C. Ten minutes at 72
C were used as
a final extension step. Sequencing of amplified ITS regions was
performed at Macrogen Inc. (Korea). Taxonomic identifications
were performed comparing retrieved sequences with those avail-
able in the online databases provided by the National Centre for
Biotechnology Information (NCBI) using the BLAST search program
(Altschul et al., 1997).
2.5.2. Total DNA extraction from adhesive tapes
Environmental DNA was extracted directly from three fungal
tape fragments (2  3 cm) following the protocol described by
Schabereiter-Gurtner et al. (2001), modified by using a different kit
for the DNA cleaning step. This analysis was performed to compare
sequences obtained using a culture-based method with those
Fig. 3. Pure cultures growing in DG18 agar plate (6 cm Ø): front (left) and reverse (right).
85
obtained using a culture-independent method. DNA extraction
combines enzymatic (lysozyme and proteinase K) and mechanical
steps (freeze and thaw cycles) in the presence of cetyl-
trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) with the final step with
chloroform e isoamyl alcohol (24:1). DNA in the supernatant is
cleaned with the NucleoSpinÒ Plant II kit for soil, starting from step
3 of the manufacturer’s protocol. The final elution step was
repeated two times with 25 ml of 70
C preheated PE Buffer. Cleaned
DNA extract was used for PCR amplification analysis for fungi, using
the same protocol used for DNA from fungal culture.
2.5.3. Creation of clone libraries and sequence analysis
PCR amplification from environmental DNA may produce
a mixture of different amplicons, which should be separate to
accomplish a detailed phylogenetic analysis on members of the
fungal community. To separate single ITS amplified fragments,
a clone library containing the ITS fungal regions was realized. For
each DNA crude extract, PCR product was purified using Nucle-
oSpinÒ Extract II kit Protocol (MACHEREY-NAGEL, Düren,
Germany). Purified PCR products (3 ml) were cloned using pGEM-T
Easy Vector System I Kit (Promega), following the manufacturer
protocol. a total of twenty white colonies positive for the
recombinant plasmids were randomly selected from the three
samples (DNA crude extracts) and then subjected to a denaturation
step (6 min at 97
C) and PCR amplification using the same primers
(ITS1f and ITS4) and protocol used above. Electrophoresis of PCR
products was conducted in agarose (1.5%) gels. Products giving
positive bands were subjected to sequencing at Macrogen Inc.
Comparative sequences analysis was performed as described
above.
3. Results
3.1. Cultivation
Sampling procedure using sterile swabs produced on agar
media only few colonies typical of Cladosporium and Penicillium
spp. Direct plating nitrocellulose membrane on DG18 plates,
produced after 6e7 days, slow-growing white colonies, slightly
depressed in the middle (Fig. 2). All colonies were of similar
morphological and biometric features. After re-isolation on DG18
agar, white colonies were observed to grow at a rate of 4e7 mm per
week (Fig. 3). As agar medium get drier (about 2e3 weeks after
inoculation), colonies developed cleistothecia that were globose,
86 M. Montanari et al. / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 75 (2012) 83e88

white to cream in colour, 150e200 mm in diameter (Fig. 4). The

conidial state was not observed in these cultures.

3.2. Optical and SEM microscopic observations

Optical microscopic observations of adhesive tape samples

revealed the presence of fungal structures, conidiophores and
conidia, typical of Aspergillus spp. (Fig. 5). Observations of fungal
elements trapped on the adhesive tape showed only conidial states.
Fungal structures stained with FDA, observed with an epifluor-
escent microscope using blue filter, fluoresced green revealing an
enzymatic activity (Fig. 6).
All samples collected directly from books using the adhesive-
tape technique examined under Scanning Electron Microscopy,
showed fungal elements typical of Aspergillus species, specifically
large conidia single or in chain, slightly ovate, echinulate with
prominent scars, and conidiophores with narrow vesicles finely
covered with a layer of hairy structures (Fig. 7).
Fungal growth from agar cultures on DG18 plates, observed
under SEM, included many ascomata with asci and mature asco-
spores. Hypertrophic hyphae, slightly covered with bare and short Fig. 5. Optical micrograph on adhesive tape: conidiophore and conidia stained with
cotton blue (bar ¼ 10 mm).
hairs (Fig. 8), were also observed in most of the cultures. Ascomata
appeared spherical to subspherical, mostly 100e150 mm in diam-
eter, asci measured 10e15 mm in diam. and are spherical or nearly E. halophilicum (An. A. halophilicus) (GenBank ID: [EF652088]), at
so. Ascospores by SEM appeared lenticular, with rough surface and 97% of similarity. Ten sequences were deposited at the NCBI
sharp furrow bordered by ridges, mostly 5  7 mm. The ascomata database (Table 1).
appeared characterised by a smooth surface with semi-globose
prominent structures, which make the whole structure resem-
4. Discussion
bling a “morula” (Fig. 9).

Fungi damaging materials in indoor environments are chiefly

3.3. Molecular analysis
primary colonizers capable of rapid growth even when water
activity is low (i.e. Aw <0.8). When a substrate is attacked by
ITS sequences derived from three randomly-selected colonies
a fungus, its water activity changes sufficiently to support the
developed on DG18 agar after sampling with nitrocellulose
growth of other species (fungi and bacteria), such as in natural
membrane were identical and were best match by BLAST with
successions (Samson et al., 1994). Secondary colonisers are species
Eurotium halophilicum (An. Aspergillus halophilicus) (GenBank ID:
that have a higher resistance to water stress. These species develop
[EF652088]), at 100% of similarity. One of them (isolate MM373)
thanks to unstable microenvironments characterised by small
was deposited at the NCBI database (Table 1).
changes in air temperature or humidity due to night/day alterna-
From the twenty selected clones of the clone library derived
tion. Poor ventilation and surface temperature dynamics can
from environmental DNA we obtained twenty bands on agarose
produce foci of water condensation and local micro-climates with
gel with the same molecular weight. Sequencing of all the
localized peaks of Aw greater than the surrounding indoor
amplicons were high similar. Compared with those available in
the database, they also revealed best match BLAST with the same

Fig. 6. Optical micrograph on adhesive tape: active conidiophore and conidia stained
Fig. 4. Cleistothecia observed in DG18 agar plate (bar ¼ 200 mm). with FDA (bar ¼ 20 mm).
 M. Montanari et al. / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 75 (2012) 83e88
Fig. 7. SEM micrograph of fungal elements recovered on adhesive tape: conidia and hyphae (bar ¼ 2 mm ); B: conidial head, conidia and hyphae (bar ¼ 10 mm).
Fig. 8. SEM micrograph of mycelium growing in pure culture on agar medium,
showing a portion of an hypertrophic hypha with bare and short hairs (bar ¼ 1 mm).
environment. These circumstances are favourable to some fungal
species that are able to proliferate in places where the overall
environmental conditions would otherwise appear to be hostile
(Pinzari, 2011). Findings reported here, are consistent with single
species E. halophilicum contamination of materials stored in Com-
pactus shelves. Identification of this fungus was achieved by
a combination of conventional, molecular methods and SEM
observations. Isolation of this fungus was achieved only by direct
plating on DG18 agar of fungal elements collected directly from
Fig. 9. SEM micrographs fungal growth from pure culture on agar medium. A: ascomata (bar ¼ 100 mm); B: ascospores (bar ¼ 10 mm).
87
volume surfaces. The sterile nitrocellulose membrane technique
has shown to be very effective for collection of fungal elements for
direct plating. All sequences obtained from pure cultures were
highly similar to sequences obtained from total DNA extracted
directly from the adhesive tape samples (environmental samples),
and all these sequences had the best BLAST matches (97e100%
similarity) with the unique rDNA sequence attributed to
E. halophilicum as published on GenBank Data Base (Peterson,
2008).
It is important to emphasize that, in the present study, the
fungus showed a different life cycle and morphological aspect
in vivo and in vitro. On volume bindings the fungus was observed
only its anamorphic stage as conidiophores and conidia. When
observed at SEM, conidiophore stipes and vesicles were densely
coated by curly micro-filaments similar to hairs all over their
surface. On agar media, the fungus presented in its teleomorph
producing many ascomata and ascospores, SEM observations
showed the presence of bare and short hairs on hypertrophic
hyphae. These features of anamorphic and teleomorphic structures
are consistent with those described by Christensen et al. in the
original description of E. halophilicum (1959) and by Samson and
Lustgraaf (1978). However, the dense layer of hairy and curly
structures observed on the wall of conidiophores and hyphae were
never reported before. Hairs might be an adaptation of the fungus
to increase its ability to capture water from the surrounding air in
a dry environment. E. halophilicum is a xerophilic fungus with
a high tolerance to water stress. The minimum observed water
activity (Aw) for germination and growth is 0.675, one of the lowest
for Eurotium species (Christensen et al., 1959). The occurrence of
this fungus is associated with air-dust (Abdel-Hafez et al., 1990) or
house-dust in association with mites and Aspergillus penicillioides
88 M. Montanari et al. / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 75 (2012) 83e88
Table 1
Nucleotide sequence accession numbers at NCBI database.
Code Accession number
Isolate MM373 [JN839940]
Clone 1m1 [JN839949]
Clone 2m1 [JN839950]
Clone 7m1 [JN839951]
Clone 8m1 [JN839952]
Clone 9m1 [JN839953]
Clone 12m1 [JN839954]
Clone 13m1 [JN839955]
Clone 14m1 [JN839956]
Clone 17m1 [JN839957]
Clone 22m1 [JN839958]
and storage of dry food (Hocking and Pitt, 1988). Sequences of E.
halophilicum have been associated with library material only by
Michaelsen et al. (2010) by DGGE-fingerprinting, without any
information about its viability and role on the substrate deterio-
ration. Therefore this is, in our knowledge, the first report where
E. halophilicum is isolated and cultivated from book bindings and
where its role in the contamination of library materials is demon-
strated by a combination of visual, culture and culture-independent
methods. Similar contamination patterns and microscopic features
observed in several samples collected with the adhesive tape
technique during previous surveys performed in other archives and
libraries where Compactus type shelving is used (Montanari et al.,
2007; Pinzari and Montanari, 2011) suggest that E. halophilicum
might have a large distribution in this particular environment, at
least in Italy. Detection failure in previous surveys may have been
due to inadequate sampling procedure and unsuitable agar media.
As suggested by Christensen et al. (1959) and Samson and Lustgraaf
(1978), the occurrence of this fungus in indoor environments may
be underestimated due to inadequacy of classical methods and its
very slow growth on typical media.
In conclusion the high tolerance to water stress combined with
the high affinity to library materials showed by this fungus repre-
sent a serious threat for librarians and conservators. Conventional
control of temperature and relative humidity in conformity with
recommended standards may be insufficient to prevent material
colonization, especially if enclosed systems with low ventilation
rate, such as Compactus type shelves, are adopted.
The operations suggested to conservators and librarians to avoid
the diffusion of this fungus are: i) the HVAC (heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning), if available in the library, must be checked for
efficacy, and ventilation grilles cleaned and checked to verify their
correct function, ii) HVAC filters should be changed frequently; iii)
to facilitate ventilation, side panels of the Compactus units should
be removed or a program of daily stack moving should be
established.
Frequent visual inspection of materials stored within Compac-
tus shelving units is highly recommended, notwithstanding the
presence of a well-functioning HVAC and maintenance of optimal
standard climatic values. Micro-environmental anomalies and
localised deterioration phenomena, if promptly detected can be
easily contained and resolved, while invasive reclamation/rehabil-
itation of materials should, as far as possible, be avoided and
implemented only as a last resort.
Further studies have now been established in Italian libraries
and in our laboratories for E. halophilicum ecology, metabolic
requirements, and damage actually provoked on books.
References
Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., Moubasher, A.H., Barakat, A., 1990. Keratinophilic fungi and other
moulds associated with air-dust particles from Egypt. Folia Microbiologica 35,
311e325.
Altschul, S.F., Madden, T.L., Schaffer, A.A., Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., Miller, W., Lipman, D.J.,
1997. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database
search programs. Nucleic Acids Research 25, 3389e3402.
Christensen, C.M., Papavizas, G.C., Benjamin, C.R., 1959. A new halophilic species of
Eurotium. Mycologia 51, 636e640.
Domsh, K.H., Gams, W., 1993. Compendium of Soil Fungi, vol I. IHW-Verlag, Eichin.
Ellis, M.B., 1971. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Commonwealth Mycological Insti-
tute, Kew.
Ellis, M.B., 1976. More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Commonwealth Mycological
Institute, Kew.
Gallo, F., Regni, M., 1998. Conditions microclimatiques dans les bibliothèques ita-
liennes. La climatologie dans les archives et les bibliothèques. Actes des Troi-
sièmes Journées sur la Conservation Préventive. Arles. 2e3 décembre 1998.
Centre de Conservation du Livre, pp. 69e83.
Gardes, M., Bruns, T.D., 1993. ITS primers with enhanced specificity for basidio-
mycetes application to the identification of mycorrhizae and rusts. Molecular
Ecology 2, 113e118.
Goldstein, J., Newbury, D., Joy, D., Lyman, C., Echlin, P., Lifshin, E., Sawyer, L.,
Michael, J., 2003. Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis.
Springer Science þ Business Media Inc, USA.
Hocking, A.D., Pitt, J.I., 1988. Two new species of xerophilic fungi and a further
record of Eurotium halophilicum. Mycologia 80, 82e88.
Kowalik, R., 1980. Microbiodeterioration of library materials. Restaurator 4, 99e114.
Michaelsen, A., Piñar, G., Pinzari, F., 2010. Molecular and microscopical investigation
of the microflora inhabiting a deteriorated Italian manuscript dated from the
13th-century. Microbial Ecology 60, 69e80.
Montanari, M., Pinzari, F., Ricci, M., 2007. Moulds on book stored on compactus
shelves: a case study. In: Padfield, T., Borchersen, K. (Eds.), Proceedings of the
Conference Copenhagen Museum Microclimates. The National Museum of
Denmark, Copenhagen, pp. 14e17.
Nittérus, M., 2000. Fungi in archives and libraries, a literary survey. Restaurator 21,
25e40.
Peterson, S.W., 2008. Phylogenetic analysis of Aspergillus species using DNA
sequences from four loci. Mycologia 100, 205e226.
Pinzari, F., 2011. Microbial ecology of indoor environments: the ecological and
applied aspects of microbial contamination in archives, libraries and conser-
vation environments. In: Sabah, A., Abdul-Wahab, Al-Sulaiman (Eds.), Sick
Building Syndrome: Public Buildings and Workplaces. Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg, pp. 153e178.
Pinzari, F., Montanari, M., 2011. Mould growth on library materials stored in
compactus-type shelving units. In: Sabah, A., Abdul-Wahab, Al-Sulaiman (Eds.),
Sick Building Syndrome: Public Buildings and Workplaces. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 193e206.
Pitt, J.I., Hocking, A.D., 1985. Fungi and Food Spoilage. Academic Press, Sydney.
Samson, R.A., Flannigan, B., Flannigan, M.E., Verhoeff, A.P., Adan, O.C.G.,
Hoekstra, E.S., 1994. Health Implications of Fungi in Indoor Environments. In:
Air Quality Monographs, vol. 2. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 535e556.
Samson, R.A., Hoekstra, E.S., Frisvad, J.C., Filtenborg, O., 2002. Introduction to Food-
and Airborne Fungi. Centraalbureau Voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht.
Samson, R.A., Lustgraaf, B.V.D., 1978. Aspergillus penicilloides and Eurotium hal-
ophilicum association with house-dust mites. Mycopathologia 64, 13e16.
Schabereiter-Gurtner, C., Piñar, G., Lubitz, W., Rölleke, S., 2001. An advanced
molecular strategy to identify bacterial communities on art objects. Journal of
Microbiological Methods 45, 77e87.
Trampuz, A., Piper, K.E., Jacobson, M.J., Hanssen, A.D., Unni, K.K., Osmon, D.R.,
Mandrekar, J.N., Cockerill, F.R., Steckelberg, J.M., Greenleaf, J.F., Patel, R., 2007.
Sonication of removed hip and knee prostheses for diagnosis of infection. The
New England Journal of Medicine 357, 654e663.
Von Arx, J.A., 1981. The Genus of Fungi Sporulating in Pure Culture. Cramer, Vaduz.
White, T.J., Bruns, T., Lee, S., Taylor, J., 1990. Amplification and direct sequencing of
fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In: Innis, M.A., Gelfand, D.H.,
Shinsky, J.J., White, T.J. (Eds.), PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Appli-
cation. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 315e322.
Zyska, B., 1997. Fungi isolated from library materials: a review of the literature.
International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 40, 43e51.