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Courage
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Main page "Bravery" redirects here. For other uses, see Bravery (disambiguation).
Contents For other uses, see Courage (disambiguation).
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Courage (also called bravery or valour) is the choice and willingness to
Random article confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Physical courage is
Donate to Wikipedia bravery in the face of physical pain, hardship, death or threat of death, while
Wikipedia store moral courage is the ability to act rightly in the face of popular opposition,
shame, scandal, discouragement, or personal loss.
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Help The classical virtue of fortitude (andreia, fortitudo) is also translated "courage",
About Wikipedia but includes the aspects of perseverance and patience.[1]
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In the Western tradition, notable thoughts on courage have come from
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philosophers, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kierkegaard.
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Much earlier, in the Hindu tradition, mythology has given many examples of
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bravery, valour and courage. Ramayana and Mahabharatha have in them many
What links here examples of both physical and moral courage.
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Upload file In the Eastern tradition, some thoughts on courage were offered by the Tao Te
Special pages Ching. More recently, courage has been explored by the discipline of psychology.
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Page information Contents [hide]
Wikidata item 1 Characteristics of Courage
Cite this page 1.1 Fear & Confidence in Relation to Courage
1.2 Possible Distortions of Courage
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2 Theories
Create a book God Speed by Edmund Leighton
2.1 Ancient Greece
Download as PDF
2.2 Ancient Rome
Printable version
2.3 Medieval philosophy Part of a series on
In other projects 2.4 Western traditions Emotions
Wikimedia Commons 2.5 Eastern traditions
Wikiquote 2.6 Recent past
2.6.1 Pre-19th century
Languages 2.6.2 19th century onward
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ‬ 2.7 Implicit Theories of Courage
Deutsch 3 Society and symbolism
Español 4 Awards
Français
5 See also
Galego
6 Notes Acceptance · Affection · Anger · Angst ·
िह दी
7 References Anguish · Annoyance · Anticipation · Anxiety ·
Português
8 External links Apathy · Arousal · Awe · Boredom · Confidence
Русский
· Contempt · Contentment · Courage ·
中文 Curiosity · Depression · Desire · Despair ·
44 more Disappointment · Disgust · Distrust · Ecstasy ·
Edit links
Characteristics of Courage [ edit ] Embarrassment · Empathy · Enthusiasm ·
Envy · Euphoria · Fear · Frustration · Gratitude
Daniel Putman, a professor at the University of Wisconsin - Fox Valley, wrote an article titled · Grief · Guilt · Happiness · Hatred · Hope ·
"The Emotions of Courage". Using a text from Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics as the basis Horror · Hostility · Humiliation · Interest ·
for his article, he discusses the relationship between fear and confidence in the emotion of Jealousy · Joy · Loneliness · Love · Lust ·
Outrage · Panic · Passion · Pity · Pleasure ·
courage. [2]
Pride · Rage · Regret · Social connection ·
Rejection · Remorse · Resentment · Sadness
"First, in feelings of fear and confidence the mean is bravery (andreia).The · Saudade · Schadenfreude · Self-confidence ·
excessively fearless person is nameless...while the one who is excessively Shame · Shock · Shyness · Sorrow · Suffering
· Surprise · Trust · Wonder · Worry
confident is rash; the one who is excessively afraid and deficient in confidence
V ·T ·E
is cowardly."
— Aristotle[3]

He states that "courage involves deliberate choice in the face of painful or fearful circumstances for the sake of a worthy goal".[4] With
this realization, Putman concludes that "there is a close connection between fear and confidence". [5]

Fear & Confidence in Relation to Courage [ edit ]

Fear and confidence in relation to courage can determine the success of a courageous act or goal.[6]They can be seen as the
independent variables in courage, and their relationship can affect how we respond to fear. [7] In addition, the confidence that is being
discussed here is self-confidence; Confidence in knowing one's skills and abilities and being able determine when to fight a fear or when
to flight it. [8] Putman states that:

"The ideal in courage is not just a rigid control of fear, nor is it a denial of the emotion. The ideal is to judge a situation,
 accept the emotion as part of human nature and, we hope, use well-developed habits to confront the fear and allow reason
to guide our behavior toward a worthwhile goal."

[8]

When trying to understand how fear and confidence play into courage, we need to look back at Aristotle's quote. According to Putman,
Aristotle is referring to an appropriate level of fear and confidence in courage.[8] "Fear, although it might vary from person to person, is
not completely relative and is only appropriate if it "matches the danger of the situation"."[8]The same goes for confidence in that there
are two aspects to self-confidence in a dangerous situation.

"a realistic confidence in the worth of a cause that motivates positive action."[8]

"knowing our own skills and abilities. A second meaning of appropriate confidence then is a form of self-knowledge."[8]

Without an appropriate balance between fear and confidence when facing a threat, one cannot have the courage to overcome it. Putman
states "if the two emotions are distinct, then excesses or deficiencies in either fear or confidence can distort courage."[9]

Possible Distortions of Courage [ edit ]

As noted above, an "excess or deficiency of either fear or confidence, can distort courage".[9] According to Putman, there are four
possibilities:

1. "Higher level of fear than a situation calls for, low level of confidence" [9]. Someone like this would be perceived as coward;[9]
2. "Excessively low level of fear when real fear is appropriate, excessively high level of confidence." [9]. Someone like this would be
perceived as rash;[9]
3. "Excessively high level of fear, yet the confidence is also excessively high." [9]. The third possibility can occur if someone
experienced a traumatic experience that brought about great anxiety for much of their life.[9]Then the fear that they experience
would often be inappropriate and excessive. [9] Yet as a defensive mechanism, the person would show excessive levels of
confidence as a way to confront their irrational fear and ""prove" something to oneself or other".[9] So this distortions could be
seen as a coping method for their fear.
4. "Excessively low level of fear and low level of confidence." [9]. For the last possibility, it can be seen as hopelessness. Putman says
this is similar to "a person on a sinking ship". [9] "This example is of a person who has low confidence and possibly low self-regard
who suddenly loses all fear".[9] The distortion of low fear and low confidence can occur in a situation where an individual accepts
what is going to happen to them. In regards to this example, they lose all fear because they know death is unavoidable and the
reason it is unavoidable is because they do not have the ability to handle or overcome the situation.

Thus, Daniel Putman identifies fear and courage as being deeply intertwined and that they rely on distinct perceptions:

"the danger of the situation[9]

"the worthiness of the cause [9]

"and the perception of one's ability." [9]

Theories [ edit ]

Ancient Greece [ edit ]

The early Greek philosopher Plato (c. 428–348 BCE)[10] set the groundwork for how courage would be viewed to future philosophers.
Plato's early writings found in Laches show a discussion on courage, but they fail to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage
is.[11]

During the debate between three leaders, including Socrates, many definitions of courage are mentioned.[12]

"…a man willing to remain at his post and to defend himself against the enemy without running away…"[12]

"…a sort of endurance of the soul…"[12] "…knowledge of the grounds of fear and hope..." [13]

While many definitions are given in Plato's Laches, all are refuted, giving the reader a sense of Plato's argument style. Laches is an early
writing of Plato's, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. In this early writing, Plato is still developing his ideas
and shows influence from his teachers like Socrates.[12]

In one of his later writings, The Republic, Plato gives more concrete ideas of what he believes courage to be. Civic courage is described
as a sort of perseverance – "preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things and sorts
of things are to be feared".[14] Ideas of courage being perseverance also are seen in Laches. Plato further explains this perseverance as
being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, and fear.[15]

As a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics,[16] where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its
vice of excess is recklessness.[17]

Ancient Rome [ edit ]

In the Roman Empire, courage formed part of the universal virtue of virtus.[18] Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero (106–43 BCE)
lists the cardinal virtues does not name them such:

Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind (animi) in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom
 (prudentiam), justice, courage, temperance.[19][20]

Medieval philosophy [ edit ]

In medieval virtue ethics, championed by Averroes and Thomas Aquinas and still important to Roman Catholicism, courage is referred to
as "Fortitude".[21][22]

According to Thomas Aquinas:[23]

Among the cardinal virtues, prudence ranks first, justice second, fortitude third, temperance fourth, and after these the other
virtues.

Part of his justification for this hierarchy is that:

Fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice; since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker.

On fortitude's general and special nature, Aquinas says:[23]

The term "fortitude" can be taken in two ways. First, as simply denoting a certain firmness of mind, and in this sense it is a
general virtue, or rather a condition of every virtue, since as the Philosopher states,[24] it is requisite for every virtue to act
firmly and immovably. Secondly, fortitude may be taken to denote firmness only in bearing and withstanding those things
wherein it is most difficult to be firm, namely in certain grave dangers. Therefore Tully says,[25] that "fortitude is deliberate
facing of dangers and bearing of toils." On this sense fortitude is reckoned a special virtue, because it has a special matter.

Aquinas holds fortitude or courage as being primarily about endurance, not attack:[23]

As stated above (Article 3), and according to the Philosopher,[26] "fortitude is more concerned to allay fear, than to moderate
daring." For it is more difficult to allay fear than to moderate daring, since the danger which is the object of daring and fear,
tends by its very nature to check daring to increase fear. Now to attack belongs to fortitude in so far as the latter moderates
daring, whereas to endure follows the repression of fear. Therefore the principal act of fortitude is endurance, that is to
stand immovable in the midst of dangers rather than to attack them.

Western traditions [ edit ]

In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. For Thomas Aquinas, Fortitude is the virtue
to remove any obstacle that keeps the will from following reason.[21] Thomas Aquinas argues that Courage is a virtue which, along with
the Christian virtues in the Summa Theologica, can only be exemplified with the presence of the Christian virtues: faith, hope, and mercy.
In order to understand true courage in Christianity it takes someone who displays the virtues of faith, hope, and mercy.[21] Courage is a
natural virtue which Saint Augustine did not consider a virtue for Christians. Thomas Aquinas considers courage a virtue through the
Christian virtue of mercy.[27] Only through mercy and charity can we call the natural virtue of courage a Christian virtue. Unlike Aristotle,
Aquinas’ courage is about endurance, not bravery in battle.[28]

Eastern traditions [ edit ]

The Tao Te Ching contends that courage is derived from love ("慈 loving 故 causes 能 ability 勇 brave"), explaining, "One of courage,
with audacity, will die. One of courage, but gentle, spares death. From these two kinds of courage arise harm and benefit."[29][30]

In Hindu tradition, Courage (shauriya) / Bravery (dhairya), and Patience (taamasa) appear as the first two of ten characteristics
(lakshana) of dharma in the Hindu Manusmṛti, besides forgiveness (kshama), tolerance (dama), honesty (asthaya), physical restraint
(indriya nigraha), cleanliness (shouchya), perceptiveness (dhi), knowledge (vidhya), truthfulness (satya), and control of anger (akrodh).

Islamic beliefs also present courage and self-control as a key factor in facing the Devil (both within and external); many believe this
because of the courage the Prophets of the past displayed (through peace and patience) against people who despised them for their
beliefs.

Recent past [ edit ]

Pre-19th century [ edit ]

Thomas Hobbes lists virtues into the categories of moral virtues and virtues of men in his work "Man and Citizen."[31] Hobbes outlines
moral virtues as virtues in citizens, that is virtues that without exception are beneficial to society as a whole.[32] These moral virtues are
justice (i.e. not violating the law) and charity. Courage as well as prudence and temperance are listed as the virtues of men.[31] By this
Hobbes means that these virtues are invested solely in the private good as opposed to the public good of justice and charity. Hobbes
describes courage and prudence as a strength of mind as opposed to a goodness of manners. These virtues are always meant to act in
the interests of individual while the positive and/or negative effects of society are merely a byproduct. This stems forth from the idea put
forth in "Leviathan" that the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." According to Hobbes courage is a virtue of the
individual in order to ensure a better chance of survival while the moral virtues address Hobbes's social contract which civilized men
display (in varying degrees) in order to avoid the state of nature.[33] Hobbes also uses the idea of fortitude as an idea of virtue. Fortitude
is "to dare" according to Hobbes, but also to "resist stoutly in present dangers."[34] This a more in depth elaboration of Hobbes's concept
of courage that is addressed earlier in "Man and Citizen." This idea relates back to Hobbes's idea that self-preservation is the most
fundamental aspect of behavior.

David Hume listed virtues into two categories in his work A Treatise of Human Nature as artificial virtues and natural virtues. Hume noted
in the Treatise that courage is a natural virtue. In the Treatise's section Of Pride and Humility, Their Objects and Causes, Hume clearly
stated courage is a cause of pride: "Every valuable quality of the mind, whether of the imagination, judgment, memory or disposition; wit,
good-sense, learning, courage, justice, integrity; all these are the cause of pride; and their opposites of humility".[35]

Hume also related courage and joy to have positive effects on the soul: "(...) since the soul, when elevated with joy and courage, in a
manner seeks opposition, and throws itself with alacrity into any scene of thought or action, where its courage meets with matter to
nourish and employ it".[36] Along with courage nourishing and employing, Hume also wrote that courage defends humans in the Treatise:
"We easily gain from the liberality of others, but are always in danger of losing by their avarice: Courage defends us, but cowardice lays
us open to every attack".[37]

Hume wrote what excessive courage does to a hero's character in the Treatise's section "Of the Other Virtues and Vices": "Accordingly
we may observe, that an excessive courage and magnanimity, especially when it displays itself under the frowns of fortune, contributes in
a great measure, to the character of a hero, and will render a person the admiration of posterity; at the same time, that it ruins his affairs,
and leads him into dangers and difficulties, with which otherwise he would never have been acquainted".[38]

Other understandings of courage that Hume offered can be derived from Hume's views on morals, reason, sentiment, and virtue from his
work An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals.

19th century onward [ edit ]

Søren Kierkegaard opposed courage to angst, while Paul Tillich opposed an existential courage to be with non-being,[39] fundamentally
equating it with religion:

Courage is the self-affirmation of being in spite of the fact of non-being. It is the act of the individual self in taking the anxiety
of non-being upon itself by affirming itself ... in the anxiety of guilt and condemnation. ... every courage to be has openly or
covertly a religious root. For religion is the state of being grasped by the power of being itself.[40]

J.R.R. Tolkien identified in his 1936 lecture "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" a "Northern 'theory of courage'" – the heroic or
"virtuous pagan" insistence to do the right thing even in the face of certain defeat without promise of reward or salvation:

It is the strength of the northern mythological imagination that it faced this problem, put the monsters in the centre, gave
them victory but no honor, and found a potent and terrible solution in naked will and courage. 'As a working theory
absolutely impregnable.' So potent is it, that while the older southern imagination has faded forever into literary ornament,
the northern has power, as it were, to revive its spirit even in our own times. It can work, as it did even with the goðlauss
Viking, without gods: martial heroism as its own end.[41]

Virtuous pagan heroism or courage in this sense is "trusting in your own strength," as observed by Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic
Mythology:

Men who, turning away in utter disgust and doubt from the heathen faith, placed their reliance on their own strength and
virtue. Thus in the Sôlar lioð 17 we read of Vêbogi and Râdey â sik þau trûðu, "in themselves they trusted."[42]

Ernest Hemingway famously defined courage as "grace under pressure."[43]

Winston Churchill stated, "Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities because it is the quality that guarantees all others."

According to Maya Angelou, "Courage is the most important of the virtues, because without courage you can't practice any other virtue
consistently. You can practice any virtue erratically, but nothing consistently without courage."

In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche describes master–slave morality, in which a noble man regards himself as a "determiner of
values;" one who does not require approval, but passes judgment. Later, in the same text, he lists man's four virtues as "courage, insight,
sympathy, and solitude," and goes on to emphasize the importance of courage: "The great epochs of our life are the occasions when we
gain the courage to re-baptize our evil qualities as our best qualities."[44]

According to the Swiss psychologist Andreas Dick, courage consists of the following components: [45]

1. put at risk, risk or repugnance, or sacrifice safety or convenience, which may result in death, bodily harm, social condemnation or
emotional deprivation;

2. a knowledge of wisdom and prudence about what is right and wrong in a given moment;

3. Hope and confidence in a happy, meaningful outcome;

4. a free will;

5. a motive based on love.

Implicit Theories of Courage [ edit ]

Researchers who want to study the concept and the emotion of courage have continued to come across a certain problem. While there
are "numerous definitions of courage"[46], they are unable to set "an operational definition of courage on which to base sound explicit
theories". [47] Rate et al. states that because of a lack of an operational definition, the advancement of research in courage is limited. [47]
So they conducted studies to try to find "a common structure of courage". [47] Their goal from their research of implicit theories was to find
"people's form and content on the idea of courage".[48] Many researchers created studies on implicit theories by creating a questionnaire
that would ask "What is courage?". [48] In addition, in order to "develop a measurement scale of courage, ten experts in the field of
psychology came together to define courage. [49] They defined it as:

"the ability to act for a meaningful (noble, good, or practical) cause, despite experiencing the fear associated with perceived
threat exceeding the available resources" [49][50]

Also, because courage is a "multi-dimensional construct, it can be "better understood as an exceptional response to specific external
conditions or circumstances than as an attribute, disposition, or character trait". [48] Meaning that rather than being a show of character
or an attribute, courage is a response to fear [48]

From their research, they were able to find the "four necessary components of people's notion of courage".[51].They are:

1. "intentionality/deliberation"[51]
2. "personal fear"[51]
3. "noble/good act" [51]
4. "and personal risk" [51]

With these four components, they were able to define courage as:

"a willful, intentional act, executed after mindful deliberation, involving objective substantial risk to the actor, primarily
motivated to bring about a noble good or worthy end, despite, perhaps, the presence of the emotion of fear." [51]

To further the discussion of the implicit theories of courage, the researchers stated that future research could consider looking into the
concept of courage and fear and how individual's might feel fear, overcome it and act, and act despite of it. [52]

Society and symbolism [ edit ]

Its accompanying animal is the lion.[53] Often, fortitude is depicted as having tamed the ferocious lion. Cf. e.g. the Tarot trump called
Strength. It is sometimes seen in the Catholic Church as a depiction of Christ's triumph over sin.[54] It also is a symbol in some cultures as
a savior of the people who live in a community with sin and corruption.[55]

Awards [ edit ]

See also: Category:Courage awards

Several awards claim to recognize courageous actions, including:

The Edelstam Prize awarded for outstanding contributions and exceptional courage in standing up for one's beliefs in the defense of
Human Rights.
The Victoria Cross is the highest military award that may be received by members of the British Armed Forces and the Armed Forces
of other Commonwealth countries for valour "in the face of the enemy", the civilian equivalent being the George Cross. A total of
1,356 VCs have been awarded to individuals, 13 since World War II.
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on members of the
United States armed forces who distinguish themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and
beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States".
Distinguished Service Cross (United States) is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United
States Army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force.
The Carnegie Hero Fund – was established to recognize persons who perform extraordinary acts of heroism in civilian life in the
United States and Canada, and to provide financial assistance for those disabled and the dependents of those killed saving or
attempting to save others.
The Profile in Courage Award is a private award given to displays of courage similar to those John F. Kennedy described in his book
Profiles in Courage. It is given to individuals (often elected officials) who, by acting in accord with their conscience, risked their
careers or lives by pursuing a larger vision of the national, state or local interest in opposition to popular opinion or pressure from
constituents or other local interests.
The Civil Courage Prize is a human rights award which is awarded to "steadfast resistance to evil at great personal risk – rather than
military valor." It is awarded by the Trustees of The Train Foundation annually and may be awarded posthumously.
Courage to Care Award is a plaque with miniature bas-reliefs depicting the backdrop for the rescuers' exceptional deeds during the
Nazis' persecution, deportation and murder of millions of Jews.
The Ivan Allen Jr. Prize for Social Courage is a prize awarded by Georgia Institute of Technology to individuals who uphold the legacy
of former Atlanta Mayor Ivan Allen Jr., whose actions in Atlanta, Georgia and testimony before congress in support of the 1963 Civil
Rights Bill legislation set a standard for courage during the turbulent civil rights era of the 1960s.[56]
The Param Vir Chakra is the highest military award in India given to those who show the highest degree of valour or self-sacrifice in
the presence of the enemy. It can be, and often has been, awarded posthumously.
The Military Order of Maria Theresa, the highest order of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, awarded for "successful military acts of
essential impact to a campaign that were undertaken on [an officer's] own initiative, and might have been omitted by an honorable
officer without reproach".

See also [ edit ]

Anxiety
Ethics portal
Boldness
Bushido Philosophy portal

Chivalry Psychology portal

Dharma
Karma
Moral character
Risk
Virtue

Notes [ edit ]
 1. ^ Rickaby, John (1909). "Fortitude". The Catholic Encyclopedia . 29. ^ Chapter 67 and 73, Tao Te Ching (C. Ganson uses the word
6. New York: Robert Appleton Company. "courage", but the Mitchell translation does not.)
2. ^ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1115b17–19 30. ^ "Traditional Chinese Characters" . Zhonwen.com. Tao Te Ching
3. ^ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1115b17–19 with Hanzi translations
4. ^ Putman, Daniel (2001). "The Emotion of Courage". Journal of 31. ^ a b Hobbes 1972, pp. 68–70.
Social Philosophy. Volume 32, Issue 4 (4): 463–470. 32. ^ Hobbes 1972, pp. 17–18.
doi:10.1111/0047-2786.00107 . 33. ^ Hobbes 1972, p. 290.
5. ^ Putman 2001, pp. 464. 34. ^ Hobbes 1972, pp. 150–52.
6. ^ Putman 2001, pp. 463. 35. ^ Hume 1751, p. 434.
7. ^ Putman 2001, pp. 466. 36. ^ Hume 1751, p. 666.
8. ^ a bc de f Putman 2001, pp. 465. 37. ^ Hume 1751, p. 459.
9. ^ a bc de fghi j k l m nop Putman 2001, pp. 467. 38. ^ Hume 1751, p. 900.
10. ^ "Plato Biography Philosopher, Writer (c. 428–348 BCE)" . 39. ^ Tillich 1952, p. 89.
Biography. Retrieved October 18, 2015. 40. ^ Tillich 1952, pp. 152–183.
11. ^ Walton 1986, p. 5. 41. ^ Tolkien, JRR. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" . The
12. ^ a bc d Walton 1986, pp. 56–58. Tolkien Estate. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2007-10-15.
13. ^ Plato, Cooper & Hutchinson 1997, pp. 675–86. Retrieved 2008-04-25.
14. ^ Plato, Cooper & Hutchinson 1997, pp. 1061–75. 42. ^ Grimm, Jacob (1835). Deutsche Mythologie (Teutonic Mythology)
15. ^ Plato, Cooper & Hutchinson 1997, pp. 2061–75. (in German) (1 ed.). Dieterich: Göttingen.
16. ^ Walton 1986, pp. 59–61. 43. ^ Carter, Richard (1999). "Celebrating Ernest Hemingway's
17. ^ Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, 1103b15-20, 1104a15-25, Century" . neh.gov. National Endowment for the Humanities.
1104b1-10, 1107a30-1107b5, 1108b15-35, 1109a5-15, 1115a5- Retrieved 2009-06-19.
1117b25, 1129b20-5, 1137a20-5, 144b5-10, 1167a20, 1177a30-b1, 44. ^ Nietzsche 1989, p. 65.
1178a10-5, 1178a30-5, 1178b10-5, in Aristotle, Translation, 45. ^ Dick, Andreas (2010). Mut – Über sich hinauswachsen. Bern:
Introduction, and Commentary, Broadie, Sarah, & Rowe, C., Hans Huber Verlag. ISBN 978-3-456-84835-8.
Oxford University Press, 2002. 46. ^ "Implicit theories of courage" . ResearchGate. p. 81.
18. ^ McDonnell 2006, p. 31. 47. ^ a bc Rate, Clarke & Sternberg 2007, pp. 81.
19. ^ McDonnell 2006, p. 129. 48. ^a b c d Rate, Clarke & Sternberg 2007, pp. 83.
20. ^ De Inventione, II, LIII 49. ^ a b Rate, Clarke & Sternberg 2007, pp. 84.
21. ^ a bc Walton 1986, pp. 62–63. 50. ^ Woodard 2004, pp. 174.
22. ^ "Summa Theologica" . Christian Classics Ethereal Library. 51. ^ a bc de f Rate, Clarke & Sternberg 2007, pp. 95.
23. ^ a bc "Summa Theologica: Fortitude (Secunda Secundae Partis, 52. ^ Rate, Clarke & Sternberg 2007, pp. 96.
Q. 123)" . New Advent. 53. ^ Miller 2000, pp. 101–102.
24. ^ Ethic. ii 54. ^ Revelation 5:5
25. ^ Rhet. ii 55. ^ Walton 1986, pp. 199–202.
26. ^ Ethic. iii, 9 56. ^ "Bio | Ivan Allen Prize" . Georgia Institute of Technology.
27. ^ Miller 2000, p. 204. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
28. ^ Miller 2000, pp. 21–22.

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Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1989). Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude
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External links [ edit ]

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