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ABSTRACT
This paper reports on a quasi-experimental study investigating the effect of cognitive
linguistics-grounded instruction on learning the prepositions in, on, and at, which are known to
pose tremendous difficulty to English language learners due to their language-specific features
and polysemous nature. The participants (N = 44) were adolescent learners at a school in
Indonesia. They were assigned into the cognitive group and the rule group. The cognitive group
was presented with pictorial representations of the prepositions and cognitive tools used to
motivate non-spatial uses, while the rule group was provided with rules. Participants’
performance on the three uses (i.e. spatial, temporal and abstract) was measured with pre-, post-
, and delayed post-tests in a form of gap filling. The study yielded mixed results. The findings
demonstrate that the cognitive group outperformed the rule group in the overall immediate and
delayed post-tests. The cognitive group improved significantly in the immediate post-test;
however, the positive effect did not last until the delayed post-test. On the other hand, the rule
group gained a little in the immediate post-test, but the group’s performance decreased
significantly in the delayed post-test. Although there was no indication of long-term effects of
the cognitive instruction, the results still indicate a value of applying cognitive linguistics to
teaching the prepositions, and thus lend support to the applicability of cognitive linguistic
theory in second language instruction.
* Corresponding author:
Email: david.wijaya@atmajaya.ac.id
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
feature, especially when the speakers’ L1 largely differs words, the peripheral senses of a given preposition are
from the L2 in the ways the language conceptualizes systematically and metaphorically related to its core
spatial relationships (Alonso, Cadierno, & Jarvis, 2016). sense. To be sure, L2 learners experience tremendous
Alonso et al. (2016) set out to investigate the use of difficulty in using the more peripheral senses of
prepositions by advanced EFL learners from two prepositions (Krzeszowski, 1990 as cited in Jarvis &
language backgrounds, Danish and Spanish, by focusing Pavlenko, 2008; Ijaz, 1986), especially if the learners
on how these learners construed spatial configurations speak a verb-framed language (i.e. a language which
that English native speakers refer to with the encodes both manner and path in the verb) which does
prepositions in, on, and at. They also explored the not employ phrasal verbs (Alejo, 2008, as cited in
extent to which the learners’ L1 spatial construal Littlemore, 2009).
patterns influenced their construal of these English These difficulties indicate that L2 learners need
spatial configurations. They found that the Danish pedagogical treatments to assist them to make better
learners’ performance was very similar to the native prepositional choices. Conventional treatments suggest
English speakers’. In contrast, the Spanish learners rote-memorization as the only learning strategy,
produced a variety of prepositions for each item. They reflecting the traditional theoretical accounts of
attributed these results to the influence of the learners’ language that treat prepositions as arbitrary, unrelated
L1s. Danish has three prepositions that are homonyms governed by rules. The problem with this
approximately equivalent to the English prepositions in strategy lies in the ways that daily usage of language
question (i.e. PÅ = on, I = in, and VED = at). Spanish cannot be simply accounted for by the proposed rules,
native speakers, on the other hand, use the preposition especially in contexts where more than one preposition
EN that covers the three English prepositions. In other is possible (Matula, 2007). In line with Alonso et al.
words, the task of learning to construe the English (2016) and Tyler (2012), there is a need to apply a
spatial configurations is much less challenging for usage-based approach to language and language
Danish speakers as their construal and linguistic pedagogy, and research should be conducted to
encoding of space is very similar to those of English investigate the effect of such approach on learners’
native speakers. However, Spanish speakers do not acquisition of prepositions.
categorize meanings of prepositions like English and Cognitive Linguistics (henceforth CL) is a usage-
Danish; rather, they mark locations in a more general based approach to investigating language. The
way. Consequently, their choices of the English proponents of CL contend that “learning language
prepositions tend to be incongruent with the spatial involves determining structure from usage” (Ellis &
construal patterns in English (Alonso et al., 2016). Robinson, 2008, p. 3) and “knowledge of language
It could be argued that Indonesian native speakers emerges from language use” (Croft & Cruse, 2004, p.
construe spatial configurations and linguistically encode 3). Unlike the generative perspective of language which
them in much the same way with Spanish native understands language as an autonomous entity and
speakers. According to Sneddon (2010), the preposition separated from cognition, CL views language as
DI is used as a basic locative preposition in Indonesian meaningful and reflecting human general cognitive
and covers the English prepositions in (e.g. “lagi di processes, such as perception and categorization. It thus
kelas” = in the class), on (e.g. “laba-laba di dinding” = posits that meaning is embodied (i.e. constructed from
a spider on the wall), and at (e.g. “sedang di tempat our experience with the social and physical world)
pesta” = at the party). Given the similarity of (Croft & Cruse, 2004; Tyler, 2012). This perspective on
Indonesian and Spanish in terms of spatial language has relevant implications to L2 instruction
categorization, one could argue that Indonesian learners (Littlemore, 2009).
are also influenced by their L1 as they express spatial CL-informed L2 instruction provides learners with
relationships in English that require them to use in, on, cognitive tools, as opposed to rules that they can use to
and at. This crosslinguistic influence will manifest itself learn the target structure. The tools emphasize
in their inaccurate prepositional choices. connections between multiple meanings of a linguistic
Moreover, the prepositions are not strictly used to form and image schemas, and are presented to learners
describe a spatial relationship between two entities (e.g. in accessible meta-language (Arnett & Jernigan, 2014).
Mom is in the kitchen) but also to describe time (e.g. I The tools can be effective problem solving strategies to
have a class on Monday) and situations that are usually foster acquisition. It is argued that presenting the tools
abstract (e.g. I’m in love). These multiple uses have in instructional material will be pedagogically more
traditionally been regarded as arbitrary, unrelated and beneficial for learners (Langacker, 2008; Taylor, 2008;
unsystematic (Chomsky, 1995). The distinct uses coded Tyler & Evans, 2003). Although several studies have
by the same preposition are presumably coincidence. proven the superiority of CL-based instruction over
However, a growing body of literature has indicated that rule-based instruction (hereafter RI) (e.g. Tyler,
prepositions, similar to other polysemous words, Mueller, & Ho, 2010; Tyler, 2012), more research is
constitute radial networks, with the spatial senses warranted to generalize the findings, especially in
located at the core, and temporal and abstract senses, different contexts and populations, and thus generate
which are more metaphorical, radiating out towards the further insights into applications of CL in L2
periphery (Tyler & Evans, 2001; Taylor, 2002). In other instruction. To date such research is scarce in the
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
Indonesian context. Moreover, most CL studies used representation that consists of a shared spatial-physical
adult learners as their participants. Little is known about representation. The following section presents polysemy
the effect of CL-based instruction on adolescent network analyses of the target prepositions.
learners. One last limitation is concerned with In English, to determine the spatial area where an
experimenter bias. The instructors for the experimental object is located, we need to specify the dimension of
groups in CL studies have always been the researchers the ground. As one could easily notice, the dimensions
who are well-versed in CL theory and believe in its expressed by the prepositions at, on, and in are zero,
usefulness in L2 instruction (Jacobsen, 2016). Up to one, two and three respectively. The zero dimensional
now, it is not known whether CL learning materials can preposition at is used when the G is seen as a reference
also be used by teachers who are not familiar with CL point to locate an F. The preposition on is used when the
theory and have not yet formed opinions and beliefs G is seen as either a line (one dimension), or a surface
regarding its usefulness for L2 instruction. Therefore, (two dimensions). The preposition in is used when the G
the current study attempted to investigate the relative is seen as a containment, which is three-dimensional. It
effects of CL-informed instruction and RI by addressing must be acknowledged here that recent non-cognitive
the aforementioned limitations. It focused on the instruction on the prepositions also utilizes visual aids,
usefulness of CL in teaching the prepositions in, on, and such as pictures, to assist learners to see how they are
at to adolescent Indonesian EFL learners. different from each other in describing spatial relations
(cf. Murphy, 2012). Another technique is to encourage
Cognitive analysis of the prepositions in, on and at learners to decide the dimension of the G (Celce-Murcia
Before turning to the current study, it is necessary to & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). While these techniques may
discuss how English prepositions are viewed through be somewhat useful to understand the spatial uses, they
the lens of CL to set the theoretical basis for devising are not very insightful when it comes to explaining the
appropriate pedagogical materials. According to CL, a difference between:
preposition is polysemous—one word having different,
yet systematically related and motivated senses. The (1) I’m at the hospital and
spatial preposition carries a core sense that is derived (2) I’m in the hospital.
from our interaction with physical entities in the world
and based on our sensory perception of our Moreover, they do not make any mention of the
surroundings (Langacker, 2008). The other senses (i.e. functional elements and their consequences, nor do they
temporal and abstract senses) are derived from the core provide learners with any visual aids to comprehend the
sense in a systematic way. Research into this prepositions used in non-spatial senses. To account for
systematicity has resulted in polysemy network analyses the uses in the extended senses, we must identify the
that demonstrate how the core sense metaphorically functional aspect of each preposition and consider the
motivates the extended senses. That is, the extension of consequences that follow.
the spatial sense to the temporal one is motivated by the As mentioned above, a functional element, along
metaphor TIME AS PHYSICAL SPACE or with its consequences, arises from the spatial relation
PHYSICAL OBJECT (Evans, 2003) that can be between an F and a G (see figure 1). In the case of at, an
measured, while the extension to non-temporal abstract F is located either in the same location with or very near
senses is motivated by the metaphor ABSTRACT to a G (Tyler & Evans, 2003). Thus, its functional
OBJECTS AS CONCRETE OBJECTS (Evans, 2003; aspect involves proximity and orientation (or pointing).
Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) that can be counted, given and Also, at is zero-dimensional because the particular
owned. spatial dimension of a G is unspecified and irrelevant.
There are two additional cognitive principles As for on, an F is in direct contact with the surface of
needed to motivate the extension to the topology of the G. The contact is set up by gravity, which makes the
abstract space and show the link between spatial and F rest upon the G. The G counteracts the force of
abstract: functional aspects and topological relations. As gravity by functionally supporting the F. Finally, for in,
one could easily observe, a spatial configuration an F is seen as being contained or bounded by the G.
consists of a figure (F), which is typically smaller and The functional aspect of containment has several
more eye-catching, and a ground (G), which is usually consequences, such as protection and control of activity
bigger and less eye-catching, as well as a functional inside the G’s environment.
element (Radden & Dirven, 2007). In general, the This explication helps us see how (1) differs from
functional element of a preposition comprises (2). In (1) the F is free to move in the hospital area,
meaningful consequences that stem from the while in (2), the F’s movement is strictly controlled by
relationship between F and G (Tyler & Evans, 2003). In the hospital’s regulations due to some health issues this
fact, it is the functional aspect, not the visual someone is experiencing. In CL tradition, it is common
configuration that helps us link the extended senses to to assume that our understanding of time is
the core sense (Matula, 2007). The notion of topological conceptualized in terms of space (Evans, 2003; Tyler &
relations holds that we do not need to be concerned with Evans, 2003; Wierzbicka, 1993). Therefore, English
the shape and size of the F and G in order to decide the prepositions can also be used to describe relations in the
correct preposition as we can construct a pictorial topology of time and account for the temporal uses of
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
the prepositions by means of the metaphor TIME IS often state that for clock time use at, days and dates on,
SPACE, their functional aspects and topological and longer periods in (cf. Murphy, 2012). Such rules,
relations (see figure 2). This contradicts the traditional however, do not attempt to figure out the link between
way of describing temporal prepositions. Textbook rules temporal and spatial prepositions.
Figure 1: image representations of the prepositions on, in, and at (Matula, 2007, p.130)
Figure 2. Temporal dimensions of the prepositions at, on and in (Radden & Dirven, 2007, p. 321)
As spatial at refers to a point in space, temporal at Several studies have been done to provide
refers to a point in time. To better understand this, it is evidence that a CL approach is facilitative in teaching
helpful to observe the clock: the hands show the act of English prepositions. Tyler (2012) reported two studies
directing or orientation towards a particular numerical in which the English prepositions to, for and at were
time unit. In the case of on, the preposition is used to taught to a group of advanced Italian ESL learners
describe contact of our activities with days (e.g. (Tyler, Mueller, & Ho, 2010) and a group of less
Sunday) and parts of days (such as, Sunday morning) homogenous, college-aged Vietnamese EFL learners.
since “days are particularly salient units on which our The results of the two studies indicate that most of the
routine activities are organized” (Radden & Dirven, participants gained significantly on the posttest after
2007, p. 321). The way we use organizers to arrange our receiving a CL-based treatment. Of relevance to the
schedules in detail confirms this proposition. As in the present study is Matula’s (2007) study as she addressed
temporal in, a G is described as a time frame with a the same prepositions with ours. The experiment
beginning and an end as temporal boundaries. The use reported in her unpublished doctoral dissertation
of at for a holiday is appropriate when the G (e.g. investigated the effects of a CL-incorporated instruction
Christmas) is construed as not only one particular day and a traditional type of instruction on twenty
(i.e. December 25th) but also an extended period of time intermediate-level ESL learners’ acquisition of the
(some days before and after December 25th but it is still spatial and temporal senses of the prepositions in, on,
considered Christmas), while on is used when an event and at. Although neither group significantly
(the F) takes place on December 24th. This analysis can outperformed the other on the post- and delayed post-
be used to explain the distinction between in time and test, the cognitive group showed “more consistent
on time. The use of in time refers to an extended time increase in correct use across the senses and tasks”
frame, while on time is used if the time frame is seen as (Matula, 2007, p. iv). Moreover, data from the oral
not having internal parts (Matula, 2007). stimulated recalls revealed that the cognitive group’s
We can still rely on the same conceptual tools to explanatory scores increased significantly after the
account for the uses in the topology of abstract space treatment, while the traditional group’s score did not.
where prepositions are used to describe conditions and The qualitative aspect of the study also indicated that
situations (Radden & Dirven, 2007). the non-cognitive participants felt unsatisfied with the
The above explications confirm the fact that provided rules. They wanted a more comprehensive and
prepositions are indeed highly polysemous: they consist complete explanation than a list of rules to be
of distinct yet metaphorically motivated and memorized to account for everyday usage of the target
systematically related senses. As argued above, a prepositions.
presentation consisting polysemy network analyses may Several limitations of her study exist, which
have a better value since learners can use the analyses as warrant further research. Her study was conducted in an
their cognitive tools. Indeed, as also argued elsewhere, ESL context where the participants got exposed to the
“learning an extended meaning is easier than learning a target language outside the classroom. In an EFL
meaning that is unrelated to a familiar one” (Frisson et context, input for learners is extremely limited. Doing a
al., 1996, p. 616). similar study in this context may yield a different result.
Moreover, her participants came from various L1
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
backgrounds. Having a group of learners who speak the knowledge of CL theory. She was informed to follow
same L1 as subjects may reveal not only the effect but the instructions in the handouts for both groups and
also the effect size to the speakers of a particular given some time to familiarize herself with the
language. Indonesian, as argued above, is very different materials. The participants were familiar with her and
from English in terms of spatial configuration. thus not hesitant to ask questions during the lesson. The
Indonesian EFL learners need to learn new spatial instructor used both Indonesian and English during the
meanings and distinctions not carried by their general presentation to ensure participants’ comprehensibility.
preposition DI and move from one category in a. CL instructional materials: Our CL instructional
Indonesian to multiple categories in English. However, packet differs from Matula’s (2007). In our packet,
research investigating the effect of CL-based instruction we did not begin with the cognitive tenets (i.e.
on their acquisition of these prepositions is yet to be polysemy, metaphors, and topological relations) as
available. Finally, Matula (2007) only addressed two we believed these tenets should be introduced
senses, the spatial and temporal senses. Given that the when the teacher links the spatial sense with the
abstract sense also poses great difficulty to learners, it is other two senses. Furthermore, we did not include
worth investigating whether the instruction can also any total physical response activities due to the
assist learners to make correct prepositional choices in different class size. Instead, we provided
this sense. participants with handouts and PowerPoint
To sum up, the review of previous research above presentations. Our treatment was also much
necessitates another investigation into applications of shorter. PowerPoint slides were utilized to make
CL-based instruction to teaching the target prepositions. the presentation more meaningful and interactive.
In general, we seek to experimentally investigate To begin with, participants were informed that
whether this approach may be more effective than the they were going to learn about the target
rule-based approach in an Indonesian EFL school prepositions. They were asked what each
context by addressing the following research questions. preposition meant. They quickly gave the
1. What are the relative effects of CL-based Indonesian definitions for in and on, but were
instruction and rule-based instruction in assisting unable to tell the meaning of at. They were then
adolescent Indonesian EFL learners to use the explained how the three prepositions differed from
correct prepositions in the three senses (i.e. Indonesian prepositions and that English
spatial, temporal and abstract) as measured by a prepositions have multiple but systematically
gap filling component? related meanings. This was meant to raise their
2. If there are any advantages of one sort of awareness of how English and Indonesian differ in
instruction over the other, will these advantages the way each language construes spatial
be proved durable for two weeks? configurations. Then, they were introduced to the
functional aspect and core meaning of each spatial
preposition through pictures, diagrams (i.e. the
METHOD image representations of the prepositions) and
Participants examples shown on PowerPoint slides.
The participants involved in this study were tenth grade Participants received three sets of instruction in a
students, aged 14 to 15, at a school in Jakarta, row. In each set, example sentences along with
Indonesia. They sat in four pre-determined intact their accompanying pictures, functional aspects
classes. Due to the regulations of the school, we were and core meanings were provided to enhance
only allowed to randomize the classes and categorize participants’ understanding of the form-meaning
them into two groups: the CL group and the RI group. relationships. Two tasks were provided for each
Before the experiment, the students were informed of sense too (see appendix). After they finished doing
the research and its purpose. They all agreed to the first task, they were shown the correct
participate in the experiment. They spoke Indonesian as diagrams with the core meanings and functional
their first language and had been learning English as a aspects on slides. Participants compared their
mandatory subject since they were in grade seven. answers with the answers shown on the slides.
Although the initial pool of the participants was eighty They were told to refer back to the cognitive
five, those who scored 70% or better on the pre-test explanation in their handout if they had different
were eliminated from analysis as they were assumed to answers but did not understand why their answers
have had sufficient knowledge of the target prepositions were not appropriate. In the second task,
along with the senses. In the end, each group consisted participants were given a more traditional type of
of 22 learners. exercise: a fill-in-the-gaps activity. The same
procedure of feedback for the first task was
The treatment repeated. No explanation was provided for the
The pedagogical treatment lasted for 70 minutes. Our answers. The instructor concluded lesson by
research assistant who had been doing her internship at reminding the participants how the English
the school for two months was chosen to be the prepositions differ from the Indonesian
instructor for both groups. She had had no prior preposition, how the three senses of the
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
To answer our first research question, a Mann- sense immediately after treatment revealed that the RI
Whitney Test was performed on the participants’ scores group had a bigger gain in the spatial sense. However,
in the immediate posttest. The result indicated that the the CL group showed bigger gains in the other two
two groups’ overall performance differed significantly senses. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests conducted on the
in their uses of the prepositions in the three senses, with pretest and posttest scores of each group in each sense
the CL group outperforming the RI group, Z = -3.304, p demonstrated that the CL group improved significantly
= .002. The average gain the CL group experienced only in the temporal sense, Z = -3.206, p = .001, and the
from pretest to immediate posttest was also significant, RI group made no significant improvement in all the
Z = -3.851, p = .000. The RI group’s improvement, on senses. The gains for individual senses in the immediate
the other hand, was not significant, Z = -1.802, p = .072. posttest are shown in Table 2.
A closer look at the two groups’ performance in each
To answer our second research question, a Mann- delayed posttest was slightly higher than the pretest. A
Whitney Test was conducted on the participants’ Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated that the difference
delayed posttest scores. The result revealed that the CL was not significant, Z = -.071, p = .943. On the other
group was far superior to the RI group, Z = -5.509, p = hand, the RI group’s score decreased dramatically from
.000. The CL group’s score decreased from immediate posttest to delayed posttest, yielding a delayed posttest
posttest to delayed posttest however the score in the score which was lower than the pretest score. In terms
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
of both groups’ performance in individual senses (see case of the CL group, the positive effect was not durable
table 3), the CL group improved little only in the spatial to the delayed posttest while in the case of the RI group,
sense, while the RI group showed no gains at all. The their performance in the delayed posttest unexpectedly
answer to the second research question is that in the worsened.
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Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), May 2018
encourage English teachers to apply this technique Suzanne Matula of Georgetown University for
when giving explicit instruction of the prepositions and Language Education and Development for graciously
remind their students about the core meanings and sharing her dissertation with the authors, Dr. Agustian
functional aspects whenever they are struggling to make Sutrisno and one anonymous reviewer for their
prepositional choices. insightful comments on earlier versions of this paper,
It is also interesting to discuss the role of instructor the students in grade X batch 2015/2016 at Kanaan
here. As mentioned earlier, the instructor for the CL Senior High School for being our participants and Ms.
group was someone who had no prior knowledge of CL Cindy Carla for being the instructor for both groups.
research and was therefore neutral in her position Any remaining errors are ours.
regarding the usefulness of CL as a viable approach to
ELT. Jacobsen (2016) argues that CL materials can only
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This article is based on part of the second author’s multiple determinants. Language Learning, 51, 1-
unpublished research report which was submitted to her 50.
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