1. Magma rises due to lower density than the surrounding rock, allowing it to push aside overlying rock and rise towards the surface. At shallower depths, magma may stop rising and slowly solidify.
2. Bowen's reaction series shows the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools, from mafic to felsic. Fractional crystallization leaves the remaining magma more silicic in composition.
3. Magmatic differentiation creates secondary magmas from a parent through processes like crystal fractionation and partial melting, which concentrate incompatible elements in the residual melt.
1. Magma rises due to lower density than the surrounding rock, allowing it to push aside overlying rock and rise towards the surface. At shallower depths, magma may stop rising and slowly solidify.
2. Bowen's reaction series shows the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools, from mafic to felsic. Fractional crystallization leaves the remaining magma more silicic in composition.
3. Magmatic differentiation creates secondary magmas from a parent through processes like crystal fractionation and partial melting, which concentrate incompatible elements in the residual melt.
1. Magma rises due to lower density than the surrounding rock, allowing it to push aside overlying rock and rise towards the surface. At shallower depths, magma may stop rising and slowly solidify.
2. Bowen's reaction series shows the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools, from mafic to felsic. Fractional crystallization leaves the remaining magma more silicic in composition.
3. Magmatic differentiation creates secondary magmas from a parent through processes like crystal fractionation and partial melting, which concentrate incompatible elements in the residual melt.
Endogenic Processes (Erosion and easily than those with high viscosity.
Deposition) Temperature, silica content and volatile
content control Competency # 25 the viscosity of magma. Use the table below to clarify the effects of different factors on A. Why and how magma rises up magma viscosity. • Density contrast: magma is less dense than Table 1. Different factors that affect magma’s the surrounding country rock. Magma rises viscosity. faster when the difference in density between the magma and the surrounding rock is greater. - At deeper levels, magma passes through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the surrounding rock. When enough mass and buoyancy is attained, the overlying surrounding rock is pushed aside as the magma rises. Depending on surrounding pressure and other factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise at - Mafic magma is less viscous than silicic shallower levels underneath (Fig. 1). (felsic) magma because it is hotter and contains less silica. Also, the volatiles in magma decreases viscosity.
B. Bowen’s reaction series
• Certain minerals are stable at higher melting temperature and crystallize before those stable at lower temperatures. • Crystallization in the continuous and discontinuous branches takes place at the same time. Figure 1. Two processes as magma rises up: (1) ejected • Continuous branch: contains only out to the surface through volcanoes (2) solidifies within the plagioclase feldspar, with composition shallower levels. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igneous_rock#/media/ changing from File:Igneous_rock_eng_text.jpg. Accessed: May 2,2016 calcium-rich to sodium rich as temperature drops. - At shallower levels, magma may no longer • Discontinuous branch describes how rise because its density is almost the same ferromagnesian minerals in the magma are as that of the country rock. The magma transformed as temperature changes. The starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies early formed crystals, olivine in this case, (Fig. 2). reacts with the remaining melt as the magma cools down, and recrystallizes into pyroxene. Further cooling will transform pyroxene into amphibole. If all of the iron and magnesium in the melt is used up before all of the pyroxene recrystallizes to amphibole, then the ferromagnesian minerals in the solid rock would be amphibole and pyroxene and would not contain olivine or biotite. • Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low viscosity flow more 1. Crystal Fractionation–a chemical process by which the composition of a liquid, such as magma, changes due t o crys tal l i zat ion (ht tps : / /wwwf . imper ial .ac.uk/ earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/view glossrecord.php?gID=00000000159). There are several mechanisms for crystal fractionation. One that is directly related to the Bowen’s reaction series is crystal settling. • Crystal settling - denser minerals crystallize Figure 3. Generalized Bowen’s reaction first and settle downwhile the lighter series. Sourced from Tarbuck, E. J. et al Earth minerals crystallize at the latter An stages.Bowen’s reaction series shows that Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, p137. denser • Important concepts derived from the minerals such as olivine and Ca-rich Bowen’s reaction series: plagioclases form first, leaving the magma • A mafic magma will crystallize into more pyroxene (with or without olivine) and silicic(Tarbuck, E. J. et al Earth An calcium-rich Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, plagioclase ̶that is, basalt or gabbro ̶if the p138). early formed crystals are not removed from the remaining magma. Similarly, an intermediate magma will crystallize into diorite or 2. Partial Melting- as described in Bowen’s andesite, ifearly formed minerals are not reaction series, quartz and muscovite are removed. Underlying principles about the • If minerals are separated from magma, the demonstration: remaining magma is more silicic than the • When solid mixtures partially melt, it is the original magma. For example, if olivine and lower melting point materials that melt calcium-rich plagioclase are removed,the first. residual melt would be richer in silicon and • Separation can occur in partial melts, with sodium and poorer in iron and magnesium. the high melting point materials sinking to the bottom and the liquid from the lower • When rocks are heated in high melting point materials flowing to the top. temperatures, minerals will melt in reverse These two different materials, that have order, going different chemical compositions and different up the series in the Bowen’s reaction series physical properties, may then be further diagram. Quartz and potassium feldspar separated, e.g., by the liquid rising further would melt first. If the temperature is raised through overlying materials, leaving the solid further, biotite and sodium-rich plagioclase behind. would contribute to the melt. Any minerals basically formed under low temperature higher in the series would remain solid conditions, making them the first ones to unless melt the temperature is raised further. from the parent rock once exposed in higher C. The different processes by which the temperature and/or pressure. Partial composition of magma may change melting of an ultramafic rock in the mantle (magmatic differentiation). produces a basaltic magma(Carlson, D. H., • Magmatic differentiation is the process of Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical creating one or more secondary magmas Geology Earth Revealed 9th ed, 2011, p292). from Demonstration#1: Partial Melting (copied single parent magma (Tarbuck, E. J. et al from http://www.earthlearningidea.com/ Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology, PDF/82_Partial_melting.pdf): 2014, p138). • Oxygen/silicon-rich rock-forming minerals have lower melting points than iron/ magnesium-rich minerals. Different ratios of water to CMC can be used • Each stage of partial melting produces to obtain the desired viscosity whilst keeping rocks enriched in oxygen/silicon (and the density constant. Metal filings are added depleted in iron/magnesium) to this layer so that motion can be detected. 2. Bottom layer: this layer is composed of 3. Magma mixing – this may occur when water mixed with salt. The addition of salt two different magma rises up, with the more increases the density while having little buoyant mass overtakes effect on the the more slowly rising viscosity. Thus the body. Convective flow density of the fluid then mixes the two can be controlled. Red magmas, generating a food coloring was single, intermediate added so that the two (between the two parent layers could be easily magmas) magma distinguished. (Tarbuck, E. J. et al Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, p139). Demonstration # 2: Magma Mixing (copied from http://www.eos.ubc.ca/resources/ webres/concepts/igneous/magma/magexper. html). The downloadable video clip can be found at(http://www.eos.ubc.ca/resources/webres/c oncepts/igneous/magma/ magmovie.html). • The video clip shows several stages which correspond to changes in geologically significant processes. Two stills are collected from the movie to illustrate these stages. • Stage1 (Left photo): As fluid enters the Overview bottom of the chamber, fluid is expelled • A container is used to simulate a through the conduit at the top of the compositionally stratified magma chamber. chamber. As this process proceeds The convection cells develop in the top layer. bottom opening allows fluid at a constant • Note the semicircular arrangement of the pressure to enter the system. This causes the metal filings. In the movie, some parts of the fluid already in the chamber to be forced out chamber are affected by this convection, and the top opening. The top opening is others are not. analogous to the volcanic neck of an • Stage 2 (Right photo): A critical level is erupting volcano. reached where the denser bottom layer, • The layers within the container dividedinto being less viscous, is more readily forced up materials with a lower density and higher through the top layer, and a cone viscosity layer on the top, (eg: rhyolite), and structure develops. ahigher density and lower viscosity layer on • At this point both magmas are being the bottom, (eg: basalt). By controlling the tapped at the same time and mixing of the density and viscosity contrast between the magmas can proceed in the conduit. The two layers, magmas with different extent to which the two magmas mix in the compositions in the same chamber, can be conduit relates to differences in the densities simulated. i.e: a rhyolite overlaying a basalt. and viscosities of the fluids. If the • The experimental setup is illustrated on the viscosity contrast is high, blending is right. retarded and mingling dominates. If the 1. Top layer: this layer consists of water fluids mixed with CMC, an organic polymer. Mixing have similar viscosities then blending is with CMC increases the viscosity with little to facilitated. no effect on the density. 4. Assimilation/contamination of magma by diamond (also composed of carbon) when crustal rocks - a reaction that occurs when subjected to intense pressure. the crust is mixed up with the rising magma. • The mineral composition of the resulting As magma rises to the surface, the metamorphic rock is influenced by the surrounding rocks which it comes in contact following: with may get dissolved (due to the heat) and - Mineral composition of the original or get mixed with the magma. This scenario parent rock produces change in the chemical composition - Composition of the fluid that was present of the magma unless the material being - Amount of pressure and temperature during added has the same chemical composition as metamorphism the magma (http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens212/ 2. Index minerals for metamorphic magmadiff.htm). rocks. • Factors controlling the mineral assemblage of metamorphic rocks include: - Bulk composition of the original rock - Attained pressure during metamorphism - Attained temperature during metamorphism - Composition of fluid phase that was present during metamorphism (Nelson, 2011). • Certain minerals identified as index minerals are good indicators of the metamorphic environment or zone of regional metamorphism in which these minerals are formed (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).
• In general, metamorphism does not
drastically change the chemical composition of the original rock. However, changes in the mineral composition of the resulting rock can be useful in determining the degree of metamorphism. The occurrence of certain minerals (‘index minerals’) is associated with a specific range of temperature and pressure conditions during metamorphism. • Pelitic rock - or ‘pelite’ is a term applied to metamorphic rocks derived from a fine-grained (<1/16 mm) sedimentary protolith. The term usually implies argillaceous, siliciclastic sediments as opposed to carbonate mudstones (Imperial College London, Endogenic Processes (Erosion 2013). and Deposition) competency • The resulting metamorphic rock is also dependent on the original or ‘parent’ #26 rock. No amount of metamorphism will transform shale into marble. Marble can onlybeformedfromthe 1. Define metamorphism. metamorphism of limestone (where • As a response to heat, pressure, and heatisthemainagentof chemically active fluids, minerals become metamorphism). unstable and change into another mineral without necessarily changing the composition. For example, coal, which is composed entirely of carbon, will turn into a are texturally distinguished from each other by the degree of foliation. Hornfels and granulite are examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks. In hornfels, the individual mineral grains are too small, whereas in granulites, the grains are large enough to be identified in hand specimens (visible without the use of microscopes) (Nelson, 2011).
Figure 1: Typical transition of mineral content resulting
from the metamorphism of shale (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).
• Emphasize that Figure 1 is a representation
of the progressive metamorphism of shale. It is not necessarily applicable to all types of parent rocks. Pelitic rocks (e.g. shale) more faithfully preserve the effects of increasing grade of metamorphism. Some rocks, however, such as pure quartz sandstone or limestone, provide very little clue as to the Figure 2: Aphyllite rock showing foliations. Brighter intensity of bands are composed of aligned muscovite (Imperial metamorphism (Monroe et al., 2007). College London, 2013). • Shale can be transformed into a series of etamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite, schist, and • Differential stress is formed when the gneiss, respectively) with increasing pressure applied to a rock at depth is not temperature and pressure conditions. Shale equal in all can also be transformed directly into schist directions. If present during metamorphism, or even gneiss if the change in metamorphic effects of differential stress in the rock’s conditions is texture drastic. include the following (Nelson, 2012): - Rounded grains can be flattened 3. The textural changes that occur to perpendicular to the direction of the rocks when they are subjected to maximum compressional force metamorphism. (Figure 3). • In general, the grain size of metamorphic rocks tends to increase with increasing metamorphic grade. With the increasing metamorphic grade, the sheet silicates become unstable and mafic minerals, such as hornblende and pyroxene, start to grow. At the highest grades of metamorphism, all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicate become unstable and thus there are few Figure 3: The effect of differential stress to minerals present that would show preferred the rounded grains orientation. This is because the fluids from (Image Source: http://www.tulane.edu/ ~sanelson/images/flatening.gif) these hydrous minerals are expelled out due to the high temperature and pressure. • Foliation - pervasive planar structure • Most metamorphic textures involve that results from the nearly parallel foliation, which is generally caused by a alignment of sheet silicate minerals preferred orientation of sheet silicates (silica and/or compositional and mineralogical layering in the rock (Nelson, 2012). This minerals with sheet-like structures), such as is brought about by the preferred clay minerals, mica and chlorite. Slate, alignment of sheet silica minerals with phyllite, schist, and gneiss are foliated rocks, respect to the stress being applied. - When subjected to differential stress field, minerals may develop a preferred orientation. Sheet silicates and minerals that have an elongated habit will grow with their sheets or direction of elongation perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress (Figure 4).
Figure 4. The effect of differential stress to sheet
silicates or minerals with elongated form. (Image Figure 5: An example of a non-foliated metamorphic Source: rock- quartzite (Image Source: http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/images/preforient.gif) https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-XRs4y5EZHjk/ VP9A10CZKzI/AAAAAAAAAKw/ 4. The Summary the metamorphic processes involved under the agents of metamorphism (temperature and pressure). Table 2: Some common metamorphic rocks. Table 1: Agents of metamorphism and the associated metamorphic processes.
5. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are Activity
formed when heat is the main agent of The activity simulates the formation of metamorphism. foliation when a rock is compressed or Generally, non-foliated rocks are composed squeezed (Royal Society of a mosaic of roughly equi-dimensional and of Chemistry, n.d.). equigranular minerals. 1. Pour some matchsticks, or short pieces of spaghetti onto the bench, so that they lie in all directions. These represent the microscopic, flaky clay minerals in mudstone or shale. 2. Take two rulers and place one on either side of the matchsticks and push the rulers together, trapping the matchsticks and forcing them to line up parallel to the moving rulers. 3. Discuss the following: • The activity simulates the formation of foliation, where the tiny, flaky clay minerals in the original (or ‘parent’) rock are made to line up This activity is a simulation of the distortion at right angles to the maximum forces of fossils under pressure (Royal Society of (exerted on the ruler). Chemistry, n.d.). • An example of such a rock is slate. When Many metamorphic rocks, such as slate, are struck, slate will split along the planes made formed deep below ground under great by pressure. They the new minerals more easily than along the sometimes contain fossils which have been original bedding. This property is called badly squashed. The result of the squashing rock cleavage (Figure 6). You can use the gives clues matchsticks/spaghetti to show how such about the directions of the pressures which rocks squeezed the rocks. The concept of this can split along the cleavage by using a ruler activity is also to separate the aligned ‘minerals’. Simply applicable to minerals that are subjected to slide a ruler between the aligned pieces of pressure (metamorphism). matchsticks/spaghetti and move them apart. 1. Wear eye protection when doing the • Try to match the way the pieces are lying activity. with a piece of roofing slate. Sometimes, 2. Make a mold by pressing the outside of a slate shell carefully into the clay. Make a rim shows different colored bands lying at an around the angle to the cleavage (Figure 7). This is the mold to contain the plaster. remains of the bedding layers of the original 3. Carefully remove the shell to leave the mudstone or shale. imprint in the clay. 4. Squeeze the mold so as to change the shape of the shell imprint by first choosing whether to squeeze it from top and bottom or from the sides. Alternatively, you could push one side up and the opposite side down. This sort of twisting is called shearing. Whichever you choose, do not distort the shape too much. Note down Figure 6: A piece of slate, cut thinly, under how you squeezed the mold as it will be the microscope showing the cleavage important running from top left to bottom right formed by the aligned minerals. (Image later. Source: http://www.rsc.org/education/ 5. Mix up some plaster of Paris in a teachers/resources/jesei/meta/h1.jpg) disposable plastic cup. Place less than 1 cm of water in the cup and stir in enough plaster to make a runny cream. 6. Pour the plaster into the distorted mold and leave it for a few minutes to set. 7. Leave any remaining plaster to set in the cup. Wash the stirring rod. 8. When your plaster fossils have set, take your ‘fossil cast’ out of the modeling clay and then carefully scratch your initials on the base. Figure 7: This sample of slate shows colored layers at about 50o inclination to the 9. Pass your fossil on to a nearby group. See cleavage. The colored layers show the if they can work out the directions of the bedding of the original shale. (Image pressures Source: http://www.rsc.org/education/ which you used to distort the fossil. Do the teachers/resources/jesei/meta/h2.jpg) same for theirs.