AUTO - Inrernational Maritime Training Centre PDF

AUTOMATION & CONTROLS
CHAPTER-I
MEANING OF AUTOMATION & ITS CLASSIFICATION
Automation is apart of subject known as Control Engineering. Control Engineering can

be broadly regarded as a part of Mechanization.
First stage Mechanization is basic application of a device usually resulting in an
increased output for same human effort. (Example-wheel, lever, crank, etc.)Second stage
mechanization is usually called Motorization. Third stage mechanization is properly
Automation.
A motorized system can be controlled remotely or automatically, locally or centralized
and it can be instrumented and recorded (data logged.)
Control that is remote is not necessarily control that is automatic though the two are
frequently combined. Remote or distance control may be exercised by the means of
wires, levers (mechanically) or by fluids (hydraulically) or electrical impulses.
Control is automatic when some part of the system is designed to feed a signal to
another part, which latter then acts accordingly. Simply, the sequence is “in line”
and the system is not necessarily self-correcting or self-regulating. When the
essential feature of the system is a “feedback” working in a “closed-loop” control
sequence of a plant, sensor (detecting and measuring element), controller and
correcting device the latter acting directly on the plant, then the complete system is
“automated.”
Control is necessary because physical conditions are changing continuously.
Control is never instantaneous rather it is continuous with time.

Controller is unit which is linked with many subunits that are interacting with the
controller to carry out its operation. Hence controller is combination of many
interacting units with having purpose to control the parameter
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CHAPTER –II
WHAT TO AUTOMATE AND WHY
There are four main types of control systems, these being

• Mechanical
• Pneumatic
• Hydraulic
• Electrical/electronic.
By far the most popular and simple (comparatively) system for marine application at the
present time is with pneumatic transmission and actuation. Where simple compact
machinery, exposed only to small load changes, is considered, auto-mechanical linkages,
which usually provide only proportional control, can be adequate. With modern
machinery and consequent higher powers and forces, some form of servo assistance is
essential. Of the above systems pneumatic system is preferred, as it has proved to be
• Reliable
• Cheap
• Available
• Safe in explosive atmosphere
• Environment friendly (its not a pollution hazard compared to hydraulic systems)
On the other hand it is very essential for the air supply to be completely dry and
absolutely free from oil contamination.
“Why to Automate”
• Reduces workload
• Can reduce cost
• Human can not perform to the precision
• Time delay
• Power consumption minimum
• Best way to use the latest technology
Considering “What to Automate” in more detail, the different sections of ships’

machinery are itemized below.
Viscosity Control of Furnace Fuel Oil

It is extremely important for efficient combustion that the viscosity of the fuel oil is
maintained within fairly close limits. This can be achieved by the employment of a visco-
transmitter as a part of a control system but the more usual method is with a temperature
transmitter. This procedure uses the characteristic that the viscosity for given oil is
proportional to its temperature. The temperature transmitter is a relatively simple
instrument and requires less maintenance then a direct viscosity-sensing device.
Boiler Water Level Control

Water-tube boilers require accurate control of water level in the steam drum to be
maintained at all steaming rates.
For large capacity steam drums, not subject to very large and rapid load changes, a
simple level control system is adequate. However, where large load changes are
experienced it may be necessary to fit what is known as a two-element control system,
which provides anticipatory action actuated from steam flow measurement. Where
extremely large and rapid load changes will be experienced then a three-element system
balancing steam flow against water flow should be considered.
Soot Blowing
Soot blowing, a necessary function in marine boilers, can easily be carried out by
automatic sequence control system operating the valves to the soot blowing nozzles.
Changing the sequence pattern is usually a simple task and the whole system can be
started by the operation of one push button.
Temperature Control of various system on Shipboard

On steam ships to improve fuel economy, particularly with geared turbine propulsion
machinery, it is common practice to maintain the lubricating oil at a fairly high
temperature .By this method the friction losses are reduced, with the consequent
improvement in overall efficiency.
A careful selection of the control valve for the application is essential due to the
temperature fluctuations of the cooling medium i.e. seawater.
Cooling Water Systems

Jacket water temperature control often justifies rather more than a single temperature
control-loop. Cascade control system is used to provide a greater accuracy of control.
This cooling system can be used in conjunction with a steam heater to maintain the jacket
temperature above a minimum value, on start-up or at low powers. The method employed
here is by splitting the controller output signal and feeding to a regulating valve in a
steam heater as well as a cooler.
Remote Control of Main Engine

One of the so many functions is to ensure that the engine is not allowed to run for any
length of time within the barred speed range. With the advent of single lever setting the
desired rpm, this has been overcome by simple relay systems automatically jumping the
desired speed value outside the critical limits.
Other essential facilities, such as automatic restart procedure, crash stop initiation,
overspeed protection, lubricating oil pressure and cooling water temperature and various
other interlocks can be obtained as an integral part of the complete control system.
Other than the few sections of the ship described above in this chapter, there are many
more examples of implementation of control on a ship. Some of these systems are
explained in detail later on in this course.
Elements Of Process Control System
There are four basic elements of any process control system.

Sensing Element:
Sensing Element is having direct contact with process. These are sensors , Diaphragms
and bellows. They have tendency to cause mechanical movement as process value
changes.
The sensing elements are normally connected to device which converts the mechanical
movement into suitable pneumatic/electrical signal.
These Signals are very small in magnitude normally 3PSI to 15 PSI or 4MA to 20 MA
These elements are termed as Transmitters / Tranducer
Comparing Element:
This element is used for detecting the error or deviation. The process value is compared
with set value and deviation is directed to the controller. Based 9nthe controller
configuration and error the controller generates an output.
Amplifier:
The deviation at the controller is not very large in magnitude, therefore controller
amplifies the error or deviation . Every controller has pilot valve amplifier, which
amplifies the error suitably so that final controlling element can be operated.
Final controlling Element( Control Valve):

Control valve is final controlling element in the control loop. Control valve has direct
effect on the process value. The effect of control valve may be independent of the
controller output.
In any control loop if control valve malfunction, it may not be known to the controller
because the control valve does not provide the feed back to the controller.
Due to this typical problem there is necessity of another element in control loop i.e. valve
positioner, which insures the control valve follows the instructions of the controller.
CHAPTER-III
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL AND BASIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control is a function, which is not possible with a single element. It is only applicable to
a system of interacting units. Control is never instantaneous; it is a continuous process in

time.
Control is necessary because physical conditions change as time progresses.i.e. As

one drives a car, the direction of the road changes as time passes; as one lives in a
house, the temperature changes (from day to night, from summer to winter). To
maintain the system within bounds in which it can survive as a means of transport,
as a human dwelling, control must be exercised.
Some systems are almost self-regulating. For example, the temperature of mixture of ice
and water is completely so. If the ambient temperature rises, some ice melts; if it falls,
some water freezes, the temperature remains at zero degree Celsius. Note that it is only
the temperature that has this property. The mass of ice, the mass of water, or the ratio of
these two quantities will all vary. Other systems are partly self-regulating. A furnace or
oven is such. If the fuel supply increases, the temperature rises, but so do losses by
radiation, convection, and through the stack; and a new, higher, temperature is reached
and held. Nearly all-engineering processes have an inherent tendency to self-regulation.
There are also essentially non-self-regulating processes, such as the explosion of
gunpowder, or the operation of a nuclear reactor.
Ease of control depends upon two things: the response of a system to a disturbance—
whether stable or unstable (self-regulating or non-self-regulating) and the time constant
of the system. This is the basis of Plant Analysis. The process under investigation,
steam boiler, furnace, pump, lift, liquid level, or whatever it may be, is given a little
disturbance or experiences a disturbance, usually a Step-change, and the nature of the
response observed.
Three forms of disturbances are commonly used in control engineering, Step-change,

Ramp, and Sinusoidal as shown below in the figures.
(a) Step
Level
Of
Process
(b) Ramp

Level
Of
Process
(c) Sinusoidal
Time Constants
If we consider any simple process such as measuring a temperature, we can examine

the response of the system giving it a step-change. We can plunge the thermometer
into a hot liquid. If the system is self–regulating it will approach a new value. The
thermometer indication will rise. As we see in figure below, theoretically it will
never reach the new value. I.e. the temperature difference between the thermometer
bulb and the liquid becomes less and less. An arbitrary value is therefore chosen to
measure the response in time of the system to the step disturbance. The Time
Constant of the system is defined, as the time required for 62.3% of the change in the
system, to take place after a step disturbance.
Relationship between Time Constant and Output

If an unprotected, thin walled temperature detecting element at a temperature of

50 deg. Cel. Suddenly immersed in a fluid at 100 deg. Cel. – this implies that there is a
step change in temperature.
The solution for response curve is expressed as,
Q0 = Qi (1 – e(pow. – t/ r))
Q0 = change in value in time (t)
Qi = step change
T = time
R = time constant
Thus, Q0 = Qi (1 - e(pow. – t/ r))
So, Q0 = Q1 (0.632)
Time Constant is time taken to reach 63.2% of full response.
Comparison of two Systems with different Time constants
The rate of response

Response of process with smaller time constant is faster than with larger time
constant. Particular system having some time constant if given different step
changes the rate of response in each case will be different. However the time taken
for 63.2% of change to take place will be same.
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

The process control can be defined as any operation that regulates some internal physical
characteristics that is important for normal running of the system.
FACTORS AFFECTED WITH THE PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

Process Control System comprises of three main factors –
1. Manipulated Variable (v/v position, speed, etc)
2. Disturbances
3. Controlled Variable (temperature, pressure, level, etc)
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

Every Process control system essentially has four elements:
a) Process – Speed control, flow control, level control.
b) Measurement of process variable.
c) Evaluation or, comparison with a desirable parameter.
d) Control Elements – It exerts direct influence on the process.
PROCESS
• It consists of an assembly of equipment and material that is related to some

operation or sequence such as liquid level in the tank, flow of liquid to or from a
tank.
• Any given process may involve many dynamic variables.
• However, controlling just one variable may be sufficient to control the process
within acceptable limits.
MEASUREMENT
• To control a dynamic variable in a process it is important to have information
about the variable itself.
• This information is obtained by measuring the variable.
• Measurement refers to the conversion of process variable into an analog or digital
signal that can be used by the control system.
• The device that performs the initial measurement is called SENSOR or
INSTRUMENT.
• The result of measurement is the conversion of dynamic variable into some
proportional information that is required by other elements in the process control
loop.
EVALUATION
• In the evaluation step of process control sequence, the MEASURED VALUE is
examined, compared with the DESIRED VALUE or the SET POINT and the
amount of corrective action needed to maintain proper control is determined.
• A device known, as CONTROLLER can be pneumatic, electronic, electrical or a
combination of any of them.
CONTROL
• The control element in a control loop is a device that exerts a direct influence on
the process.
• This final control element accepts an input from the controller and transforms into
proportional operation that is performed on the process.
• In most of the cases final control element is the CONTROL VALVE that adjusts
the flow of fluid in a process.
Precision and Accuracy

Precision and Accuracy are two terms that, because of redundancy and
misrepresentation of correct usage, have lost much of their significance in
defining the performance criteria of measuring instruments.
ACCURACY is defined as the degree of conformity of an indicated value to

an accepted standard value.

PRECISION defines the instrument performance as a result of the care that

is used in the design and manufacture of instrument.
REPEATABILITY. It is the ability of an instrument to reproduce the

same measurement each time the same set of condition is repeated.
The first prerequisite to any control scheme is measurement.

However a precise measurement that is not necessarily accurate means that a
variable can be maintained at value that may not be accurate. Precise
measurement reproduces the same value, where as accurate but imprecise
value can have accuracy as defined by performance statements.
An accurate but imprecise measurement could result in a poorer control
quality.
In Summary,
- Poor repeatability means poor accuracy
- Good accuracy means good repeatability
- Good repeatability does not necessarily means good accuracy.
Calibration Adjustments
Zero adjustment
100 %
Measured
Value
True Value 100%
a) Zero adjustment is the first adjustment made in the instrument calibration.
b) In this adjustment the instrument reading moves up and down by equal amount at
every point of measurement. Hence error remains constant through out the entire
range.
c) This adjustment although can be made at a zero point.
d) Zero adjustment on mechanical instrument is done by slipping a link on a hub or

pointer on the shaft or by some means of establishing a starting or reference point
for measurement
e) After doing the zero adjustment it is necessary the span adjustment is to be

checked.
Span Adjustment
100%
Measured
Value
True Value 100%
a) The span means the response of measuring instrument when the process variable
value changes from minimum to maximum.
b) An error by span increases as magnitude of input increases.
c) Changing the mechanical advantages of the lever system that relates the output
response to and input response usually makes the span adjustment.
d) The span adjustment is likely to affect the zero reading. Hence the zero
adjustment should always be followed by span adjustment.
e) Interaction between span and zero adjustment can complicate calibration unless
special attention is paid i.e. after zero adjustment if a span correction is made then
when input is returned to zero it might appear that instrument reading is not zero.
Therefore an over compensation in span adjustment can be made in order to
correct the value by zero adjustment
Sensor Characteristics
The sensor has two very important characteristics

a) Sensitivity
b) Accuracy
Sensitivity
1) Sensitivity: is a measure of the change in output of a sensor in response to

a change in input.
2) A sensor is desired to have high sensitivity i.e. a small change in input

causes large change in output.

3) The value of sensitivity is indicated by the gain of sensor.
4) In case of an ideal sensor the output signal is only affected by input signal
however no pratical sensor is ideal. Therefore the output of sensor is
affected by temperature, humidity, vibration
INPUT
• INPUT is the stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external
energy source usually in order to produce a specified response from the control
system.
OUTPUT
• OUTPUT is the actual response obtained from the control system. It may or may
not be equal to the desired response implied by the input. The purpose of the
control system usually identifies or defines the inputs or outputs. Once inputs and
outputs are defined, it becomes possible to specify the nature of the system’s
components.
AUTOMATIC CONTROLLING AND REGULATING SYSTEM

• The measured value of a controlled condition is compared with a set value and a
correction dependent on their difference is applied to the correcting condition in
order to adjust the controlled condition without human intervention in the closed
loop formed by the comparing and correcting chains of the elements and the
process.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Definition – A control system is a group of components that maintains a desired result by
manipulating the value of another variable in the system.
In any control system once inputs and outputs are known then it is easier to determine the
type of control action required to achieve the desired output for given input
INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT

SIGNAL SYSTEM SIGNAL
ENERGY
SOURCE
BASIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM / FEED FORWARD SYSTEM

In open loop system, the information is measured and passed to the controller, forwarded
to the regulating element and further to the final control element, which takes the
corrective action.
NOTE—Here the controller is never aware of the effect of its control actions.
The controller senses only disturbances, which have not yet entered the process, and has
to be able to predict accurately the effect of such disturbances so that it may position the
control element in such a way as to compensate for them before they arrive at the
process.
EXAMPLE: The analogy from navigation is a man steering the ship in the dark, with no
shore lights or landmarks, calculating his course from a log, compass and charts. The
controller computes the speed, bearing, time, and follows the course plotted on his chart
without checks (feedback) from fixed points. The important point here is that the
controller must contain full information on the effect of disturbances on the system to be
controlledi.e. It must incorporate a model of the process.
It is worth mentioning that an open-loop system cannot deal with the disturbances
entering the system down-stream of the regulator, whereas the closed-loop system can.
The one virtue of the open-loop method of control is its immunity to oscillation, or
hunting, a trouble, which often afflicts closed-loop controls.
EXAMPLES OF OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

• EGE soot blowing system is an open loop control system because control action
does not depend on the output.
• The speed control of a ship is an open loop control system because information of
the ship’s speed is not fed back to the engine.
• Starting and running of fresh water wherein, FW production quantity is not fed
back the system.
• Main engine turbocharger LO high temperature alarm is open loop system.
• M/E sump level alarm is open loop system.
PERFORMANCE OF AN OPEN LOOP SYSTEM

• Performance of an open loop system is determined by its calibration.
• Generally, they are fairly stable.
• Response to change may be slow or absent.
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM / FEED BACK SYSTEM

In this system, a measurement is taken by the measuring element (thermometer) with its
associate lags and information passes via a mechanical linkage or electrically or
pneumatically or hydraulically to the controller. The controller also receives the desired
value (desired temperature) from human or another controller with associated errors and
lags and computes corrective action passing this signal to the regulating element (motor
operating throttle valve). The regulating element drives the final control element with
another array of lags and errors.
The controller always knows the effect of its action on the process.
EXAMPLE: A man steering a ship. Measurement is his view of landmarks or buoys,
Controller is his brain, course is the Desired Value, helm is the Regulating or
Controlling Element, and rudder is the Final control Element.
In a closed loop system process variable measured value is sent to the comparing element
via transmitter, where measured value is compared with set point or desired value and
difference in computed, which is termed as Deviation or Error. Based on the deviation
controller sends an amplified output signal to the final controlling element i.e Control
Valve

There are four modes of closed loop control system commonly used.
Two Position/ On-Off Control
With such systems a desired value is selected and the automatic controller adjusted so
that the correcting unit (a valve, pump or compressor) has only two positions or 2
conditions—open / shut, running or stopped. The automatic controller switches the
correcting unit from one extreme to the other as the controlled condition passes the set
point.
EXAMPLES: Electric thermostat, controlling immersion heaters, room heating, etc.
In systems such as steam hot water heaters, there is a time lag between the valve
operating and the heat passing from the steam to the water due to the heat transfer delay
by the tube mat
serial; this is known as a Transfer Lag and due to this the water temperature may take
time to rise or fall, as shown in the figure. This tends to prevent oscillation.

However, in domestic fresh water pressure or level control, the operation of the automatic
controller, the valve or pump and associated water flow can be very quick and oscillation
can occur. Such systems may be given overlap by the use of limit switches or adjusting
the controller.
All on-off devices have a Dead Zone or a zone of indeterminacy—a form of
Hystersis.Two Step systems are suitable for processes with High Demand Side capacity
and a Low Supply Side capacity, i.e., a large capacity of hot water tank with a small
supply of heat, the reverse would cause oscillations, which can cause rapid wear and tear
on the components and increased maintenance.
Floating Control
It is the same as two-position control except that the operation of the regulating element
is slow. Instead of the instantaneous make or break of a thermostatic switch, or opening

or closing of a solenoid valve in a steam or fuel line, the electric current or flow of the
fluid is gradually modulated by a slow running power unit. When the measured variable
crosses the desired value, the direction of change of power (electricity, or steam, or
fuel) is reversed. The idea is to make the change of regulating element so slow that the
throttling device never reaches the limit of its travel.
Proportional Control
This is the basic form of modulating control in which the controller is set up so that
any change in output is directly proportional to the deviation between the controlled
condition and the desired value.
The corrective action of the controller C bears a constant ratio to the error.
ERROR = +(M.V-D.V)
C = -K x ERROR
K = Constant Of Proportionality Or Gain Of the Controller—infact –K is the transfer
function of the controller:
K = output /input
Propotional output = ERRORX GAIN + Constant

Where Gain can be defined as output divided by input or ratio of output to input
and Error is the difference between Process value to Set value and constant is
nothing but a Bias.
PROPORTIONAL BAND
Proportional Band is defined as percentage change in the input signal that will allow
out put to change by hundred percent. If we say proportional band of a controller is
50 percent i.e. in irder to get 100% change in the controller output one need to
change the input by 50%..
Why do we need to change output by 100% ?

The role of output in a control system is to operate the valve or actuator. When we
mention that output changes by 100% , it necessarily means that we want to operate
the control valve from full open to full close or visa –versa.
Why one need to operate the valve from one end to other end position?
Why does a proportional controller stabilizes with an offset ?

In a proportional controller as input increases ,output also increases and as input
decreases output also decreases. Simply output follows the input. The moment input
becomes steady output also becomes steady. Hence Proportional stabilizes the system
with an offset.
Input Output Gain PB

0.2- 1.0 0.2-1.0
0.2-0.6 0.2-1.0
0.2-0.4 0.2-1.0

0.2-0.3 0.2-1.0
0.2-0.25 0.2-1.0
When proportional Band is narrow or Gain is high what would happen to the
control system?
Should we go for wide proportional band or narrow proportional band and why?
Main Engine Lube Oil Temperature control

using Proportional action



Process variable variation with varying Proportional Band
Higher the controller gain, narrower will be the proportional band. If the
proportional bandwidth is too narrow then a very small deviation between the
measured value and the desired value can cause a very large change in the output
signal. It can also cause instability and hunting. If too wide then the process will be
sluggish. The practical result is a comprise and the set value must be offcourse
within the band.

3
INPUT
OUTPUT
In a proportional controller there is liner relationship between input and output,

which is indicated by the above graph. The movement input comes to a stable point
output also stabilizes. A proportional controller always work on present i.e. it stops
changing in output when input stops changing although process variable may have
stabilize at a position different form set point. Hence proportional controller may
stabilize the process variable at a point different form set point i.e. with offset.
E Input
r
r
o
r
Output
Time


Boiler water level control using Proportional controller and offset
Integral Action
Since the proportional controller can not eliminate the offset
by itself alone. Therefore there is necessity of an additional

control in parallel to proportional action which will eliminate
the offset . This action is termed as RESET Action or Integral
action. The output of proportional action feeds the integral
action. Since integral action is offset based action, therefore the
contribution of integral action also depends upon the
magnitude of Error/Offset.
A PNEUMATIC PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL ACTION

Example

An adjustment on the automatic controller allows free variation of the reset or

integral action effect. It is usually measured in minutes of integral action time, or
repeats per minute. Integral action time is defined as the time taken for the integral
action to repeat the proportional action when there is a constant error present. Repeats
per minute measurement is arrived at thus: if the automatic controller, under the
effect of a deviation, produces an output signal change of 0.2 bar due to the
proportional control alone, and if the reset action due to the same deviation,
produces an additional 0.4 bar
Output signal change every minute, then the reset rate will be 0.4/0.2 = 2 repeats per
minute. Figures below show the reset action effect and from this it can be seen that
such action should be applied cautiously, otherwise hunting will occur.

Note-
It is clearly evident that after time t the output due to integral action
equals the output due to proportional action if a constant deviation
exists.

EFFECT OF VARYING INTEGRAL ACTION TIME ON PROCESS VARIABLE
Integral Action Time
Effect of Varying Integral Action
Proportional Plus Reset Plus Rate / Three Term Control
Plants having inherent characteristics such that when a disturbance occurs, because
of large volumes / or masses or long distances involved, there are time delays before
equilibrium is restored. A long reset time may be necessary and if there is a
tendency to hunting, a wide proportional band will be required. To improve
recovery from a disturbance in a plant with such problems, Derivative or Rate action
may be applied by adding a further term to the automatic controller output, in
addition to proportional and reset. Such action tends to stabilize the control system
and allows either the proportional band to be narrowed, or a shorter integral action
time to be used, or a combination of both.
With derivative action, the output signal change due to this action is proportional to the
rate of change of error.
It is measured in terms of the Derivative Action Time—the time taken for the
proportional component to become equal to the derivative component under ramp
conditions. Figures below show this effect.
NOTE— the rate of action is dependant upon the rate of change in error, or the rate
at which it is developing, and not upon the amount of error. Thus, a considerable
corrective action is possible for a small error or deviation if it takes place rapidly.
Also, a long derivative action time means that the proportional action takes longer
to repeat the derivative action, and assuming the gain or proportional band
constant, the derivative action is therefore greater than with the shorter derivative
action time. This is the reverse to integral time, where the shorter the time, the
greater the effect.

Derivative action adjustments should only be made in very small amounts over a
long period, for excessive amounts can cause hunting and instability.
Contribution of proportional and Derivative component in a P-D format

If rate of change of error remains constant for a period of time td, then output due
to derivative action remains steady for time td. Time td is derivative action time and
is decided by controller setting.
However due to varying error contribution due to proportional controller also
changes as indicated in graph.
While selecting the values on controller it is desired to keep a moderate proportional
band value so that system stabilizes with moderate offset. Then a moderate Integral
action is supplemented in parallel with proportional action so that offset can be
eliminated and system stabilizes without any offset.
Derivative action would bring the system in control condition at a faster rate as it is
anticipatory action.

Variation of Controller output with various combinations of P, P-I,P-D,P-I-D Mode

of controller and its effect on process variable. Valve behavior represents the
controller output.
Effects of Varying Rate Action


Response of various control combination using Step/Ramp and sinosidual change

Necessity Of Derivative Action:

Derivative action is very powerful action. However there are certain limitations of
derivative action. Derivative action is applicable only when error is changing. If
there is error but error is steady then even if derivative action is introduced, it is not
going to interfere in controller output.
Therefore derivative action is applicable only if error is changing. The magnitude of
derivative contribution is proportional to the rate of change of error. Derivative
action is also applicable to the given time period only.
Derivative action is very strong action and if not applied cautiously , system may not
stablise at all.
Normal combinations used are
PROPORTIONAL ACTION ALONE
PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL COMBINATION
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL AND DERIVATIVE COMBINATION
CHAPTER IV

SIGNAL TRANSMITTING DEVICES
This chapter explains some of the devices used to produce signals suited to long
distance signal transmission for control, alarm and recording purposes. The process
may generally be named telemetering and the devices are often called transducers.
Flapper Nozzle
Air is fed to the nozzle at a constant pressure via a restricter (to limit airflow so that P is
approximately atmospheric pressure when the nozzle / flapper gap is maximum).
The air leaks to the atmosphere at a rate depending upon the clearance between the
flapper and the nozzle tip and follows the curve as shown in the figure.
Nozzle / Flapper
With the flapper hard on the nozzle P (the back pressure) would be 1.4 bar (20 psi) while
if it is moved away approximately 0.03 mm, P is then slightly above atmospheric. As the
curve shows the back pressure P flapper movement relationship is only approximately
linear over the signal range, but if the curve is taken between the P pressures of 0.2 bar
and 0.5 bar, approximately 0.015 mm flapper travel, then the curve is much closer to the
linear requirement (i.e. P varies an equal amount, each time the flapper moves an equal
amount).
Nozzle / Flapper with Feedback
To achieve sensitivity Negative Feedback has to be used as shown in the Position

Balance Transmitter. Feedback means passing back the whole or part of the output signal
into the device producing that signal. Here P is fed back to the flapper through a bellows,
with a spring to provide the requisite balancing force.
Consider the signal initially, which moves the flapper be provided by a bourdon tube at
the end of a filled systems thermometer capillary tube. If the temperature at the bulb
increases by 2 degree Celsius and this causes the bourdon tube tip to move the flapper
towards the nozzle, say by 0.015 mm.
In previous graph, with no feed back, this movement would occupy the whole linear
range so that P changes from 0.2 bar to 0.5 bar and this would be the output signal,
the instrument thus having a range of 0.5-0.2 bar i.e. 0.3 bar for a 2 degree Celsius
temperature range.
Considering the same temperature change where Negative Feedback is applied, the
flapper initially moves the same amount and the backpressure P increases to 0.5 bars, but
in doing so, it causes the bellows to expand, pivoting the flapper about point 1. The
nozzle/flapper gap then increases, moving it back towards, but not exactly to, its original
position until a position of equilibrium is reached. The actual resultant movement of the
flapper from its position may then be only 0.00025 mm and output (back pressure) will
have increased by a very small amount, say 0.05 bar so that the output is now 0.25 bar.
Thus with 2 degree Celsius giving a pressure change of 0.05 bar, the temperature range
that can be measured and transmitted has been increased to 0.5- 0.2 x 2 = 12
0.05
NOTE--- The reason the feedback is given a negative notation is that it moves the
flapper back towards its original position.
If it moved the flapper further away from its original position it would be called
Positive Feedback.
Also note that any variable such as level, pressure, flow, etc. could be used to move the
flapper, the position of point 1 being adjustable to suit the input movement available to
give the flapper/nozzle the necessary gap variation for correct operation.
Relay Valve
Provides pneumatic amplification, proportional movement, and reduced time lag.
Equivalent in action to an electronic amplifier.
If P increases then the bellows act to close the bleed port and the supply air passes, to the
controlling unit, conversely if P decreases a continuous bleed to the atmosphere occurs.
Amplification by a factor of 16 can easily be arranged, for example a flapper travel of
0.01 mm causing a change of P on the bellows of 0.05 bars could give an output from 1.2
to 2 bars.
Booster or Pilot Valve Relay or Pilot Valve Amplifier
The nozzle/flapper described above may be considered as an amplifier, as a small input
movement is converted in a measurable pneumatic signal, but the increments of pressure
change are still too small to be transmitted over long distance or operate large equipment,
and there is therefore a second stage amplifier called a Booster or Pilot Valve Relay as
shown in the figures given below.
Here, the nozzle backpressure acts on a diaphragm attached to a spindle with a valve on
the opposite end. The leaf spring can be adjusted to give the correct operating range and
balance the load on the diaphragm. Consider that air at input pressure, say 1.4 bar, is
supplied to the underside of the ball valve.
If the backpressure P increases as the flapper approaches the nozzle, the diaphragm
pressure increases and the conical exhaust valve moves towards its seat, thus reducing the
air bleeding off to atmosphere and at the same time opening the ball valve so that output
pressure increases. If the exhaust valve is shut in completely, the output pressure
increases to 1.4 bars.
If P decreases, the spring moves the spindle to open the exhaust valve and shut in the ball
valve reducing the output pressure to the extent that it drops to just above atmospheric if
the ball valve shuts completely. Intermediate positions of the valves give output pressures
from 0 to 1.4 bars.
The nozzle backpressure relationship with the pilot valve is not linear over the full range
and usually pilot valves are adjusted to accommodate a nozzle backpressure range of
approximately 0.2 to 0.5 bars, which gives reasonable linearity for the nozzle/flapper
behaviour. This gives an output range for the ball valve between 0.2 to 1.0 bar ~ linear.
Amplification gain or = Diaphragm Pressure Range (P Range)

Pressure Range Multiplication Factor Ball Valve Output Pressure Range
= (1.0 - 0.2)
(0.5 – 0.2)
= 0.8
0.3
= 2.6
NOTE— This is said to be a direct acting device i.e. as P increases so the output
increases pressure from second stage amplifier increases. If this latter pressure were to
drop as P increases it would be called a reverse acting device.
DIRECT ACTING RELAY
REVERSE ACTING RELAY

Self-Balancing Device
Motion Balance Device

This device operates on the Force Balance Relationship. Here a bourdon tube, bellows,

diaphragm etc., acts on the end of a beam as shown in the figure given below. The beam
is pivoted, and at the opposite end to the applied force acts against a nozzle. Air is
supplied through a restriction to a nozzle whence it bleeds to atmosphere.
Any change in the measured condition of the system being monitored, alters the
measured value signal and the difference between this and the set point signal pivots the
right hand side altering the nozzle/flapper gap. Suppose the beam approaches the nozzle,
then the air escape is restricted and the back pressure builds up, increasing the output
pressure and also the force on the feedback diaphragm which in turn produces an
opposing torque on the beam, tending to move it away from the flapper—having negative
feedback effect.
NOTE—On instruments of this type, in practice the position of the pivot is variable to
alter the operating range and a zero adjusting spring is also fitted to create a force against
the beam to pre-load it to give an output of 0.2 bar at the lowest value of the range over
which the system is being monitored.
Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter

Pressure transmitter shown in the Diagram consists of pressure measuring Element and a
motion transmitter. Instead of a conventional baffle-nozzle, this transmitter employs an
annular orifice with a variable restrictor called the wire pilot. Supply air passes through
the fixed restriction into the follow up bellows and out the detector nozzle. The wire pilot
throttles the exhaust from nozzle. It has a sharply tapered step so that when large
diameter wire restricts the orifice, the backpressure rises to the maximum and when small
diameter is effective the backpressure drops to atmospheric. At balance therefore the
follow up bellows move to position the detector nozzle in line with the tapered step of the
wire pilot.
Process pressure acts on measuring diaphragm. An increase in process pressure moves
the diaphragm upward, which via U-Shaped linkage moves the wire pilot upward. The
wire pilot restricts the annular orifice and the backpressure increases. The two bellows
that make up the follow up bellows system have the same area and are connected rigidly
The Second Stage Amplifier or “Booster Relay”

The booster relay is sued to amplify the signal coming from the nozzle flapper. It is also
found that without this amplifier, signal transmission and final actuation of the correcting
unit would take too long making the arrangement impracticable. A simplified diagram of
one form of booster relay is shown
Pneumatic Relay valve Used in normal controllers
The main function of the pilot valve is used to deliver or exhaust a large volume of
air per unit time. It also acts as a pressure amplifier. The pilot valve may be adjusted so
that a change of nozzle back pressure of between about 0.15 bar and 0.3 bar will give the
full range of change in the output pressure.
The booster relay results in

1) Higher air delivery and exhaust capacity
2) Pressure amplification
3) An improvement in the linearity of the system

YAMATAKE HONEY WELL PILOT RELAY VALVE
This valve consists of double-seated pilot valve where the nozzle flapper
backpressure operates from the top of the diaphragm and regulates the relay output
pressure. This is a direct acting pilot relay valve where the increasing in the nozzle
back pressure causes increase in the relay output pressure. The air to the nozzle and
flapper unit is routed via very fine restriction consisting of a filtering unit. This type
of pilot relay valve is capable of giving amplification of 5 to 6 times.
Pilot relay valve unit is prone to malfunction since it consists of diaphragm and Teflon
valve seats if air quality is not good then it may hamper smooth functioning of pilot relay
unit. This is suggested that the air supplied to the pilot relay assembly should be clean
and dry. The maximum number of problems in a controller system is associated with
pilot valve assembly. The pilot valve is not designed for the changes in the output for a
given input.

MULTI-FUNCTIONAL RELAY
A multi functional relay combines the requirement for adding, averaging, subtracting and
rationing in one relay.
The relay contains four bellows and a movable fulcrum, which can be accurately
positioned and clamped in the central position for all cases, except when it is sued as a
ratio relay.
The bellows required are connected to the input signals; any bellows not required being
vented to atmosphere.
a) As summation Relay- P3 = 0 and A =B therefore P1=P2+P4

b) As subtraction Relay- P2=0 and A=B output P1=P4-P3
c) Ratio Relay (Multiplication Relay) - P3=P4=0 output P1= A/B x P2 A/B= ratio
d) Averaging relay- P1=P3 and A=B therefore P1= [ (P2+P4) / 2 ] = output


Smart Transmitters
Until recently, measuring technology lagged behind the developments in controllers and
control systems. The development of smart transmitters has enabled measurement quality
to now be commensurate with control.
A smart transmitter is a microprocessor-based measuring instrument that provides two
major features: improved performance and two-way digital communications between the
control station and the field. These features have resulted in increased process
profitability by providing improved accuracy, remote communication, configuration for
application, diagnostics, greater reliability, reduced maintenance, improved control
quality, and more efficient communication. The normal accuracy of process transmitters
was at one time considered to be ±1% of full-scale value. Measurement precision has
always been important, because the emphasis generally was on control of a variable
rather than measurement for absolute accuracy. When measurement accuracy can be
improved to ±O..l % or even ±O.05%, tighter control around a desired point can
be achieved. This improved accuracy can translate to substantial improvement in product
quality, reduction in raw materials, and increased profits. With increasing emphasis on
product purity and improved efficiency, the retrofitting of production units often is
justified by increased accuracy of measurement and improved control quality.
lmproved Digital Sensors

Conventional analog transmitters utilize two transducers. The input transducer converts a
quantity relative to the process, such as pressure or differential pressure, to a force or
motion. The output transducer then converts this quantity to an electrical or pneumatic
signal for transmission. Pressure and differential-pressure applications are often affected
by ambient or process temperature changes and by variations in process static pressure.
The error caused by these disturbances may not be compensated because of the added
power and complexity involved with such analog circuitry. Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) electronics technology has changed this and is the key to smart
transmitters, offering low power requirements and the ability to function over a wide
range of temperature variations.
True digital sensors, primary sensor characterization, and secondary variable
characterization have improved the accuracy of digital transmitters. Although it may be
an analog world, some sensors operate in the digital domain. This eliminates at least one
stage of conversion (and perhaps two), which improves the resolution and accuracy of the
measurement. One manufacturer uses a resonate wire with the input pressure element to
produce a change in frequency with variations in process measurement. Because this is a
digital signal, no AID conversion is required at the transmitter. Digital circuits can
accurately and precisely count the frequency pulses using the microprocessor's master
clock as a reference, thereby producing a high-resolution output signal from the input
transducer. Signal conditioning that is normally performed by the output transducer is
performed digitally and requires no conversion. Linearizing, scaling, calibration, range
change, and other characterizing processes are done in the transmitter by microprocessor
circuitry. Such resonant pressure sensors have been reliable and stable for a test run of
7years. Error as small as ±O.02% of span has been achieved.
A dual-capacitance cell detector including reference and sensing capacitors is used in a
digital transmitter; a digital circuit converts the process measurement directly into a
frequency output corresponding to an applied pressure. A multimode oscillator (an
application-specific integrated circuit) converts capacitance values to frequencies which

are then converted to serial outputs. This all-digital signal-conditioning circuit eliminates
the need for AID conversion and the errors resulting from digit and parasitic capacitance.
Each pressure-detecting capacitance cell is characterized, which also reduces the
requirements for pressure sensor calibration. This technique not only improves the overall
transmitter accuracy but also can result in turndown ratios as high as 45 to 1 [Ref. 1].
Most analog sensor input transducers exhibit a certain amount of nonlinearity. Often the
desired process measurements (e.g., differential pressure, pressure, level, flow, etc.) are
distorted by other parameters. Typically, conventional transmitters can have error as great
as 2% or more caused by variations in ambient temperature. Performance improvements
are achieved when the computation capability of smart transmitters is used to characterize
its output.
By testing a particular instrument at various operating conditions, data can be expressed
in an equation that defines the performance of the device. Using inputs from other
sensors as variables, the microprocessor circuitry in transmitters can compensate for all
variables expressed in the equation.
Many applications use the ability of a smart transmitter to characterize the output signal.
This capability alone had resulted in a revolution presently under way in process
measurement and is a major factor in increased measurement accuracy. Cases have been
cited where conventional analog signal conditioning has caused error of 0.5 to 5% and
greater. Sensor characterization has resulted in improved accuracy to 0.1% of span with
an 8:1 range ability. The algorithm that defines the sensor characteristic can be
customized for individual transducers and implemented by software. Temperature effects
have been reduced from 1 to 0.1 %.
In gage-pressure applications, two pressure measurement are made and both are
compensated for temperature. The microprocessor uses the barometric-pressure
measurement to trim the absolute measurement to gage-pressure specifications.
Differential-pressure measurements must be independent of static-pressure variations. A
microprocessor receiving a static-pressure measurement from a secondary transducer will
compensate for the fluctuations.
Smart Transmitter Operation

The operation of smart pressure and differential-pressure transmitters relies on the same
basic pressure-detection principles discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. In fact, some
manufacturers offer an upgrade kit to convert an analog transmitter to digital by
exchanging the electronic signal-conditioning circuitry of an analog transmitter for that of
a digital transmitter. Other manufacturers have modified the pressure-detecting cell for
digital transmitters.
Figure ~ shows a block diagram of a transmitter with a capacitor sensor used in ~n analog
transmitter. The AID converter translates the analog signal from the sensor module to a
digital representation. The resulting digital value is processed by the microprocessor,
which also provides sensor linearization, range down, dampening, and transfer functions.
The microprocessor also controls the digital-to-analog (DA) converter for the 4- to 20-
mA output and drives the digital communications, which is compatible with the HART
protocol. This protocol uses a standard Bell 202 frequency shift keying (FSK) techTIique.
A high-frequency signal is superimposed on the 4- to 20-mA output communication
cable.
A later version of a smart transmitter is shown in Figure . The sensor is isolated from
electrical and temperature disturbances of the process fluid. This enables operation in
temperature environments up to 175°C, with process temperature measurement to
compensate for temperature effects. During cell characterization at the factory, all cells
are run through temperature and pressure cycles. Data from these tests are stored in each
transmitter's characterization PROM to ensure precise signal correction during operation.

The PROM represents a personality circuitry to convert the sensor response to a digital
signal for further processing and refinement by the microprocessor. The EEPROM
(electrically erasable and programmable read-only memory) is a nonvolatile memory
module that stores the characterization data and is an integral part of the sensor module.
Digital trim data that can be changed by the transmitter software are also included in the
EEPROM. The digital trim data are cell dependent and should be retrimmed when an
associated component is replaced or exchanged. The RAM (random access memory) is a
temporary workspace used by the microprocessor for calculations and cannot be
addressed by the user.
Configuration and sensor linearization data stored in the nonvolatile EEPROM are
retained in the transmitter when power is interrupted. The measurement data are stored
digitally to enable precise connections and engineering conversion before being
converted to a corresponding current value for analog transmission. Remote testing and
configuration of the transmitter are accomplished from the control station or from a
remote hand-held communicator (HHC).
HHC Transmitter Smart Family Interface

An HHC is a remote terminal used for communication between the technician and the
transmitter. A four-line by 20-character dot-matrix liquid crystal display (LCD) is
employed. The top two lines display user prompts, information about the communication
session, and user-entered values. The bottom two lines generally display dynamic labels
for the four software-defined keys directly below the display. These labels reflect
currently available choices, and lead the technician through the operation sequences
involved in communication between the HHC and the transmitter.
The panel contains a complete alphanumeric keypad, six dedicated keys, and four
software-defined keys. The functions of software-defined keys vary, depending on the
task being performed, but dedicated key functions are always the same. Brief descriptions
of these keys and the operations they provide follow.
ON/OFF turns the unit on and off. When the HHC is turned on, it first performs self-
diagnostic routines and then searches for a smart transmitter in the 4- to 20-mA loop. If
no smart transmitter is found, it offers the opportunity to try again. If no key is pressed on
the keypad for 20 min, the unit automatically shuts itself off. However, this shutoff
function is disabled while the HHC is displaying the process variable or an error
message.

PROCESS VARIABLE displays up-to-date process variable readings from the

transmitter in engineering units and the transmitter output in milliamps. The displayed
process variable is updated approximately once every 2 s.
REVIEW allows you to step through all the information currently held in the four
memory locations in the transmitter and HHC: SAFE MEM, OFLN MEM, WORK REG,
and XMTR MEM. These four memory locations are described in detail later in this
section.
HELP explains the software-defined key functions (Fl to F4) in greater detail. You can
step through the help screens by pressing the HELP CONT prompter. You can end a help
session and return to the original screen by pressing HELP END.

RESTART allows initiation of communication with a smart transmitter while the HHC is
still turned on. Upon connection to a new transmitter, pressing this key loads information
from the new transmitter into the HHC Working Register.
PREVIOUS FUNCTION returns to the last decision level and allows the selection of a
different software-defined key function. For instance, if you want to configure the
transmitter but TEST is pressed on the top-level function menu by accident, the
PREVIOUS FUNCTION key returns to the previous menu and allows another choice.
This key is also useful for returning to a familiar menu when progression in an unfamiliar
operation is halted.
Four software-defined keys are used for functions appropriate to the screen currently
displayed. This allows the HHC to perform many functions with only a few keys and a
minimum of confusion. The functions of these keys are explained later.
The alphanumeric keys are used to enter information into the HHC when updating
transmitter parameters. Pressing a key by itself will enter the value of that key, indicated
in large print in the center of the key.
To enter an alphabetic character, first press the SHIFT key that corresponds to the
position of the letter you want on the alphanumeric key, and then press the alphanumeric
key. For example, to enter the letter R, first press the right-hand SHIFT key, then the "6"
key. Do not press these keys simultaneously, but one after the other.
Together, the transmitter and the HHC contain four memory-storage locations. Three
reside in the HHC and one in the transmitter itself. Figure 5-4 depicts these memory
locations and the allowable data-transfer paths. Note that the only direct path for data
between the HHC and the transmitter memory is through the working register.
SAFE MEM is the memory location in the HHC where existing transmitter information
parameters can be saved upon start-up. If changes are made to the transmitter
configuration that you want to "undo," you can recall the information from the Safe
Memory and return the transmitter to its original configuration. Keep in mind that the
Safe Memory does not store digital trim information and that such information cannot be
"undone" in this manner. Also, the Safe Memory can be used only to restore data to the
same individual transmitter from which it was obtained. The data in the Safe Memory are
nonvolatile; they remain even if the HHC is turned off. However, if the battery pack
becomes discharged or is removed, the contents of the Safe Memory will be lost.
OFLN MEM stores configuration information that was entered in the HHC off-line for
later downloading to a transmitter. This location can also be used to clone a transmitter
by uploading its configuration data and then downloading it to a number of other
transmitters. The data in the Off-line Memory are nonvolatile; they remain even if the
HHC is turned off. However, if the battery pack becomes discharged or is removed, the
contents of the Off-line Memory will be lost.
WORK REG is the memory location that stores data as they are being entered. It
receives the transmitter's configuration data upon start-up or restarting. Configuration
changes are first made in the Working Register. The data in the Working Register are not
automatically sent to the transmitter, but must be transferred using the SEND DATA
software defined key.
XMTR MEM is the nonvolatile memory in the transmitter. The transmitter uses the
contents of this memory to determine how it operates. Data in the Transmitter Memory
are never accessed directly, but rather must be uploaded into the Working Register before
they can be received or changed.
The information in the Transmitter Memory may be different from that in the Working
Register, since the Working Register may contain changed data that have not yet been
sent to the transmitter. Therefore, the HHC will warn that reviewing this location will
erase the information currently held in the Working Register.
The HHC can interface with the transmitter from the control room, the transmitter site, or
any other wiring termination point in the loop. To communicate, it must be connected in
parallel with the transmitter; the connections are nonpolarized.
To function properly, there must be a minimum of 250 .Q resistance in the loop between
the power supply and the HHC. Capacitance across the load resistor should be less than
0.1 pF .
Configuration
The transmitter is programmed or configured for modification of several kinds of specific
information divided into two categories: that which affects the transmitter output and that
which supplies information
about the transmitter or loop. The various configure modes are discussed below.
OFLN DATA can be used to store transmitter configuration or to provide access to off-
line-entered data. Duplication of configuration data from one transmitter to another is
possible, so manually entering data each time is not required. Figure 5-4 shows where
data are stored and how they are transferred between the transmitter and the remote
transmitter interface.
CHNG OPUT can be used to configure parameters that affect transmitter output. The
following functions are affected:
• Units: se~ects engineering units
Range: can be selected for rerange (1) from the HHC, (2) by reference to an externally
applied pressure source using the HHC to confirm the 4- and 20-mA points, and (3) by
reference to an externally applied pressure source using span and zero push buttons
without connection to the HHC
• Output: selects linear or square root output
• Dampening: selects dampening values from 0 to 16 s

XMTR INFO is used to change the following information:

• Tag information: an 8-character field
• Descriptor: a 16-character field
• Message: a multipurpose 32-character field
• Date
• Integral meter
• Isolator material
fill fluid
flange material
vent/drain
O-ring
remote seal information
SEND DATA allows the transfer of all information from the Working Register of the
HHC to the transmitter. All data are sent at once and the user knows whether the
transmitter data have actually been changed.
The format functions are used during the initial setup of a transmitter and for
maintenance of the digital electronics. The top-level format menu offers two functions:
CHARIZ allows for retrofitting of analog transmitters to digital using the same sensor
module.
DGTL TRIM allows adjustment of the transmitter characterization for purposes of
calibration. Two separate options are provided:
Sensor trim, to adjust the digital output signal to a precise pressure input
• 4- to 20-mA trim, to adjust the output electronics
Some information such as sensor limits and transmitter / communications software
revision levels are not user changeable.
Special Features and Advantages of Smart Transmitters
The many advantages and features of digital transmitters are listed below. Improved
performance and functional specifications
• Reduced ertor of temperature effects for wide range:
process, -40 to 175°C
ambient, -40 to 85°C
• Failure alarm: high or low limit, user selectable
Damping: 0- to 16-s output response to step input
• Accuracy to include hysteresis, linearity, repeatability, and drift:
±0.1 % of calibrated span for analog transmission
±0.07% of calibrated span for digital transmission
• Static pressure effect:
zero error,
±0.1 % to ±0.2% depending on range and static pressure
span error,
±0.2% of reading per 1000 psi
Power supply effect:
0.0005% of calibrated span
FI effect: 0.1% of calibrated span
Overrange effect: 0.05% of reference span to maximum pressure rating
Special features
Execute complex calculations
Perform logical operations (e.g., digital signal conditioning)

Improved performance, with less susceptibility to error caused by:
vibration
humidity
mounting position
Configurable
• Output: 4 to 20-mA, digital, percent of span or engineering units
• Lower range value (LRV) user selected

• Upper range value (URV) user selected
• Transmitter serial numbers
• Linear or square root output
• Engineering units (EGU) user selected
• Tag number: 12 characters user selected
• Dampening setting
• Last date of calibration
• Calibrated range
Diagnostics: automatic with no prompt required
Input range
• 0 or full vacuum to 6000 psi gage or 51 and metric equivalent for pressure
• 0 to 10 or 0 to 750 in. H20 or 51 and metric equivalent

Cost Benefits
• Reduced power consumption

• Reduced initial cost and capital investment
• Reduced parts inventory
Area network benefits
• Full sensor accuracy available to control system

• Improved data integrity through digital signaling and error detection
• Lower installed cost of field devices and control system
• Reduced maintenance cost with diagnostic features
Characterization for individual sensor for linearity effects

Signal conditioning by software manipulations
• Remote digital communications for:
reranging
diagnostics
reading transmitter data
As mentioned earlier, smart transmitters can improve performance and

provide two-way communication; the greater accuracy cited is a result of
the new design of digital electronics. The advantages realized by two-
way communication will perhaps be more narrow in scope and more
oriented toward specific applications [Ref. 2].
Communication
Many smart transmitters have the capability to generate digital signals

for transmitting data to controllers and receiving instruments. The
advantages of digital transmission are to a large extent not yet realized
because most facilities still use 4- to 20-mA input from field instruments.
This is changing as more new installations will be capable of digital
communication between transmitters and receiving instruments. This
capability will realize improved performance by eliminating two sources
of error: the AID in the transmitter and the DI A in the controller.
Although the 4- to 20-mA transmission option most often is used to
receive data from the field, transmitters can respond to a request for
data from the control room. Most such requests for data fall into three
categories: diagnostics, process data, and transmitter specification
details. This helps to verify the operation of the transmitter by allowing
remote operational checks, reranging, troubleshooting, and process
documentation.
Bidirectional digital communication is possible between digital

transmitters and OCSs, HHCs, or other types of operator work stations.
The lack of standards that specify how smart transmitters and control
systems should communicate digitally is no doubt impeding the
acceptance and use of total digital-control systems. Each vendor's smart
device features unique protocols, and few manufacturers are willing to
openly share them. Figure 5-5 shows a typical application for both
analog and digital communication. Figure 5-6 shows a multiple
transmitter application.

Many protocols are now in use, each with its own advantages and limitations. In one,
alternating 4- and 20-mA signals is used to represent data information in l's and D's
format. This makes it fairly easy to distinguish between information and noise. An
obvious disadvantage is that communication to the transmitter interrupts the information
from the process even if the operator simply asks for a tag number. For more involved
communication to the transmitter, the controller would be transferred to manual so that
momentary loss of information from
the transmitter would be acceptable. Figure 5-7 shows data exchange with a digital
transmitter by shifting the signal level between 4 and 20mA.
The l's and D's can also be represented by modulating the loop current 0.5 mA above and
below the transmitter's output signal. This modulation is accomplished by transformer-
coupling a signal generator to the loop. A message consisting of l's would shift the
intelligent signal from the transmitter 0.5 mA above its normal signal. This 3.125%
change in signal is no doubt more susceptible to noise corruption.

Another approach uses the Bell 202 frequency-shift keying standard to impose a high-
frequency signal riding on the 4- to 20-mA signal. The l's and O's are represented by
different frequencies. This format allows digital communication with the transmitter's 4-
to 20-mA uninterrupted. Communication is in parallel with the field instrument and can
be initiated at any point on the loop.
A fourth scheme devised to communicate with field smart transmitters is to separate the
communication link from the 4- to 20-mA loop. The field communicator is connected
directly to the transmitter, and repeaters are used to transmit the data.
Applications
Committees such as ISA SP-50 are working to set standard methods of communication
protocol. Like most such standards, however, progress has been slow. Presently, the
entire control package-transmitter and control systems-must be purchased from the same
vendor unless special consideration is given to mix and match applications. If a
commonly accepted standard is not soon established by a central organization, one will
soon be set and adopted by users.

Smart transmitters can be linked to personal computers that provide a special interface
between the transmitter and the receiver. The control system then operates with the 4- to
20-mA signal from the transmitter, while the PC (using software provided by the
transmitter's manufacturer) utilizes the digital signal to perform other functions, such as
diagnostics, configuration, and recordkeeping. The effectiveness of this scheme depends
on the ability of the 4- to 20-mA and digital signals to coexist simultaneously. If they can,
a PC interface with smart transmitters can be advantageous.
Eventually total digital instrumentation will develop to a point where all communication
between field instruments and receivers will be on a communications highway. This will
eliminate the need for cable pairs, perhaps a favorable economic situation. Information
will be transmitted digitally over local area networks that employ many devices
addressable so that total communication among all instruments will be possible. For
maximum advantage, such a system must accommodate existing two-wire instruments
and support all other field instruments, such as transmitters, valves, composition
transmitters, and contact inputs/outputs (I/Os). This development will, however, wait for
a standard.
Some applications and functions of smart transmitters include
calibration by remote communications, complex calculations, versatile configurations,
diagnostics, new maintenance structure, built-in control capability, and added control
efficiency by true distributed control. The fact that true digital transmitters do not have
physical adjustments knobs to twist or switches to throw for calibration purposes-makes
them ideal for operation in remote and inaccessible locations. Calibration adjustments are
made digitally, stored in nonvolatile memory, and performed by an HHC usually

connected at the receiving instrument, making smart transmitters very attractive to the
nuclear industry. Remote ranging and calibration offer other advantages. Smart
differential-pressure transmitters in orifice applications have been used to increase the
turndown ratio from 3:1 to as high as 7:1. The operating range of the orifice meter is
limited by the repeatability of the pressure drop at low flow rates and the maximum
pressure drop in the system at high flow rates. It is also further limited by Reynolds
number.
The turndown of orifice plates is potentially very high without significant error, assuming
that applications and parameters are such that the Reynolds number is sufficiently high.
The quality of the transmitter used to measure the differential-pressure is usually the
limiting factor affecting the accuracy of the measurement. When compensation can be
made in the transmitter for ambient temperature and static pressure, zero and range drift
are minimized and the signal is maintained in the upper 50% of the range, head flow
measurement accuracy is greatly improved, and characterization of the sensor and
transmitter permits a much wider rangeability without loss of measurement accuracy.
Automatic reranging or on-line rangeability depends on the amount of acceptable
uncertainty, but generally the flow should, as stated, be 70% of maximum value. The
error increases as the flow is reduced. The 3:1 turndown limitation for orifice meters is
usually based on the fact that the measurement error becomes excessive for flow rates
below 30% of maximum. On-line rangeability is limited to 3:1 for conventional
transmitters. By using the HHC to rerange the transmitter, the uncertainty error at low
flow rates is decreased. The turndown can increase to 5:1 for 1 % uncertainty and 7:1 for
2% uncertainty. Equivalent rangeability using conventional transmitters for continuous
operation would require a minimum of three stacked transmitters on a single orifice run
or three parallel orifice runs with automatic valving.
The on-line reranging of smart transmitters has placed orifice meters in
a more favorable position, considering the disadvantages of limited turndown capability
and degradation of accuracy at decreasing flow rates. A word of caution is in order,
however. Many engineers do not feel comfortable about setting the range on a transmitter
without using a deadweight tester or other standard to verify the accuracy. This is
especially true for critical area measurement, custody transfer, and other such
applications, but this precisely defines applications where smart transmitters are gaining
acceptance and popularity. As digital transmitters continue to prove reliable with
repeatable calibration ability, true remote ranging will become more common.
The computing power of digital transmitters adds to the versatility of these measuring
devices. Applications utilizing this capability include linearizing and characterizing
nonlinear level applications, linearizing signals for head flow measurements, averaging
and totalizing flow values, configurable initializing, and setting the failure mode of
transmitters to fail at 0 or 100% of span or at last reading, as desired.
Diagnostics is another feature of digital transmitters that adds to the advantages of smart
devices. Neglecting the failure of the microprocessor, this feature enables the detection of
a failed sensing element, faulty input circuit, failed ROM or RAM, and extreme process
or environmental conditions, and determines the likelihood of an unreasonable output. By
setting an output signal, operators can set and verify alarm and shutdown values from the
control room or from any point in the loop using the HHC.
Maintenance procedures are simplified by these diagnostic features, and frequent trips to
the field are eliminated. Transmitters can be set by standards in the shop and changed
remotely for various applications.

Considering present capabilities and possible future developments, an engineer may have
difficulty selecting the proper smart device or even choosing between smart and
conventional. Such decisions warrant a plant instrumentation philosophy concerning
communications protocol, utilization of existing analog technology, applications
involving a retrofit, and new installations. Three major possibilities should be considered:
all digital, digital! analog, and all analog.
If the choice is all digital, then digital transmitters should be a prime consideration.
Although digital transmitters are presently available for most applications and digital
receivers are probably not in common use, all-digital facilities are becoming increasingly
popular. The choice is changing from digital! analog to all digital. The all-analog
technology is rapidly fading from the scene.
In a digital! analog plant, digital was once reserved for specific applications when
performance and communications requirements could justify its higher cost. The price
gap between digital and analog transmitters, however, has reversed. To facilitate the
integration of analog to digital, as previously mentioned, some vendors offer a smart
electronics upgrade for their analog devices, enabling users to have communication
capabilities at reduced cost.
When few applications exist for the added versatility of digital and networking
technology, the added expense of a communication network cannot be justified. Such
facilities will use digital transmitters with analog transmission.
With the many advantages of digital over analog transmitters, the industry is moving to
digital transmitters for improved performance alone, even if true digital communication
and total networking capabilities are never realized. The following data have been taken
from manufacturers' specifications and have been substantiated by plant tests.
Five conventional pressure transmitters on routine maintenance schedules were randomly
sampled from a steam generation facility to determine accuracy degradation during actual
process conditions. The sample showed inaccuracies compared to laboratory standards
ranging from
0.5 to 4% of measured range. This degradation was diagnosed directly to the analog
signal conditioning. Digital transmitters minimize inaccuracies and provide cost savings
resulting from more accurate and precise measurements .
Early in the development of digital transmitters, a chemical company tested the
performance of digital and analog differential-pressure transmitters in identical services
and conditions. One of the digital transmitters was an upgrade of an analog manufactured
by the same company. The performance of the instrument being evaluated was compared
to a plant standard in an environmentally protected enclosure. The test transmitters were
not installed in an enclosure, and their readings were not compensated for static-pressure
shifts. Ambient temperature and process pressure had a slight effect on the test instrument
upgraded from an analog type, and the all-digital test instrument was not affected by
ambient-temperature variations; it was also unaffected by static-pressure variations.
The 6-month test incorporated ambient-temperature variations of 0 to 25°C and static-

pressure variations from 983 to 1223 psig. The performance of the digital instruments
under test was as good as the standard instrument in an enclosure. The cost of using only
one transmitter without an enclosure compared to three with an enclosure was
significantly lower. Smart transmitters are now used by the company in all new pressure
and differential-pressure applications.
Smart transmitters were field tested by a power-generating company that switched to the
devices because of remote ranging capability and immunity to error caused by process
and ambient-temperature variations. Prior to the conversion to digital transmitters,
conventional analog types were used with temperature-controlled enclosures.
The company realized the need to upgrade to more versatile equipment and conducted
tests with several different types of smart pressure transmitters to determine accuracy and
repeatability. Test pressures were produced with a highly accurate and precise
deadweight tester, and the output was read with a highly accurate and precise
milliampmeter multiplexed to a computer. The test instruments were energized for 24 h,
with 30 readings taken at five different pressures. Some of the transmitters were placed in
plant vehicles and subjected to handling that would be encountered during transportation
and moving. Others were placed in storage for several weeks, and others remained on the
calibration stand and were recalibrated. The devices were rechecked by comparing the
first calibration result against a known pressure that consisted of 30 data points at the
same pressures as the calibration check.
The transmitters were checked at 400,100, and 50 in. The accuracy was well within
±0.05% until the range was reduced to 50 in., in which case the error became significant.
The instruments under evaluation performed as well as analog types in enclosures. The
power company, like the chemical company, concluded that smart transmitters are the
best choice for use in all critical pressure and differential-pressure applications [Ref. 6].
Evolution Toward Total Digital Systems

Considering the advantages of digital transmitters and the nearly universal use of digital
controllers and control systems, the total integration of digital measurement systems via a
bidirectional communication bus with fully configurable control system architecture is
surely on the way. The use of a hand-held interface unit, or HHC, to communicate with a
digital transmitter (Figure 5-8) is the most prevalent application of this technology.
CHAPTER V
CONTROL SYSTEMS AND ITS APPLICATION ON BOARD
Automatic Pneumatic controller

We have actual pneumatic proportional controller, which is fitted onboard lub oil
temperature control system of main engine. The measured value signal is been taken from
the outlet point of lub oil cooler and via pneumatic transmitter is being feed to the bellow
2 of balance being type of temperature controller. The set point is being given at a bellow
no 1 and the pneumatic signal works depending on bellow no 1 & 2. Let us assume that
pivot point is at the centre and other end of the beam is bellow 3 which is vented to the
atmosphere and balance beam is connected to the pilot relay unit.
As the deviation in the set point and the measured value changes the beam is tilted to
either clockwise or either anti clockwise direction and hence the pilot valve will move
accordingly and close the supply and exhaust ports and effectively change the output
pressure which is operating the final controlling element i.e. control valve.

CHANGE OF PROPORTIONAL BAND IN A BALANCE BEAM TYPE

AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER
If the pivot is moved towards the right hand side so that X = 1.5 and Y= 0.5 for the same
temperature change and signal error (assume 0.1 bar)
Therefore taking movements about the pivot point
1.5 X change in Input = Output X 0.5

1.5 X 0.1 = Output change X 0.5
Output change = 0.3 bar
Thus by moving the pivot on R.H.S, for the same deviation the gain has been increased
three times and proportional band narrowed to 331/3 %
In general
Po= [ ( P2-P1 ) X / Y ] + P3
Since P3 is open to atmosphere and thus is zero, as all the pressure involved use
atmospheric pressure as datum.
Moving the pivot to left reduces the gain and widens the proportional Band
As this is proportional controller the V/V controlling the L.O by pass at cooler would
move an amount proportion to the error and depending upon the gain or proportional
band setting, there would be some degree of “OFFSET”
Proportional control results in Offset, because it responds to change in input. If input

stops changing, output also stops changing, even if process variable settled out at a value
away from set point.

p/b variation with respect to controller output
ADDITON OF INTEGRAL ACTION WITH PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

While using the integral control instead of venting bellow 3 the controller output is
brought to bellow 3 via adjustable resistance valve. By throttling the opening of the
adjustable valve the integral action is increased and decreased larger opening of valve
will result in higher integral action as bellow 3 will expand more and further move the
balance beam clockwise if there is increase in the deviation hence there will be higher
controller output for given deviation.
Addition for rate control
While using this controller as P-I-D in addition to above the measured value is feed to
another controller in parallel to the bellow no 6 via a adjustable valve. When the valve is
fully open the pressure applied on both bellow no 5& 6 remains same hence the derivate
action remains zero. As we start throttling the adjustable valve derivate action comes into
the picture and larger the throttling the more effective is the derivate action.
When we throttle the derivate action valve after some period of time the pressure on both
the below 5&6 will equalize and derivate action will seize. Hence derivate action is
depended upon Rate of Deviation and Derivate action time

The nakakita controller is typical P-I-D controller with pilot relay unit as integral part of
the controller. Supply air is connected at the pilot relay unit and with a very small orifice
air is allowed to enter the nozzle assembly. The leak of between nozzle and flapper is
determined by the distance between the nozzle and flapper and hence the backpressure on
top of the top diaphragm of pilot relay unit is varied. The variation in back pressure alters
the opening of the pilot relay valve hence the controller output is also varied in an
amplified manner. The relay output is subjected to negative feed back bellow via derivate
action valve. The negative feed back bellow movement is just opposite of the process
variable change i.e. if controller output increase the effect of negative feed back bellow
will be to move the gap between the nozzle flapper and thus reduce the output pressure.
Any alteration in the derivate action in the valve setting will change the negative feed
back effect hence the output is varied.
It is also equipped with integral action unit valve. By regulating that valve the output is
varied for given deviation. Therefore the controller sends a different output signal for the
same amount of deviation with different P,I,D settings. Proportional band is varied by
using the dial which alters the gap between nozzle and flapper and hence the controller
output. To change over from direct to reverse the proportional band dial is turned by 270O
and vice versa.

Like nakakita controller Yamatake honey well is also P-I-D controller. Which is also
equipped with pilot relay unit, negative feed back bellow and reset bellow
(Integral bellow). The gap between the nozzle and flapper is altered by deviation and
proportional band setting.
Finally controller output is affected by proportional band value, integral setting, derivate
setting and deviation.
Adjustment for operations

1) Setting Knob: set the pointer to desired graduation by setting knob
2) P.B. Control Dial: lower P.B causes increase in sensitivity. Too large P.B makes
controller dull (deviation is large)
3) Integral Value (Reset Action Time): smaller the reset time, faster it stabilizes, too
small reset time may cause hunting. Too large reset time will prolong the recovery
period.
4) Rate Time (Derivative action Time): it controls the process ahead of control
action of system, in order to reduce time lag. Too long rate time causes hunting.
5) Change Over of Direct-Reverse Action: Position is determined by operation of
control VIV. To change the set up from reverse to direct turn the P.B Dial to the
right by ¾ turns & from direct to reverse turn the dial by ¾ th turn to left.
MAINTENANCE OF CONTROLLER
1) Remove the drain deposited in air supply by loosening the drain plug
2) Supply air pressure should be maintained at 1.4 bar
3) Regularly inspect and clean the pilot relay valve orifice holes and nozzles.
4) Orifice can be cleaned by using push button
5) To remove orifice out of relay disassemble it after shutting of air supply
6) Clean the orifice in gas oil and blow air to clean
7) Increase the deviation and confirm following for controller
- At zero deviation – controller output pressure = 0.6 bar
- Measured value is less than set value with max deviation = controller
output Pr = 0.2 bar
- Measured value is more than set value with max deviation. Controller
output = 1.0 bar
8) Regularly check the supply Pr, output Pr on dual gauge.
Split Range Control

The output signal from a controller may be split into two or more branches to
control two or more correcting units. A typical marine application is shown in the
figure where a single temperature sensor, via an automatic controller, controls two
valves to maintain the jacket cooling water of a diesel engine constant.
The jacket cooling water outlet temperature sensor monitors the cooling water at the
outlet from the cylinder head (resistance thermometer, thermocouple or thermistor for
electrical control circuits, filled system type for a pneumatic control system and possibly
SPLIT RANGE CONTROL APPLICATION
for an electrical system via a transducer), and feeds a signal to the automatic controller
where the comparing element checks for any deviation or error. The automatic controller
output usually ranges from 0.2 bars to 1,0 bars and this is fed to both the valve
positioners. These are adjusted so that when the jacket cooling water temperature is low,
the low air signal 0.2 bars—0.4 bars operates the steam supply valve to raise the
temperature of the water. When the pressure is above 0.4 bars this valve is shut, and 0.4
bars—1.0 bars range, the cooling water valve, is open. Below 0.4 bars this valve is shut,
so that there is only one valve open at any time.
In some cases where there would be problems with two valves opening at the same
time, a dead band is used, one valve closing at 0.4 bar for instance and the other
opening at 0.5 bars. This would be used when using exhaust steam and bled steam for
deaerating feed water for boilers. Excess exhaust steam may be dumped to a condenser,
but to prevent this happening to steam bled from the turbines, the dead band ensures
that the dump valve is shut before the bled steam valve opens.
This dead band is not required in the cooling water system.
Cascade Control
By suitable adjustment of proportional band, integral action time, and possibly the
rate action time, an automatic control system can deal with the time lag between a
deviation or error arising and equilibrium being restored, introduced by a large
capacitor, whether it is a large volume of water or a large thermal storage capacity.
But, when two such capacitors are involved control can become difficult and it may
be necessary to use cascade control.
This involves two automatic controllers in series, the output signal of one, the master,
being used as the set point of the second, the slave. The output signal from this is
then being used to adjust the correcting unit. Each automatic controller has a sensor
providing a measured value signal of the system under control from a different
position in the plant. In this way the two capacitors are split into two single
capacitor systems making control easier.
Maintaining a constant cooling water outlet temperature from the cylinder jackets
of a diesel engine presents problems due to thermal inertias of the large mass of
water flowing, variations in engine loading and sea water temperature and possibly
pressure while maneuvering. In this application, therefore, the master controller
responds to the sensor at the jacket outlet, compares it with a set point signal
introduced by the plant operator and if there is a deviation or error, produces a
resetting signal, which is taken to the set point bellows of the slave controller. The
slave controller then transmits a signal to the correcting unit or final control
element (valve), which adjusts the seawater flow.
Thus the effect of any change in engine loading on jacket cooling water outlet
temperature is sensed by the master controller, which operates the seawater control
valve at the cooler via the set point of the slave controller.
If there is a change in the seawater temperature or pressure, this will immediately
affect the water in the cooler and a sensor monitors the outlet temperature here, to
which the slave controller responds. Any change in this temperature operates the
slave controller that acts as a self-contained control loop to readjust the seawater
control valve.
Thus any temperature change at the cooler due to seawater temperature or pressure
fluctuation is prevented from reaching the engine and causing a temperature change
in the whole system that would take a long time to sense and correct.

CASCADE CONTROL APPLICATION
VISCOMETER
In laminar flow the fluid flow rate is proportional to applied stress or applied stress is
proportional to velocity gradient
F == η dv
A dx
Where η = coefficient of viscosity

Therefore for a constant flow rate η = P X Constant , where P = Differential pressure
Also η == Kd4∆P
VL
K= Constant, d= Inside diameter of cap. V= Flow rate, L = length of cap.
ηα∆P where ∆ P = pressure drop across capillary.
VISCOTHERM WORKING PRINCIPLE
Viscosity of the fluid to be measured is passed through a fine capillary tube fixed
dimension and Pressure drop across the capillary tube is measured.
Pressure drop across the capil lary is proportional to the viscosity of fluid if the
dimensions of capillary is fixed.

The pressure drop across the capillary is sent across the oil separating chambers which is
filled up with Ethylene Glycol. Ethylene Glycol has specific Gravity less than Diesel oil
and Heavy oil and also it is not miscible with oil. In addition to this it has very good
pressure transmitting property. Output of oil separating chamber is passed to Differential
pressure transmitter, where measured DP is converted into pneumatic signal.
Since fuel oil pressure on board the ship is having slight fluctuation even engine is
running at fixed RPM, this differential pressure signal is passed through the needle valve
where hunting is reduced to minimum. This measured differential pressure acts as
measured value signal and passed to a P-I-D Controller which is equipped with set point
value and based on the difference in set value and measured value controller sends output
signal which operates the steam valve to the heater.
Maintenance
a) Normally the oil separating chamber oil leaks out and cylinder get filled
up with Heavy Oil, which latter passed on to Pneumatic Differential
pressure transmitter. The capsule of differential pressure transmitter
becomes sluggish and hampers the movement. It is always suggested to
keep the oil separating chamber full of Ethylene Glycol.
b) Before stopping the system it needs to be changed over to diesel oil and
also flushed thoroughly.
c) Any fluctuation in fuel oil system should be eliminated using the needle
valve as it would lead to the hunting of controller.
d) The differential pressure transmitter should be calibrated regularly. At
zero differential the output should be 3PSI or 0.2 Bar.

VISCOSITY CONTROLLER CONTROL LOOP DIAGRAM
VISCOTHERM
Operating Principle
The sensor itself comprises of a sealed stainless steel

pendulum, attached to a base plate via a torsion tube.
The sealed pendulum comprises of two sets of piezos in
side.
a) The Driver Piezos
b) Receiver Piezos
The driver Piezos are driven by an alternating signal which

causes the pendulum to move in a torsional manner leading
to torsional vibration.
The second pair of piezo element i.e. receiver piezo sense

the torsional movement via a feedback and processor
function.
A signal is returned to the driver piezos to ensure the

ensure the continued torsional vibration.
The processor function measures the phase difference

between the sending and receiving signal.
The phase difference is further processed resulting in value

of dampening which is proportional to square root of fluid
viscosity
ADVANTAGES
1) Stable and accurate in line measurement

2) No moving parts
3) Compact and light-weight construction
4) Smooth edged pendulum
5) Torsional vibration measuring principle, which is not
influenced by vibration,flow velocity and dirt particle
6) Minimum load on the component

7) Calibrated for life
8) Provides both viscosity and temperature output.
9) Maximum error 1-2% for viscosity
10)Maximum temperature error less than 1 degre cent.
CHAPTER VI
FEED FORWARD CONTROL

In a simple closed Loop control System, corrective action takes place after
disturbance has affected the controlled condition and this is termed as feedback. On the
other hand in a control system where corrective action is taken immediately without
waiting for it to penetrate through the time lags of the process and affecting the control
fed condition, the system is termed as feed forward. Obviously to apply the corrective
action in this fashion the disturbances must be detected and measured. Consider the
example of a heater as shown below. The disturbance being a change in demand is
measured by detecting the flow with an orifice plate and the signal applied to summation
relay.

Under steady condition the temperature will be controlled in the normal closed loop and
feed back manner, but as soon as there is change in demand there would be an immediate
corrective action by opening or closing the steam control valve accordingly.
The immediate corrective action i.e. the feed forward action need only be approximate as
it is subsequently trimmed by the action of controller.
In general terms, with the feed forward control it is implicit that knowledge of the effect
of a disturbance and the required corrective action is known.
In a feed forward control system information concerning on oncoming disturbances is fed
forward to the regulating before disturbance reaches the system under control, hence
effects of disturbances are reduced Combined with cascade and feed back feed forward
can give a 100 to 1 improvement in difficult control condition.
Square Root Extractor:

Flow meters are usually used to provide a signal for process control purposes where
differential pressure created is fed to a D.P. Cell, where a pneumatic or Electrical signal
is produced for transmission in control circuit. Because the flow /pressure drop
relationship is not linear, except for small flow variations, where non linearity can be
ignored , means have to be adopted to modify the signal so that it matches the linear
signals of the remainder of control circuit. Square root extractor as shown below achieves
this

Any change in flow in the pipe line causes variation in the pressure drop across the
orifice which is picked up by DP Cell Bellows and thus a pneumatic transmitter is
operated to produce a non linear out put signal related to the fluid flow change. This
signal is then fed to bellow A. Assume it to increase, thus expanding the bellows and
pivoting the force arm on diaphragm B towards the nozzle. Airflow from the nozzle is
restricted and build up in backpressure operates the direct acting relay to increase the
pressure on bellows c making angle a greater. The increase in pressure on diaphragm B
and the force arm causes this to pivot around the pivot point, thus moving the force arm
away from the nozzle. Equilibrium is thus restored to give a linear output signal, which is
square root of the input signal.
The triangle shows the relationship of forces, with R the longitudinal restraining force on
the flexure arm. Force A is directly proportional to the input pressure on bellows A.
Force B is directly proportional to the output pressure.
Tan α =A/B or B Tan α =A
Therefore if angle α is restricted to be very small ( α is less than 0.5 degree)
Bα= A
Position of flexure arm creating angle α is directly proportional to the pressure in bellows
C and this bellow is also connected to Bellow B
Therefore BxB =A Or B= √ A
Output pressure is square root of input pressure
In general an overall error of one percent of the maximum scale reading occurs with DP
Instruments.
Out put at the DP cell.

Output at the Square root extractor
S
I
G
N
A
L
Flow Quantity: - F α√∆ P Therefore D.P cell output must be added with square root
extractor, for the signal becomes linear to flow rate
AUXILLIARY BOILER WATER LEVEL CONTROL

The control of Boiler drum level is critical in a steam raising plant because of
interdependence of pressure, temperature, and inflow and out flow.
High performance water tubes boilers present a considerable number of problems with
regard to control of water level. The drums are relatively small in size and water capacity
but have higher outputs, whilst the reaction of steam and water to changes in steam
demand and hence the drum pressure, are complex.

SINGLE ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL

Single element boiler water control is suitable for boiler having high storage versus steam
releases ration i.e. is the large drum size and small steam demand.
A - signal for the three term controller which protects the feed water flow and hence the
drum level against changes in feed water pressure .The set point of this controller is
cascaded from the summing relay whose output is input-1 minus input-2 plus the bias
(I1-I2+Bias). The output of the steam outflow flow-meter with square root extraction
and suitably scaled is sent via the summing relay direct to the set point of the feed water
flow controller so that inflow constantly matches outflow with minimal effect on boiler
water level .A level transmitter and a controller on the level drum provides a feedback
path to make small corrections to the set point of the feed water flow controller for losses
and gains to the drum level from other parts of the plant.
1) Cannot cope up with shrink and swell factor.
2) Also not suitable for high load changes.
Boilers where the steam release water storage ratio is low, i.e. where the amount of water
contained in the boiler relative to the steam output is reasonably high and also where load
variations are of limited magnitude. The level of the water in the boiler drum is referred
to a constant head with the resulting differential being applied to a differential
transmitter, which converts the measurement to a proportional pneumatic signal. This
signal is passed to a controller as a measured variable signal where it is compared with a
desired value and any deviation or error between the two causes the controller output to
change and pass the changed signal, via an auto/manual station, to the feed water control
valve.

Boiler Water Level Control
Shrink and Swell Phenomenon

As steam demands is increased, there is more steam outflow from the drum and
simultaneously there is drop in pressure which causes water to boiler at lower
temperature. This leads to steams bubbles formed which give an apparent water
level increase.
A sudden increase in steam demand reduces the steam pressure in the drum, and to
drop the temperature of water to a saturation temperature matching the new
pressure, some of the water flashes off into steam causing the formation of a mass of
steam bubbles that tends to increase the drum level. The situation is aggravated by
an increase in evaporation rate due to the increase in temperature difference (and
thus heat transfer rate) due to the drop in saturation temperature between the
water in the tubes and the furnace and gas temperature. This effect is known as
swell and on simple level control system that is based solely upon the measurement
of level will, therefore, function incorrectly under these conditions as a simple level
control system or a Single Element Control System
In short period of time required to stabilize to increase in the firing rate to restore the
drum pressure there is rapid drop in drum water level.
Boiler with high storage/ release ration can withstand such conditions without adverse
results but modern steam generator having high steam release to water storage ratio may
results in uncovering heat transfer surface and possibly catastrophic failure.
In flow of cool feed water will collapse some of the steam bubbles below the water
surface, which causes further decrease in water level. Hence it will lead to uncovering of
steam generating tubes without having water and exposed to the flame.
The decrease in steam demand will result in shrinkage effect, which will produce a
situation reverse of swell phenomenon. This will result in carryover of water into super
heaters or to the engines.
Consequently on any change in steaming rate a severe cycle is encountered in feed water
flow to the boiler upsetting the balance of the entire boiler, to say nothing of the effect on
boiler feed water heaters, which will also cycle severely.
This will also reflect very adversely on the state of combustion in the boiler furnace.
To overcome this problem, Two Element feed water control has been devised.
In the two element boiler control water system another variable i.e. Is the steam flow is
being measured across the orifice plate using the differential pressure transmitter. The
differential pressure transmitter is been set across the square root extractor which makes
The signal liner to the flow and this signal is being used as measured value signal to the
controller.
The square root extractor output and PI controller output is passed through a summation
relay where both the signals are added up and this combine signal is being sent across the
final controlling element i.e. is feed check valve.
In two-element boiler water control any change in the steam demand is immediately
picked up by the differential pressure transmitter, which is mounted at the orifice plate.
Hence the output of the DP cell will indicate of variation in steam demand and will alter
the signal to the feed check valve considerably to negate the effect the shrink and swell
phenomenon.

BOILER WATER CONTROL WITH TWO ELEMENT CONTROLLER
With two-element control system it is necessary to maintain a constant feed water

pressure at the inlet to optimize the boiler water control.
Any fluctuation in feed water pressure will affect the drum level and this control will then
try to adjust the regulating valve to restore the desired level condition.
This leads to the cyclic conditions in the system and overworking components and
compounding the trouble.
Therefore a third element is introduced namely feed water flow.
Feed flow and steam flow are monitored and signal compared in differential relay.
TWO ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL SYSTEM
THREE ELEMENT FEED WATER CONTROL
Third element in boiler control system is fed water flow.

Under equilibrium conditions steam flow must equal feed water flow and both these
conditions are monitored and signal compared in differential relay and provided they are
equal of this then added to the desired value of water level in drum.
In the previous system it is necessary to maintain a constant feed water pressure at the
inlet of the regulating valve to optimize operation. Any fluctuation in the feed water
pressure will affect the drum level and this control will then try to adjust the regulating
valve to restore the desired level condition.
THREE ELEMENT FEEDWATER CONTROL SYSTEM
NOTE—It will be seen that square root extractors have been incorporated on both steam
flow and feed flow signals to linearize them, as flow measurements by flow nozzle and
orifice plate have a square root function of the pressure drop across these.
This could cause cyclic conditions in the system, over working components and
compounding the trouble. A third element is therefore introduced, namely feed water
Based on the operation upon the fact that for equilibrium, steam flow must equal feed
water flow both of these conditions are monitored and signals compared in a differential
relay, and provided they are equal, then the output of this is added to the desired value of
the water level in the drum. This signal is then compared with the drum level measured
value signal in the two-term controller and any deviation or error between the measured
value and the desired value plus the difference between the steam and the feed flows will
cause the controller to reposition the feed water control valve to restore the level.
When there is an increase in the steam demand, the differential relay is unbalanced and
demands a higher drum level, counterbalancing the swell effect and trying to close the
feed water control valve. When the steam flow falls, the differential relay is again
unbalanced and demands a low level and alters the shrinkage effect.
Any variation in the feed water flow due to pressure fluctuation will be detected by the
flow meter, repositioning the valve before the drum level is affected. With this system it
is also possible to provide a variable level set point depending upon the load—higher
level as load increases and also high and low signal limits to optimize the setting of the
system to account for boiler dynamics under arduous maneuvering conditions.

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AUTOMATION & CONTROLS

MEANING OF AUTOMATION & ITS CLASSIFICATION

Automation is apart of subject known as Control Engineering. Control Engineering can

Control is never instantaneous rather it is continuous with time.

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WHAT TO AUTOMATE AND WHY

There are four main types of control systems, these being

Considering “What to Automate” in more detail, the different sections of ships’

Viscosity Control of Furnace Fuel Oil

Boiler Water Level Control

Temperature Control of various system on Shipboard

Cooling Water Systems

Remote Control of Main Engine

Elements Of Process Control System

There are four basic elements of any process control system.

Final controlling Element( Control Valve):

FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL AND BASIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

a system of interacting units. Control is never instantaneous; it is a continuous process in

Control is necessary because physical conditions change as time progresses.i.e. As

Three forms of disturbances are commonly used in control engineering, Step-change,

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If we consider any simple process such as measuring a temperature, we can examine

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If an unprotected, thin walled temperature detecting element at a temperature of

Comparison of two Systems with different Time constants

The rate of response

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PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

FACTORS AFFECTED WITH THE PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

ELEMENTS OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

• It consists of an assembly of equipment and material that is related to some

Precision and Accuracy

ACCURACY is defined as the degree of conformity of an indicated value to

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PRECISION defines the instrument performance as a result of the care that

REPEATABILITY. It is the ability of an instrument to reproduce the

The first prerequisite to any control scheme is measurement.

True Value 100%

a) Zero adjustment is the first adjustment made in the instrument calibration.

c) This adjustment although can be made at a zero point.

d) Zero adjustment on mechanical instrument is done by slipping a link on a hub or

e) After doing the zero adjustment it is necessary the span adjustment is to be

True Value 100%

b) An error by span increases as magnitude of input increases.

The sensor has two very important characteristics

1) Sensitivity: is a measure of the change in output of a sensor in response to

2) A sensor is desired to have high sensitivity i.e. a small change in input

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3) The value of sensitivity is indicated by the gain of sensor.

AUTOMATIC CONTROLLING AND REGULATING SYSTEM

INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT

BASIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM / FEED FORWARD SYSTEM

hunting, a trouble, which often afflicts closed-loop controls.

EXAMPLES OF OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE OF AN OPEN LOOP SYSTEM

CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM / FEED BACK SYSTEM

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is slow. Instead of the instantaneous make or break of a thermostatic switch, or opening

Propotional output = ERRORX GAIN + Constant

Why do we need to change output by 100% ?