International

Journalof
International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 1658–1663
Fatigue
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Technical note

Results of very high cycle fatigue tests on helical compression springs

C. Berger, B. Kaiser *

Institute for Materials Technology and State Materials Testing Institute, Darmstadt University of Technology, Grafenstr. 2, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany

Available online 27 June 2006

Abstract

This report presents first results of very high cycle fatigue tests on helical compression springs which respond to external compressive
forces with torsional stresses. The results of these investigation can add an important contribution to the experience of fatigue behaviour
in the very high cycle regime. Most investigations performed on that field deal with specimens under tensile or rotating bending load. The
springs tested were manufactured of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire with a wire diameter between 2 and 5 mm, shot-peened and preset.
Compared to the fatigue limits evaluated in fatigue tests on these springs up to 107 cycles substantial decreases in fatigue strength are to
be observed if the fatigue tests are continued up to 108 cycles or even more. It is obvious that nucleations of fractures tend to occur below
the surface, if fractures happen after more than 107 cycles. Investigations of broken springs by scanning electron microscope show a
typical appearance of fracture initiation sites without non-metallic inclusions at the nucleations of fracture.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Helical compression springs; Long-term fatigue tests; S–N curves; Fatigue crack initiation; Fatigue life behaviour

1. Introduction expected to survive a very high number of cycles with high

The so-called ‘‘fatigue limit’’ has currently become the
object of numerous discussions and more recent investiga-
tions [1–3], e.g., through ultrasonic fatigue tests. These tests
prove that S–N diagrams of some materials do not exhibit
any fatigue limits in the range of very high cycle fatigue
(VHCF). They also show, that even in the case of stress
amplitudes below the conventionally determined fatigue
strength, fatigue fractures still tend to occur in the VHCF
range [4]. They furthermore prove that the crack initiation
in the HCF range predominantly originates from the
surface, whereas in the VHCF range it starts mainly
underneath the surface, in particular, from internal inho-
mogeneities, e.g., from inclusions. Broadly comparable
results have been presented in numerous other publica-
tions, e.g., in [5–7].
Some kinds of technical spring elements, especially such
as valve springs or springs in fuel injection systems, are
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 6151 166799; fax: +49 6161 166118.
E-mail address: kaiser@mpa-ifw.tu-darmstadt.de (B. Kaiser).
mean as well as amplitude stresses. A fatigue failure of such
a spring often causes considerable consequential damages or
repair costs. In order to determine fatigue strength diagrams
according to Goodman extensive fatigue tests on helical
springs out of six typical spring materials and with five differ-
ent wire diameters were performed up to a number of
107 cycles [15]. This limitation of fatigue test duration was
necessary because of the also limited time and testing capac-
ity within the research program with numerous variants of
test springs and loading conditions. After having completed
this investigation, it was of remarkable interest to carry out
long-term fatigue tests on helical compression springs. This
interest was initiated by publications about very high cycle
fatigue tests on specimens and hints on failure of components
in the very high stress cycle regime. Similar phenomena were
also observed by a working group of the Association of Ger-
man Springs’ Industry (VDFi – Verband der Deutschen Fed-
ernindustrie) at long-term fatigue-stressed helical springs.
Very high cycle fatigue tests on selected springs were carried
out up to maximum of 109 cycles at a usual spring testing fre-
quency of 20 Hz. Short-term and long-term fatigue tests
were comparatively and statistically evaluated according to

0142-1123/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2006.02.046
 C. Berger, B. Kaiser / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 1658–1663
p
the arcsin p-method. Besides the Gaussian distribution p and
the extreme value distribution of Weibull the arcsin p-
transformation is a useful statistical function for evaluating
fatigue test results. According to [16,17] this method pro-
vides a certain ability for extrapolation, is relatively simple
in calculation and less sensitive against a reduction of the
number of stress horizons in the transition zone towards
the fatigue strength. As a result of using this method in the
region of finite life as well as in the region of infinite life
S–N curves for survival probabilities of, for example, 10%,
50% and 90% can be received.
2. Particularities of helical compression springs
Helical compression springs are used in numerous appli-
cations with high stress amplitudes under simultaneous
high mean stress, for example, in valve drives of combus-
tion engines (Fig. 1) or as springs in fuel injection systems.
The development of individual types of metal springs
has continued during the past years and was aimed by
improving technological functionality with as little operat-
ing weight as possible [8]. Owing to the requirements of
light-weight construction, the mounting spaces for such
springs become increasingly smaller so that the helical com-
pression springs are subjected to constantly rising specific
stresses. Therefore, a whole variety of expensive measures
have to be taken in order to guarantee the required proper-
ties, such as, among other things:
• Use of special valve spring steel wires pursuant to DIN
EN 10270 [9] such as Si–Cr- or Si–Cr-V-alloyed, partly
in so-called super-clean quality [10] from peeled or
ground raw material, crack-tested, or alternatively, from
corrosion resistant spring steel wires,
• Careful manufacturing of the springs with special
respect to the surface layer, hot presetting, shot-peening
(if necessary, at increased temperatures, under pre-stress
or in combination with nitriding [11]). The requirements
Fig. 1. Valve springs in a combustion engine (schematic presentation,
company Scherdel, Marktredwitz, Germany.
1659
made on the surface quality are extremely high. Accord-
ing to [12], the surface quality in fact plays a more
important part for the operational durability of the
springs than the material properties.
Helical compression springs respond to external com-
pressive force with torsional stress caused by a torsion of
the active spring coils which, in a first approximation,
may be estimated analogous to a straight torsion bar. Since
the shear angle, however, is greater on the inner coil surface
than on the outer surface, the peripheral torsional stress on
the inner coil surface is higher than on the outer surface.
This circumstance is described by using a correction factor
k which is dependent on the curvature of the wire (see
Fig. 2 [13]). The curvature can be characterised by the quo-
tient from the mean spring diameter and the wire diameter,
the so-called coil ratio. This means:
• The maximum stress of helical compression springs
occurs on the inner coil surface.
• Accordingly, fatigue fractures of helical compression
springs generally originate from this area.
• Therefore, the spring’s inner coil surface has to be shot-
peened with particular care, which depending on the
spring geometry, constitutes a highly fastidious task.
Despite a qualitatively high technical state of spring
technology, spring fractures were and are being observed
after comparatively long periods of operation. In the case
of nozzle retaining springs of diesel injection systems, frac-
tures were reported in operation after comparatively extre-
mely high stress cycles [14]. According to [14], in the
250 · 106 cycle regime, S–N test results are available for
springs manufactured from stainless steels which evidence
a distinct fatigue strength decrease in the application of
the stainless steels. Thus, in each decade a reduction of
Fig. 2. Correction factor k to describe the static stress concentration on
the inner coil surface of a helical compression spring in dependence on the
coil ratio w, factor k 0 represents the effect of the stress concentration in the
case of cyclic load [13].
1660 C. Berger, B. Kaiser / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 1658–1663
the fatigue strength by approximately 30% takes place. The
limited data available so far for Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring
wires indicate that here the effect is not as strongly pro-
nounced as in the case of the stainless austenitic steels.
3. Very high cycle fatigue tests on helical compression
springs and first results
Within the German research project AiF-Nr. 12187 N
‘‘determination of fatigue strength and relaxation diagrams
for highly stressed helical compression springs’’ approxi-
mately 150 fatigue test runs were performed on two spring
testing machines (type ‘‘Bosch spring testing rocker’’, see
Fig. 3). Altogether nearly 10,000 test springs out of six typ-
ical spring materials and with five different wire diameters
were investigated at different stress horizons up to a num-
ber of 10–12 · 106 cycles [15]. Based on the experience by
the members of the working group with regard to spring
fractures manifesting at a very late stage, a number of
long-term fatigue tests was carried out on shot-peened heli-
cal compression springs with up to 85 · 106; 100 · 106 and
109 cycles subsequent to the mentioned research project.
These fatigue tests on shot-peened helical compression
springs made of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wires with wire
diameters of 3 and 5 mm proved, that spring fractures
occurred up to high numbers of cycle. Therefore, the fati-
gue limit evaluated after 107 cycles decreased distinctly
(about 10%) when it was evaluated after 108 cycles for
the same kind of test springs. Furthermore, the fatigue tests
exhibited, that it is necessary to replace broken springs by
new springs immediately in order to keep testing conditions
Fig. 3. Bosch spring testing rocker for fatigue tests of up to approximately 160 small helical compression springs with 2 mm wire diameter.
Table 1
Chemical composition (in %) of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire
C Si Mn
0.50–0.60 1.20–1.60 0.50–0.90
as constant as possible. This circumstance requires a lot of
test springs as substitutes.
In this report, preferably one fatigue test run shall be
presented since it comprises the greatest range of cycles
as yet. Subjects of this fatigue test were shot-peened helical
compression springs of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire
with a wire diameter of 2 mm, a spring diameter of
12 mm and a free length of 50 mm. Table 1 shows the
chemical composition and Table 2 some mechanical prop-
erties of the spring wire.
Earlier fatigue tests on these springs (covering six stress
horizons with 8 springs on each horizon) up to 107 cycles
lead to the results shown in Fig. 4. As a characteristic mea-
sure for the cyclic strain of helical springs the so-called
‘‘corrected stroke stress’’ is used. It means the amount of
the double amplitude (or the difference between minimum
and maximum cyclic stress) multiplied by the correction
factor k. At corrected stroke stress of 1212, 1132 and
1050 MPa all 8 springs per horizon failed between 106
and 107 cycles; whereas no fractures occurred at a corrected
stroke stress of 972 MPapor below. By statistical evaluation
according to the arcsin p-method the fatigue limits (cor-
rected stroke stress) for 107 cycles are calculated to 1038,
Table 2
Mechanical properties of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire with 2 mm
diameter
Ultimate strength Rm Reduction of area
2216 MPa 56%
P (max) S (max) Cu (max) Cr V
0.025 0.020 0.006 0.50–0.80 0.15–0.25
 C. Berger, B. Kaiser / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 1658–1663 1661

1500
helical springs, shot peened, SiCr-alloyed

[MPa]
valve spring steel with 2mm diameter
Pf [%]: 10 50 90

kh
stress ratio: R=0.05
test frequency: f = 20 Hz

corrected stroke stress

1000
8
900 8
800 8

700

600
5 6 7 8 9 10
10 10 10 10 10 10
number of cycles N

Fig. 4. S–N curves for 10%, 50% and 90% failure probability for shot-peened helical compression springs of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire with
d = 2 mm (short-term fatigue test, end of test run at 107 cycles).

1006 and 972 MPa for survival probabilities of 10%, 50% also four with less than 107 cycles till fracture. The mean
and 90%. value of the fatigue life at this stress level is 36 · 106 cycles.
In Fig. 5, the data from Fig. 4 are displayed and comple- On the next lower horizon with a corrected stroke stress
mented by the results of a very high cycle fatigue test with of 892 MPa, the first spring fracture occurred after
springs of the same kind. Based on the earlier results, only 109 · 106 cycles, the last one, as yet, at 461 · 106 cycles.
the stress horizons with 972, 892, 812, 732 and 652 MPa, From the original 16 test springs 15 have broken after
which previously had not suffered any spring fractures up 1.2 · 109 cycles. On the horizon following underneath with
to 107 cycles, were loaded with 16 test springs each. The 812 MPa, 8 springs out of 16 have failed up to
stress horizons with corrected stroke stresses of 1212, 1.2 · 109 cycles. No failure occurred on the lowest horizons
1132 and 1052 MPa were not used in the long-term test with corrected stroke stresses of 732 and 652 MPa.
run. As mentioned before, it is necessary to replace broken Statistical evaluationpof the very high cycle fatigue test
springs by new springs immediately in order to keep testing according to the arcsin p-method leads to ‘‘fatigue limits’’
conditions as constant as possible. Therefore, a lot of sub- (corrected stroke stress) for 1.2 · 109 cycles of 900, 815 and
stitute springs were needed during the total test time of 730 MPa for a survival probability of 10%, 50% and 90%.
more than 2 years. To design Fig. 5 more clearly, only Compared to the fatigue limit evaluated for 107 cycles that
the results of the first 16 springs of every stress horizon means a decrease of approximately 25% of the fatigue limit
were taken into account. for a survival probability of 90%.
On the stress horizon with 972 MPa the first fractures
occurred after approximately 14, 23 and 24 · 106 cycles, 4. Investigations of the spring fractures
and the last one of the originally installed test springs on
this horizon broke after 121 · 106 cycles. After approxi- About 35 fractures of test springs, which occurred in the
mately 109 cycles totally some 400 fractures were registered range between 10 and 109 cycles, were investigated by
for the 16 test positions of this stress horizon, among these stereo microscope and SEM. This investigation proved:

2000
helical springs, shot peened, SiCr-alloyed
Pf [%]: 90
corrected stroke stress τkh [MPa]

valve spring steel with 2mm diameter

50
10
stress ratio: R=0.05
test frequency: f = 20 Hz

k=5
1000
900 1
800 8
*
k = 30 16
700 Tτ=1:1,2 16
600

500
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
number of cycles N

Fig. 5. S–N curves for 10%, 50% and 90% failure probability for shot-peened helical compression springs of Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire with
d = 2 mm (long-term fatigue test, evaluated after 109 cycles).
1662 C. Berger, B. Kaiser / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 1658–1663

Fig. 6. Crack initiation of a shot-peened helical compression spring (d = 2 mm, Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire), stroke stress skh = 890 MPa, fracture
after 1.12 · 108 cycles.

Fig. 7. Crack initiation of a shot-peened helical compression spring (d = 2 mm, Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire), stroke stress skh = 808 MPa, fracture
after 0.88 · 108 cycles.

Fig. 8. Crack initiation of a shot-peened helical compression spring (d = 2 mm, Si–Cr-alloyed valve spring wire), stroke stress skh = 892 MPa, fracture
after 2.81· 108 cycles.
 C. Berger, B. Kaiser / International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 1658–1663
• The crack initiations mostly manifest on the inner coil
surface.
• Beyond 107 cycles most of the cracks initiate underneath
the wire surface.
• Often a characteristic form of the crack initiation is to
be observed underneath the wire surface (Figs. 6–8).
Thus, a clear centre of crack initiation, which possibly
corresponds to one or more grain boundary areas
arranged in nearly the same position is discernible at a
depth of approximately 1/10th of a millimetre.
5. Summary
The so far evaluated results of several very high cycle
fatigue test runs on shot-peened helical springs of Si–Cr-
alloyed valve spring wire can be summed up as follows:
an increase of the cycles from 107 to approximately
108 cycles results in a nearly 10% reduction of the fatigue
limit for 90% survival probability, while an increase from
107 cycles to 1.2 · 109 cycles reduces the fatigue limit for
90% survival probability by approximately 25%.
So far, first insights with regard to these late occurring
fractures have been gained, but the exact mechanisms as
well as improvement possibilities are not yet known. Thus,
there is a considerable requirement for systematically
undertaken research on the spring materials, which are of
paramount interest. The aim should be to elaborate results
about and insights concerning the level of the fatigue range
in the stress cycle regime up to 109 cycles, about the mech-
anisms causing failures and about possible remedies or
measures of improvement.
Acknowledgements
The research Project No. AiF 12 287 N, ‘‘determina-
tion of fatigue strength and relaxation diagrams for
heavily loaded helical compression springs’’ during the
course of which the basic parameters for 107 cycles were
determined, was sponsored by funds from the Federal
Ministry of Economic Affairs via the Arbeitsgemeinschaft
Industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen ‘‘Otto von Guer-
icke’’ e.V. (AiF) (Study Group of Industrial Research
Associations ‘‘Otto von Guericke’’, Registered Associa-
tion) and the Forschungsgesellschaft Stahlverformung
e.V. (FSV) (Research Institute Steel Shaping, Registered
Association) within the frame pre-competitive coopera-
tive research. The complete version of the final report
may be obtained from the FSV, Goldene Pforte 1,
D-58093 Hagen.
The authors express their thanks to the Verband der
Deutschen Federnindustrie (VDFi) (Association of Ger-
man Springs Industry) for its support in this undertaking.
1663
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