WORKSHOP ON

PHONOLOGICAL
COMPREHENSION
Phonological paragraphs​: They concern longer structures than single units of intonation
and individual pieces of information.
How do “separate unit of intonations” form the text of discourse?
● The topic of the message binds the information together.
● There are grammatical systems of reference and conjunctions.
● Intonation.
A new item starts at a fairly high pitch and it continues relatively high. When the item comes
to an end, the pitch level of the final intonation unit is relatively low and there is often a
slowing down of pace in the final few words. A noticeable pause signals the end of that item.
This pattern of high start, gradual descent and low finish is typical of news reading.

Language events people engage in ​(genres)

● Informal conversations
● Interviews
● Debates
● Interrogations
● Air-to-ground communications by plots
● Monologues
● News reading
● Prayers
● Story-telling
● Poetry reading
● Lectures

Listening: a critical life competency.

Purposes:
● Information gathering (primary purpose)​. There are things we need to know:
instructions, lectures, airport announcements, etc.
● Pleasure (primary purpose)​. Sounds can stimulate imagination and enrich our lives:
Beethoven, The Beatles, bad jokes, bad time stories, etc.
● Empathy
● Assessment
● Criticism

FIRST LANGUAGE LISTENER VS FOREIGN LISTENER

Second language listeners will have gaps in their understanding when they listen. They will
be influenced by a negative transfer from the original language.
It’s important for the listener to recognize the SPEECH STYLE o GENRE. It is important to
pay attention to:
● Linguistic signals
● Paralinguistic signals
 ● Extra-linguistic signals.

Listening can be approached in two ways:

1. Bottom-Up Processing: It involves piecing together the parts of what is being heard,
so that ultimately the whole content will be clear.
2. Top-Down Processing: It is holistic. It goes from “whole-to-part.” Listeners should be
actively formulating a hypothesis. This hypothesis should be based on what is heard,
and linked to the listener’s background knowledge.

The Competent Listener

What is listening? It’s a psychological construct. We’re building up a text hidden from the
eyes

Characteristics of the listening process:

1. Interpretative​: listeners generate internal texts, which commonly differ from what
they hear in unexpected ways.
2. Active​: the listener must pay attention, understand, predict, develop strategies and
infer. It’s intentional.
3. Interactive​: listeners can be active participants in the interaction.

Listening comprehension:

● “The ability to understand the spoken language of native speakers.” Mendelsohn, D.

● “It is an active and conscious process in which the listener constructs meaning by
using cues from contextual information and from existing knowledge, while relying
upon multiple strategic resources to fulfil the task requirements.” O’Malley, Chamot &
Kupper.

Abilities required to be a Competent Listener:

1. To process linguistic forms.

Students must be able to:
● Distinguish the different elements of the linguistic system carrying meaning in the
language ex. /e/ vs. /ᴂ/ men…. man; it’s raining / it’s raining?; Jack didn’t ​go /
Jack ​didn’t go
● process rapid speech strings like: ‘a bit of a pity’
● understand the discourse markers in the spoken language (in contrast, in addition,
fillers…you see)

2. To decipher the intonation of the speaker.

Listeners must know how to process and how to judge what the illocutionary force of an
utterance is. Example: ‘My leg is very painful.’ meaning ‘I can’t carry your luggage.’
 3. To cope with listening in an interaction.
Very often listeners are participants. Competent listeners should be able to process and
respond almost concurrently.

4. To understand the message as a whole.

Competent listeners must be able not only to comprehend the individual utterances, but also
the whole message contained in the discourse. World knowledge is presupposed

5. To comprehend the message without understanding every word.

Listeners must be trained to comprehend and interpret the meaning of each utterance and
the meaning of the discourse as a whole without trying to comprehend or hear every word.
They should be trained to guess, predict and infer.

6. To recognize different genres.

Requests and criticism are usually prefaced by softeners. Refusals tend not to be stated
bluntly .
Second language learners need to learn the cultural rules and forms of English World
knowledge (cultural or background knowledge)

Difficulties you might come across when listening

● It could be difficult to recognize some phonemes
● It could be difficult to pick up some words.
● You could miss a stretch

When trying to interpret a text from the phonological point of view…

The systems of intonation

● Tonality
● Tonicity
● Tone

Chunking –TONALITY– appears to function in much the same way in all languages, and
does not seem to give much difficulty to EFL learners.
It’s not only the presence or absence of an intonation break that can resolve ambiguity, but
also its location.
The tone group bears no fixed relation to any of the grammatical units. However, there is a
tendency for the tone group to correspond in extent with the clause. (Halliday)
A SINGLE PIECE OF INFORMATION IS HANDLED IN THE GRAMMAR TYPICALLY BY A
SINGLE CLAUSE, AND IN PRONUNCIATION BY A SINGLE INTONATION UNIT. ​This
concept embraces a very important point: Coincidence between intonation unit and clause.
→ This concept shows the functional equivalence of ​intonation unit (phonology), clause
(grammar) and unit of information. (semantics) (Tench)

Tonality can be studied from a ​RECEPTIVE (listener-oriented) ​and a ​PRODUCTIVE

(speaker oriented) ​point of view:
1) ​PRODUCTIVE​: A ​speaker ​presents the information in ​manageable ​pieces so that it is
easier for the listener to follow.

What factors determine the division into tone groups (intonation units)? (Cruttenden, 1986)
1. Upward length constraint: feet do not have to be too long.
2. Probabilistic correlation with syntactic units: unit of intonation —clause.
3. The speaker’s perception of the organization of the information – The tone group is
also the basic chunk for mental planning.
4. The tone group as a unit of performance, planning and presentation.

Because there is a large amount of speaker choice involved, we may never be able to
predict intonation phrasing. (Cruttenden)

2) ​RECEPTIVE​: A ​listener ​perceives the information in ​manageable ​pieces so he can

process the message in chain-related units of meaning.

Phonetic cues used in the identification of intonation unit boundaries (Tench)

● There’s a perceivable ​pitch range ​at some point following a tonic syllable
● There’s a slight ​pause
● Change of pace ​in the flow of syllables, syllables at the end of a unit tend to be
relatively slower, but syllables at the beginning of a unit have a tendency to speed
up.

Main types of listening (according to Mendelshon, D. 1994

● Listening for academic content, plus note-taking (e.g. lectures)

● Listening for one crucial detail (e.g. flight arrival time)
● Listening for all the details (e.g. getting directions) → Occasions when we need to
find errors or determine differences between one passage and another. We cannot
ignore anything because we don’t know exactly what information will help us to
achieve our task.
● Listening for relaxation and pleasure (e.g. movies)
● Listening for the gist (e.g. unplanned radio listening) → Occasions when we want to
know the general idea of what is being said, as well as who is speaking to whom and
why.
● Listening for mood and atmosphere (e.g. decide what is going on between speakers)
● Listening on the telephone (to different types of conversations)
● Listening for interactional purposes

ACADEMIC LISTENING

It involves listening in order to learn.

Academic listening is somewhat special because one of the goals is actually listening to
learn and not just listening to comprehend.
Academic listening requires that learners listen, take notes, participate in class discussion
and link what they have heard with their prior knowledge of the topic.
In academic listening, listeners have to understand, internalize the information, synthesize,
grasp the meaning of discourse.
Comprehending lectures is a very important part of academics.

SOME STRATEGIES
● Listeners can make use of discourse markers.
● Studies show that the macro structure discourse markers are very helpful for
successful recall of a lecture. ‘They are discourse markers signalling major transitions
and emphasis in the lecture’:
■ What I’m going to talk about today…
■ Let’s go back to the beginning…
■ This brought about new problems
● Identification of such markers triggers expectations and predictions.

It’s useful to recognize the type of lecture, such as

● Chronological
● Division of ideas
● Situation problem solution evaluation.
This will help you predict the content and the way the lecture is organised

SKILLS A LISTENER NEEDS TO ENGAGE IN FORMAL LISTENING SITUATIONS

● PREDICTING​: Speakers giving formal talks or lectures begin by introducing
themselves and then introducing their topic. We should try to listen to this introduction
and anticipate what we will hear.
● STRATEGIES​:
○ Use visual information, including titles.
○ Think about what you already know about thetopic.
○ Ask yourself questions that you think the speaker might answer.
○ Identifying the topic: ​Let’s look at…; Today’s topic is…; What I want to do
today is…; Today, we’re going to cover…
● UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE OF A PRESENTATION:
○ INTRODUCTION: ​A good introduction includes a thesis statement, which
identifies the topic and gives an idea of how the lecture or presentation will be
organized.
Introduction (Topic+Organization)
I’d like to focus on…; To begin with…
● BODY​: In the body of the lecture, the speaker will usually expand upon the
topic presented in the introduction. The speaker will use phrases that tell you
the order of events or subtopics and their relationship to each other. For
example, the speaker may discuss several examples or reasons.
 Following the flow of ideas in the body​: ​However; For example;
The first/next/final (point) is; As a result; Let’s move on to; Another
reason is…
● CONCLUSION​: The speaker usually summarizes what has already been said
and may discuss implications or suggest future developments.
Restating/Concluding; ​In summary; As you can see; To sum up; In
conclusion,…

Listening for main ideas:

It’s important to distinguish between a speaker’s main ideas and the supporting details.
Strategies:
● Listen for a thesis statement at the end of the introduction.
● Listen for rethorical questions, or questions that the speaker asks, and then answers
● Notice ideas that are repeated or rephrased: ​I’ll say this again…; Let me put it in
another way…; What you need to know is…; So again, let me repeat…; The most
important thing to know is…

Listening for details:

A speaker will often provide examples that support a main point. A good example can help
you understand and remember the main point.
Strategies:
● Listen for specific phrases that introduce examples.
Examples: ​…such as…; The first example is…; Here’s an example of what I mean…; For
instance…

Understanding the meaning from context

Speakers may use words that are unfamiliar to you, or you may not understand exactly what
they’ve said.
Strategies
● You don’t always understand every word of what a speaker says in your first
language either.
● Use context clues. What did you understand just before or after the missing part?
● Listen for words and phrases that signal a definition or explanation.
Examples: ​…meaning that…; (By which ) I mean…; In other words…; That is to say…; To
put it another way…

Recognizing a speaker’s bias

Speakers often have an opinion about the topic they are discussing. It’s important for you to
understand if they are objective or subjective about the topic.

Making inferences:
Sometimes a speaker doesn’t state something directly, but instead implies it.

NOTE TAKING
When taking notes, you should write down only the most important ideas of the lecture. To
take good notes quickly:
 ●Write only key words
●Write abbreviations (short forms) and symbols when possible​: Info/ information; w/
with...
● Indent specific information, such as examples
Techniques:
● Summarizing/condensing
● Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information: Remember everything a
speaker says is not noteworthy. A lecturer or presenter will usually signal important
information you should take notes on.
Signals for important information
● Don’t forget that…
● It’s important to note/remember that…
● Let me stress that…
● You need to remember that…
Signals to stop taking notes:
● You can find this in your handout.
● This won’t be on your test
● This information is in your book…
● This is off the subject, but…
● Incidentally…

One thing is clear: people attending academic courses that include lectures need to be able
to take notes so that they have a record to refer back.

PATTERNS OF SIMPLIFICATION IN INFORMAL SPEECH

Is listening to spoken English easy for ESL students?
● ‘Fast speech is the norm for spoken English, but gives second-language learners a
great deal of trouble.’ (Brown, G.1990)
● ‘Every language has its own characteristic rhythm and one of the most difficult areas
to master of the spoken form of a foreign language is that of rhythm.’ (Brown, G.
1985)
---
● The rhythm of English is based on the contrast of stressed and unstressed
syllables.(Brown, G)
● The more organised the speech the more rhythmical it will be. Ex: prose read aloud
by a fluent speaker has a much more obvious rhythm than conversational speech
which may be full of pauses and false starts. (Brown, G)
● ‘It may be said that the more rapid the delivery the greater the tendency to reduction
and obscuration of unaccented words.’( Gimson & Cruttenden. 1994)
---
 ● It’s certainly advisable to learn about connected speech because it will help with
listening comprehension. It’s easier to understand speakers if you know when to
expect sounds to change, appear or disappear.’
● ‘Learners have connected speech habits which are almost certainly different from
English habits and that applying those patterns to English will result in
mispronunciations.’ (Carley, Mees & Collins. 2018)
---
● ‘It’s not easy for the learner of English to be aware of different ways of marking stress
and be able to recognize stress and unstress rapidly and accurately enough to work
out the structure of the message he/she is listening to.’ (Brown, G. 1985)
● ‘From the point of view of the comprehension of spoken English, the ability to identify
stressed syllables and make intelligent guesses about the content of the message
from this information, is absolutely essential.’ (Brown, G. 1985)

Patterns of simplification in informal speech

1. ASSIMILATION
‘It occurs when a phoneme changes its quality due to the influence of a neighbouring sound.
It changes to become more like the neighbouring sound, or even identical to it.’(Underhill, A.
2005)
Each segment in every word that is pronounced, no matter how explicitly and clearly the
word is pronounced, will be affected by this process of similitude. When words are combined
in a stream of speech their edges become available for the operation of the process of
assimilation.(Brown, G. 1985)
Coalescent assimilation:learners are advised to use this form.
● I know what you said
● Did you see it?
● Couldn’t you try?
● He said that you did
● I’ve read your book

2. ELISION
‘… the missing out of a consonant or vowel, or both, that would be present in the slow
colloquial pronunciation of a word in isolation.’ (Brown, G)
The elision of /t/ and /d/ is by far the most common elision process. It’s more common for /t/
and /d/ to be elided between consonants than it is for them to be pronounced. (Brown, G)
They can be elided when they stand between two consonants and they belong to the same
syllable as the preceding consonant.
Example: ​last lesson; facts; brand new; hands
Most common consonants to find involved in elision:
● /t/ → ​first three;​ ​interest rates​; ​conflict still​; ​aspects
● /d/ elides more readily than /t/ and in more environments → ​World Wild Life Fund;
Four thousand were; Ireland troubles; Who’d been on duty
● Elision of /l/ is very common after /O:/. Established process in words like ​talk ​and
walk. → Also; already; certainly; an old mill; all right.
● Elision of /k/. Forms beginning with unstressed ​ex- s​ ometimes have elided /k/,
especially when the word is highly predictable in the context it occurs in. → ​asked
him; expected.
● Elision of a vowel → ​interest; different; collective; cabinet; minister; chancellor;
similar; prisoner.
● Other common examples of elision (not to mimic them) → ​perhaps; particularly;
actually; will have been; extraordinary

3. LIASION
‘It refers to the smooth linking or joining together of words in connected speech.
Liaison is concerned with the way sounds are fused together at word boundaries.’
(Underhill, A. 2005)
● cover up
● pour out
● far away
● stir it

4. LINKING AND INTRUSIVE SOUNDS

He​r English; he​r Spanish; ca​r seat; ca​r engine; brothe​r and sister; America_ and Canada;
Law_ and order; My idea_ of heaven; We saw_ a film

5. JUNCTURE
‘It is the label given to a number of features which may occur at the boundary between two
words in connected speech. This boundary is unambiguous and clear.’ (Underhill, A.)
● /waItSu:z/ à“Why choose” (greater length in the vowel of ​why) - ​“White shoes” (Less
length and the vowel cut off by a glottal stop in ​white)
● I scream/ ice cream
● A name/ an aim
The shortening or lengthening of vowel sounds on either side of the juncture.
The delayed or advanced articulation of consonant sounds on either side.
Variations in the degree of syllable stress on either side of the juncture.
Other allophonic variations in the phonemes on either side of the boundary.
FALLING AND RISING TONES

INTONATION: It’s the linguistic use of pitch in utterances(Tench, P.)

There’s a trio of systems operating in English intonation: ​tonality, tonicity and tone.
TONE: It is the system of contrasting pitch movements in each unit of intonation which
among other roles identifies the status of the information, eg, major, minor or incomplete.
(Tench, P)

1. Falling tone
In a falling nuclear tone the pitch of the voice starts relatively high and then moves
downwards. The starting point maybe anywhere from mid to high. The endpoint is low.
(Wells, 2007)
Example: Who did you see at the cinema? I saw Mary
̀ at the ̩cinema

2. Raising tone
In a rising nuclear tone the pitch of the voice starts relatively low and then moves upwards.
The starting point may be anywhere from low to mid, and the endpoint is anywhere from mid
to high.
If there’s a tail, the rising pitch movement does not happen wholly on the nuclear syllable ,
as in the case of the fall. The rise is spread over the following syllables – over the whole
nucleus and tail.

3. Fall rise tone

In a fall-rise nuclear tone, the pitch of the voice starts relatively high and then moves first
downwards and then upwards again. The starting point may be anywhere from mid to high,
the midpoint is low and the end point is usually mid.
If there is a tail, the fallling-rising movement is spread out over the nucleus and tail. The
falling part takes place on the nuclear syllable. The rising part takes place towards the end of
the tail and extends up to the last syllable in the IP. (Wells, 2007)
Example: ˇMine. ˇMine you °mean

Falling and rising tones are associated with the following structures.

Falling tones Rising tones

 Structures ● Statements ● Yes/no questions
● Exclamations ● Requests
● Wh-questions ● Offers
● Commands ● Invitations
● Final independent ● Dependent clauses
clauses

General meanings ● Certainty ● Uncertainty

● Completeness ● Incompleteness

There’s an important distinction to be made when we refer to the meanings of the fall rise
nuclear tone and that is the one between dependent and independent clauses.

LET’S CONCENTRATE ON THE FALL-RISE NUCLEAR TONE AND ITS MEANINGS

Dependent clauses Independent clauses

Non-finality. Implication.The speaker states one thing

but implies something further. Something is
The fall-rise indicates that the clause,
left unsaid.
phrase or word that bears it, is part of a
larger structure. Ex: / də ju ̗sməʊk /
Ex: ​What did you do next? I ̍opened the ͮ /aɪ du: ˇsʌmtaɪmz / (bət ˈnɒt wen aɪm
door,​ / and… ̀ əʊm)
h
I like ̗chocolate / but I’m on a ̀diet. - I like ˇ
chocolate / but I’m on a diet.

The fall rise not only announces the topic,

but also draws attention to it. The rise
merely announces it. (Wells: 73)