[LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

THERMAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION

Most materials expand somewhat when heated through a temperature range that does not produce a
change in phase. The added heat increases the average amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the
material which increases the average separation between the atoms.

Suppose an object of length L undergoes a temperature change of magnitude T. If T

is reasonably small, the change in length, L, is generally proportional to L and T.
Stated mathematically:

L = L T;

where  is called the coefficient of linear expansion for the material.

For materials that are not isotropic, such as an asymmetric crystal for example, a can have a different
value depending on the axis along which the expansion is measured.

 can also vary somewhat with temperature so that the degree of expansion depends not only on the
magnitude of the temperature change, but on the absolute temperature as well.

In this experiment, you will measure a for copper, aluminum, and steel. These metals are isotropic so
that a need only be measured along one dimension. Also, within the limits of this experiment, a does
not vary with temperature.

The objectives of this experiment are to measure the change in length of test specimen and determine
the thermal expansion coefficient of different test specimen.

1|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Most materials are subject to thermal expansion: a tendency to expand when heated, and to contract
when cooled. For this reason, bridges are built with metal expansion joints, so that they can expand and
contract without causing faults in the overall structure of the bridge. Other machines and structures
likewise have built-in protection against the hazards of thermal expansion. But thermal expansion can
also be advantageous, making possible the workings of thermometers and thermostats.

Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. The change in length with
temperature for a solid material can be expressed as:

where l0 and lf represent, respectively, the original and final lengths with the temperature change
from T0 toTf. The parameter a1 CTE and has units of reciprocal temperature (K–1) such as µm/m · K
or 10–6/K. Conversion factors are:

The coefficient of thermal expansion is also often defined as the fractional increase in length per unit
rise in temperature. The exact definition varies, depending on whether it is specified at a precise
temperature (true coefficient of thermal expansion or a-bar or over a temperature range (mean
coefficient of thermal expansion or a). The true coefficient is related to the slope of the tangent of the
length versus temperature plot, while the mean coefficient is governed by the slope of the chord between
two points on the curve. Variation in CTE values can occur according to the definition used. When a is
constant over the temperature range then a= a-bar. Finite-element analysis (FEA) software such as
NASTRAN (MSC Software) requires that a be input, not a-bar.

2|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 1. Equipment set-up.

The thermistor that measures the tube temperature is embedded in the thermistor lug. Once thermal
equilibrium has been reached, the heat is highly uniform along the length of the tube. The foam
insulator is used to inhibit heat loss through the thermistor lug so the lug temperature closely
follows the tube temperature. The insulator does not have any appreciable effect on the local
temperature of the tube itself

3|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus power supply (G) is switched ON.
2. Three dial gauges is set to zero reading. These readings are recorded
3. The initial temperature of each specimen is recorded by turning the selector (A) to T1, T2 and
T3. (T1 = stainless steel temperature, T2 = copper temperature, T3 = mild steel temperature).
4. The heater (I) is switched ON. The temperature is set at the controller (H) to about 60°C. The
stop watch is started.
5. After 10 minutes elapsed, the three set temperature readings and the changed of the length
readings is recorded down. (Note: Doesn’t matter if the temperature exceeds 60°C).
6. Step 5 is repeated to obtain three set of results.
7. The table given is computed and the thermal expansion coefficient for all the specimens is
calculated. The readings are compared with the theoretical readings.
8. The test specimen strain value and hence the thermal stress value is calculated.
9. The graph of thermal stress against temperature differences is plotted.

4|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

RESULTS
Test specimen initial length, Lo :

a. mild steel : 263 mm

b. copper : 263 mm
c. stainless steel : 262 mm

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

Time
Dial gauge Temperature Dial gauge Temperature Dial gauge Temperature
reading [°c] reading [°c] reading [°c]
[mm] [mm] [mm]

0 0 35.2 0 36.9 0 38.1

10 0.02 46.1 0.08 54.0 0.03 53.1
20 0.02 44.8 0.09 57.2 0.03 51.4
30 0.03 45.4 0.095 59.2 0.04 50.7
40 0.02 43.2 0.095 58.0 0.04 56.0
50 0.02 45.1 0.09 56.0 0.035 50.1
Table 1 shows the experimental result.

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

Time

▲L ▲T ▲L ▲T ▲L ▲T

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 0.02 10.9 0.08 17.1 0.08 15.0
20 0.02 9.6 0.09 20.3 0.09 13.3
30 0.03 10.2 0.095 22.3 0.095 12.6
40 0.02 8 0.095 21.1 0.095 17.9
50 0.02 9.9 0.09 19.1 0.09 12
Table 2 show the difference in temperature and length.

Time Stainless steel [°c]-1 Copper [°c]-1 Mild steel [°c]-1

-3 -3
[x 10 ] [x 10 ] [x 10-3]
0 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 0.80 5.20 4.56
20 0.73 6.95 4.56
30 1.16 8.06 4.55
40 0.60 7.62 6.47
50 0.76 6.54 4.11
Table 3 shows the coefficient of thermal expansion from experiment.

5|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

Material Experimental Theoretical

Stainless steel 0.81 x 10-3 9.9 x 10-6 - 17.3 x 10-6

Copper 6.87 x 10-3 16 x 10-6 - 16.7 x 10-6

Mild steel 4.86 x 10-3 11 x 10-6 - 12.5 x 10-6

Table 4 shows the thermal expansion comparison result.

Time
Strain

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

0 0.00 0.00 0.00

10 0.08 0.30 0.11
20 0.08 0.34 0.11
30 0.12 0.36 0.15
40 0.08 0.36 0.15
50 0.08 0.34 0.13
Table 5 shows the material’s strain.

Material Young modulus

Stainless steel 193 x 109 Pa

Copper 128 x 109 Pa

Mild steel 207 x 109 Pa

Table 6 shows the material’s Young Modulus.

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

▲σ ▲T ▲σ ▲T ▲σ ▲T

1.54 10.9 3.84 17.1 2.28 15.0

1.54 9.6 4.35 20.3 2.28 13.3
2.32 10.2 4.61 22.3 3.11 12.6
1.54 8 4.61 21.1 3.11 17.9
1.54 9.9 4.35 19.1 2.69 12
Table 7 shows the material’s Thermal stress with respect to temperature difference.

6|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

Thermal stress against temperature difference

(copper)
5
4.5
4
Thermal stress

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
17.1 19.1 20.3 21.1 22.3
Temperature difference

Thermal stress against temperature difference

(stainless steel)
2.5

2
Thermal stress

1.5

0.5

0
8 9.6 9.9 10.2 10.9
Temperature difference

Thermal stress against temperature difference

(mild steel)
3.5
3
2.5
Thermal stress

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
12 12.6 13.3 15 17.9
Temperature difference

7|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

DISCUSSION
As a solid material experiences an increase in temperature, the volume of the structure is ultimately
impacted by increasing, a phenomenon known as thermal expansion. This process results from heat's
ability to increase a material's kinetic energy.

Within solids, molecules are typically located in close proximity to one another, contributing to the
defined shape of the structure. As the temperature rises, molecules begin to vibrate at a more rapid speed
and push away from one another. This increased separation between the individual atoms causes the
solid to expand, thus increasing the volume of the structure.

With expansion comes thermal stress which is this volumetric enlargement, the elements of a solid
undergo greater levels of stress. Thermal stresses can have a significant effect on a structure's strength
and stability, potentially causing cracks or breaks within certain components. Such failures compromise
the overall design of the structure, which can lead to possible weakening and deformation.

Residual stress in welding is just one example. In welding, a bond is formed between metal parts by
melting their surfaces and placing them together, so they are joined when the materials solidify again.
As the assembled structure cools down, some areas of the welding tend to contract more than other
areas due to differing thermal expansion coefficients. This causes residual stresses within the area of
the weld.

The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is a material property that is indicative of the extent to which
a material expands upon heating. Different substances expand by different amounts. Over small
temperature ranges, the thermal expansion of uniform linear objects is proportional to temperature
change. Thermal expansion finds useful application in bimetallic strips for the construction of
thermometers but can generate detrimental internal stress when a structural part is heated and kept at
constant length.

For the graph of copper, the value of thermal increases gradually from 17.1 until 22.3 temperature
difference with the value of thermal gradually increases from 17.1 to 21.1. At 21.1, the value of thermal
stress decreases a bit from temperature difference 21.1 to 22.3. Based on the graph of the stainless steel,
the value of thermal stress stays constant from temperature difference 8 until 9.9 however it decreases
when the value of temperature difference between 10.2 until 10.9. The value stays constant at thermal
1.5 and decreases from thermal stress 2 to 1.5 reading. For the graph of mild steel, the value of thermal
stress increases at temperature 12 until 12.6 and decreases rapidly from 12.6 until 13.3. The value of
the thermal stress remains constant for a while at temperature reading from 13.3 until 15 and then
experience a rapid increase at temperature 17.9 which the value of thermal stress is 15.0.

The cross-sectional area of specimen will affect the area expansion in the thermal expansion. The bigger
the cross-sectional area, the higher the value of area of expansion in the thermal expansion. The area
expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature, and the fractional change
in area is small less than 1. If either of these conditions does not hold, the equation must be integrated

8|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

CONCLUSION
The objectives of the experiment were achieved because we were able to determine the coefficient of
linear expansion of a metal tube by measuring the initial length using a meter stick, its initial and final
temperature of the stainless steel, copper and mild steel by interpolation, resistance using a digital multi-
tester and the final length using a dial gauge. We were also able to achieve the second objective of this
experiment by determining the factors that affect the change in length in thermal expansion. The factors
are: change in temperature, the original length, and the coefficient of thermal expansion. In this
experiment, we were able to prove that the effect of heat into a matter is to expand it as the heat
increases. Generally, the objects experience expansion when there is an increase in temperature and
contraction when there is a decrease in temperature. Every material is uniquely paired with their
coefficient of linear expansion. Therefore, each object uniquely responds to the heat transfer between
systems. A material with larger amount of coefficient of linear expansion takes a larger amount of heat
to expand a certain length compared to a material with smaller coefficient of linear expansion.

Engineers and architects must always take into consideration the fact that objects usually expand when
they are heated. As a result, they have to design buildings, bridges, power lines, and other structures to
compensate for expansion and contraction. Thermal expansion, also, is used in the construction of
certain appliances and devices in homes and industry. One example is the bimetallic strip. A bimetallic
strip consists of two pieces of metal welded to each other. The two metals are chosen to have different
coefficients of expansion. When the bimetallic strip is heated, it bends one way or the other as one metal
expands faster than the other.

9|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

REFERENCES
1. [website] Thermal expansion - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/thermal-expansion
2. [website] B. (n.d.). Boundless Physics. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/thermal-expansion/
3. [journal] Krishnan, R., Srinivasan, R., & Devanarayanan, S. (1979). Thermal Expansion and
Phase Transitions. Thermal Expansion of Crystals,105-114. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-021405-
4.50009-3
4. [book] Thermal Expansion. (2014). Springer Verlag.
5. [book] Askeland, D. R., & Wright, W. J. (2016). The science and engineering of materials.
Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
6. [book] White, F. M. (2017). Fluid mechanics. New Delhi, India: McGraw-Hill Education.
7. [book] Hibbeler, R. C. (2018). Fluid mechanics. NY, NY: Pearson.

10 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

BUCKLING OF STRUT

INTRODUCTION

Buckling is an instability of a material when applied with loading which eventually leads to bend and
failure. It is characterized by a sudden sideways deflection of the structural member. When the load is
applied on the material, it will become large causing it to become unstable and consequent that make
the material change in shape. This situation can be said to have buckled. Each material has their own
ultimate compressive stress where the maximum load can be applied on the material. In this experiment,
the 80% of the ultimate compressive stress only be applied due to the prevent the load applied not
exceed buckling load. In this experiment also, the buckling load for pinned ended strut and fixed ended
strut will be determine as the objective of the experiment.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Buckling is a vulnerability of a material when subjected to load that may leads to failure. It is
distinguished by unforeseen sideways deflection of the structural member. When the applied load
reaches the critical load, elastic buckling occurs. Euler buckling formula is used to predict the buckling
load of a material. The critical value in Euler Formula is the slenderness ratio, which is the ratio of the
length of the strut to its radius of gyration (L/K). The Euler formula become unreliable for struts with
L/K ratio of less than 1.125 and this should be considered in any design work. Euler prediction for pin-
end strut is given by:

 2 EI
Pcr =
(KL) 2
(1.a)

Where K is the column effective length factor whose value depends on the conditions of end support of
the column, its value is as follows:

Condition K
For both ends pinned 1.0
For both ends fixed 0.50
For one end fixed and the other end √2/2 ≈ 0.7071
pinned
For one end fixed and the other end free 2.0
to move laterally
Table 1: Value of K on different condition

11 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

P  2 EI
 cr  cr  2
A AL
(1.b)

Where;

σcr is critical stress (N/mm2 ),

A is cross section area (mm2 ),

Pcr is critical load (N),

E is elastic modulus (N/mm2 ),

I is second moment of area (mm4 )

L is specimen length (mm).

The formulation for fix-end strut is given similarly by equation (1.a).

Since K is 0.5 for both end fix, thus it become

4 2 EI
Pcr 
L2
(2)

Thus, the calculated value of Pcr can’t be exceeded during the experiment to prevent the specimen from
breaking.

12 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

PROCEDURE

Measurement

The length , width and thickness of the steel was calculated by using vernier caliper and measuring tape.

(a) (b)

Figure 1 (a) pinned end condition. (b) fixed end condition

Pinned Ended Strut

1.The digital indicator was switch and warmed in 10 minutes

2.The theoretical buckling load for ended and fixed strut was calculated. This value is preventing the
buckling occur.

3.The grooved support was placed into the slot of attachment for the end condition and was tightened
the side screw.

4.The platen upwards and downwards was moving to bring the distance between two supports closer to
the strut.

5.Tare button pressed on the digital indicator become zero.

6.The specimen was placed in the grooved of the top support.

7.To make the specimen rest in the groove of the bottom support, the jack was adjusted while hold the
specimen.

13 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

8.the position of the dial gauge was adjusted to ensure it is at the mid length of the specimen and was
set to the zero reading.

9.Tare button was press and set the loading indicator to zero.

10.The screw jack handle was slowly turning in the clockwise direction to increase the load but in small
increments.

11.Each load increments were record and corresponding mid span deflection. The load is not exceeded
80% of the buckling load.

12.The specimen was unload after the experiment finish by turning the jack handle in counter clockwise
direction.

Fixed Ended Strut

1.The theoretical buckling load was calculated same with the pinned ended strut but using different
formula.

2.The upwards top platen was moving to bring the distance between the two supports closer to the
length of the strut.

3.Tare button was pressed on the digital indicator to set the reading to zero.

4.Specimen was placed in the slot of the upper attachment for end conditions.

14 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

RESULT

Pinned ended strut

E = 200 GPa

L = 0.702 m

W = 0.025 m

T = 3.3x10^-3

Iy = 7 .44x10^-11

Pcr (pinned) = 300 N

Max load = 240 N

no Load P (N) Mid Span Deflection d (mm) d/p (mm/N)

1 23.0 0.02 8.7x10^-4
2 7.0 0.03 8.11x10^-4
3 56.0 0.06 1.07x10^-3
4 80.0 0.08 1x10^-3
5 104.0 0.23 2.21x10^-3
Table 2: Experimental results of buckling load for a pinned ended strut

15 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

Fixed ended strut

E = 200 GPa

L = 0.702 m

W = 0.025 m

T = 3.3x10^-3

Iy = 7 .44x10^-11

Pcr (fixed) = 1200 N

Max load = 960 N

no Load P (N) Mid Span Deflection d (mm) d/p (mm/N)

1 53.0 0.06 1.13x10^-3
2 94.0 0.07 7.45x10^-4
3 144.5 0.1 6.92x10^-4
4 172.5 0.25 1.45x10^-3
5 204.5 0.71 3.39x10^-3
Table 2: Experimental results of buckling load for a fixed ended strut

16 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

DISCUSSION

The experiment of buckling of strut used to determine the buckling load for a pinned ended strut and
the buckling load for a fixed end strut. Both experiments of the buckling load for a pinned ended strut
and the buckling load for a fixed end strut using the same steel beam.

Based on the experiment of the buckling load for a pinned ended strut, the deflection of beam at mid
span is increase as the load increase. Then, the deflection per load obtained show that It is increasingly
by little. Theoretically, the critical load for a pinned ended strut is obtained 300 N. So, the maximum
load for this experiment is 240 N. The load used in the experiment not more than 240 N which can
cause error in reading and damaging the beam. Hence, the value can be accepted.

Based on the experiment of the buckling load for a fixed end strut, the deflection of beam at mid span
is increase as the load increase too. But, the deflection per load obtained show that it is decreasingly for
second reading then increasingly for next reading. This show the more load needed to deflect the beam
at some point. Theoretically, the critical load for a pinned ended strut is obtained 1200 N. So, the
maximum load for this experiment is 960 N. The load used in the experiment not more than 960 N.
Hence, the value also can be accepted.

The value of data can be affected by some error. The equipment used need to be calibrated first to get
the exact value as it is using digital reading. Moreover, the dial gauge need to be in the middle of beam.
This affected the maximum of deflection obtained. Then, the reading can also take for more than one
time for certainty.

CONCLUSION

In the conclusion, the buckling load for a fixed end strut is higher value than the buckling load for a
pinned ended strut. This show that fixed end strut is stronger than pinned end. The buckling load for a
pinned ended strut is 104.0 N and the buckling load for a fixed end strut is 204.5 N which is based from
the experiment.

17 | P a g e
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION AND BUCKLING OF STRUT] November 11, 2018

REFERENCES

1. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE PHENOMENON OF BUCKLING. (n.d.).

Retrieved from http://www.journalagent.com/pajes/pdfs/PAJES_1_1_39_43.pdf
2. Hibbeler, R. C., & Yap, K. B. (2014). Mechanics of materials. (9th ed.). Harlow: Pearson.
3. Strut load. (2014). Dictionary Geotechnical Engineering/Wörterbuch GeoTechnik,1336-1336.
4. Definition of 'buckling'. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/buckling

18 | P a g e