[LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

INTRODUCTION

Most materials expand somewhat when heated through a temperature range that does not produce a
change in phase. The added heat increases the average amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the
material which increases the average separation between the atoms.

Suppose an object of length L undergoes a temperature change of magnitude T. If T

is reasonably small, the change in length, L, is generally proportional to L and T.
Stated mathematically:

L = L T;

where  is called the coefficient of linear expansion for the material.

For materials that are not isotropic, such as an asymmetric crystal for example, a can have a different
value depending on the axis along which the expansion is measured.

 can also vary somewhat with temperature so that the degree of expansion depends not only on the
magnitude of the temperature change, but on the absolute temperature as well.

In this experiment, you will measure a for copper, aluminum, and steel. These metals are isotropic so
that a need only be measured along one dimension. Also, within the limits of this experiment, a does
not vary with temperature.

The objectives of this experiment are to measure the change in length of test specimen and determine
the thermal expansion coefficient of different test specimen.

1|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Most materials are subject to thermal expansion: a tendency to expand when heated, and to contract
when cooled. For this reason, bridges are built with metal expansion joints, so that they can expand and
contract without causing faults in the overall structure of the bridge. Other machines and structures
likewise have built-in protection against the hazards of thermal expansion. But thermal expansion can
also be advantageous, making possible the workings of thermometers and thermostats.

Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. The change in length with
temperature for a solid material can be expressed as:

where l0 and lf represent, respectively, the original and final lengths with the temperature change
from T0 toTf. The parameter a1 CTE and has units of reciprocal temperature (K–1) such as µm/m · K
or 10–6/K. Conversion factors are:

The coefficient of thermal expansion is also often defined as the fractional increase in length per unit
rise in temperature. The exact definition varies, depending on whether it is specified at a precise
temperature (true coefficient of thermal expansion or a-bar or over a temperature range (mean
coefficient of thermal expansion or a). The true coefficient is related to the slope of the tangent of the
length versus temperature plot, while the mean coefficient is governed by the slope of the chord between
two points on the curve. Variation in CTE values can occur according to the definition used. When a is
constant over the temperature range then a= a-bar. Finite-element analysis (FEA) software such as
NASTRAN (MSC Software) requires that a be input, not a-bar.

2|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 1. Equipment set-up.

The thermistor that measures the tube temperature is embedded in the thermistor lug. Once thermal
equilibrium has been reached, the heat is highly uniform along the length of the tube. The foam
insulator is used to inhibit heat loss through the thermistor lug so the lug temperature closely
follows the tube temperature. The insulator does not have any appreciable effect on the local
temperature of the tube itself

3|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus power supply (G) is switched ON.
2. Three dial gauges is set to zero reading. These readings are recorded
3. The initial temperature of each specimen is recorded by turning the selector (A) to T1, T2 and
T3. (T1 = stainless steel temperature, T2 = copper temperature, T3 = mild steel temperature).
4. The heater (I) is switched ON. The temperature is set at the controller (H) to about 60°C. The
stop watch is started.
5. After 10 minutes elapsed, the three set temperature readings and the changed of the length
readings is recorded down. (Note: Doesn’t matter if the temperature exceeds 60°C).
6. Step 5 is repeated to obtain three set of results.
7. The table given is computed and the thermal expansion coefficient for all the specimens is
calculated. The readings are compared with the theoretical readings.
8. The test specimen strain value and hence the thermal stress value is calculated.
9. The graph of thermal stress against temperature differences is plotted.

4|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

RESULTS
Test specimen initial length, Lo :

a. mild steel : 263 mm

b. copper : 263 mm
c. stainless steel : 262 mm

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

Time
Dial gauge Temperature Dial gauge Temperature Dial gauge Temperature
reading [°c] reading [°c] reading [°c]
[mm] [mm] [mm]

0 0 35.2 0 36.9 0 38.1

10 0.02 46.1 0.08 54.0 0.03 53.1
20 0.02 44.8 0.09 57.2 0.03 51.4
30 0.03 45.4 0.095 59.2 0.04 50.7
40 0.02 43.2 0.095 58.0 0.04 56.0
50 0.02 45.1 0.09 56.0 0.035 50.1
Table 1 shows the experimental result.

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

Time

▲L ▲T ▲L ▲T ▲L ▲T

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 0.02 10.9 0.08 17.1 0.08 15.0
20 0.02 9.6 0.09 20.3 0.09 13.3
30 0.03 10.2 0.095 22.3 0.095 12.6
40 0.02 8 0.095 21.1 0.095 17.9
50 0.02 9.9 0.09 19.1 0.09 12
Table 2 show the difference in temperature and length.

Time Stainless steel [°c]-1 Copper [°c]-1 Mild steel [°c]-1

-3 -3
[x 10 ] [x 10 ] [x 10-3]
0 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 0.80 5.20 4.56
20 0.73 6.95 4.56
30 1.16 8.06 4.55
40 0.60 7.62 6.47
50 0.76 6.54 4.11
Table 3 shows the coefficient of thermal expansion from experiment.

5|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

Material Experimental Theoretical

Stainless steel 0.81 x 10-3 9.9 x 10-6 - 17.3 x 10-6

Copper 6.87 x 10-3 16 x 10-6 - 16.7 x 10-6

Mild steel 4.86 x 10-3 11 x 10-6 - 12.5 x 10-6

Table 4 shows the thermal expansion comparison result.

Time
Strain

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

0 0.00 0.00 0.00

10 0.08 0.30 0.11
20 0.08 0.34 0.11
30 0.12 0.36 0.15
40 0.08 0.36 0.15
50 0.08 0.34 0.13
Table 5 shows the material’s strain.

Material Young modulus

Stainless steel 193 x 109 Pa

Copper 128 x 109 Pa

Mild steel 207 x 109 Pa

Table 6 shows the material’s Young Modulus.

Stainless steel Copper Mild steel

▲σ ▲T ▲σ ▲T ▲σ ▲T

1.54 10.9 3.84 17.1 2.28 15.0

1.54 9.6 4.35 20.3 2.28 13.3
2.32 10.2 4.61 22.3 3.11 12.6
1.54 8 4.61 21.1 3.11 17.9
1.54 9.9 4.35 19.1 2.69 12
Table 7 shows the material’s Thermal stress with respect to temperature difference.

6|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

Thermal stress against temperature difference

(copper)
5
4.5
4
Thermal stress

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
17.1 19.1 20.3 21.1 22.3
Temperature difference

Thermal stress against temperature difference

(stainless steel)
2.5

2
Thermal stress

1.5

0.5

0
8 9.6 9.9 10.2 10.9
Temperature difference

Thermal stress against temperature difference

(mild steel)
3.5
3
2.5
Thermal stress

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
12 12.6 13.3 15 17.9
Temperature difference

7|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

DISCUSSION
As a solid material experiences an increase in temperature, the volume of the structure is ultimately
impacted by increasing, a phenomenon known as thermal expansion. This process results from heat's
ability to increase a material's kinetic energy.

Within solids, molecules are typically located in close proximity to one another, contributing to the
defined shape of the structure. As the temperature rises, molecules begin to vibrate at a more rapid speed
and push away from one another. This increased separation between the individual atoms causes the
solid to expand, thus increasing the volume of the structure.

With expansion comes thermal stress which is this volumetric enlargement, the elements of a solid
undergo greater levels of stress. Thermal stresses can have a significant effect on a structure's strength
and stability, potentially causing cracks or breaks within certain components. Such failures compromise
the overall design of the structure, which can lead to possible weakening and deformation.

Residual stress in welding is just one example. In welding, a bond is formed between metal parts by
melting their surfaces and placing them together, so they are joined when the materials solidify again.
As the assembled structure cools down, some areas of the welding tend to contract more than other
areas due to differing thermal expansion coefficients. This causes residual stresses within the area of
the weld.

The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is a material property that is indicative of the extent to which
a material expands upon heating. Different substances expand by different amounts. Over small
temperature ranges, the thermal expansion of uniform linear objects is proportional to temperature
change. Thermal expansion finds useful application in bimetallic strips for the construction of
thermometers but can generate detrimental internal stress when a structural part is heated and kept at
constant length.

8|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

CONCLUSION

9|Page
 [LAB EXPERIMENT: THERMAL EXPANSION] , 2018

REFERENCES
1. [website] Thermal expansion - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/thermal-expansion
2. [website] B. (n.d.). Boundless Physics. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/thermal-expansion/
3. [journal] Krishnan, R., Srinivasan, R., & Devanarayanan, S. (1979). Thermal Expansion and
Phase Transitions. Thermal Expansion of Crystals,105-114. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-021405-
4.50009-3
4. [book] Thermal Expansion. (2014). Springer Verlag.
5. [book] Askeland, D. R., & Wright, W. J. (2016). The science and engineering of materials.
Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
6. [book] White, F. M. (2017). Fluid mechanics. New Delhi, India: McGraw-Hill Education.
7. [book] Hibbeler, R. C. (2018). Fluid mechanics. NY, NY: Pearson.

10 | P a g e