Complementos de Transmissão de Calor/

Advanced Heat Transfer

Part I: (a) Boiling
Chapter 10* (Sections 10.1-10.5)

Year 2018/2019

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*Ref. 1 in list of main bibliography
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Part Ia: Boiling- General consideration
 Phase change is a very efficient but complex thermal transport method due to its
ability to absorb high heat fluxes at low and uniform temperature.
 Boiling is associated with transformation of liquid to vapor at a solid/liquid
interface due to convection heat transfer from the solid.
 Agitation of fluid by vapor bubbles provides for large
convection coefficients and hence large heat fluxes at
low-to-moderate surface-to-fluid temperature differences.
 Special form of Newton’s law of cooling:
q′′s = h (Ts − Tsat ) = h ∆ Te
 Tsat → saturation temperature of liquid

 ∆ Te ≡ (Ts − Tsat ) → excess temperature

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Part Ia: Evaporation, Boiling and Condensation
Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when
the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure
of the liquid at a given temperature. In evaporation
bubbles cannot form since the vapor pressure is less
than the atmospheric pressure.

Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a

liquid is brought into contact with a surface
maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the
saturation temperature of the liquid. Bubles form
and rise as Pv over come Patm.
Condensation Occurs when Tv is decreased to below
Tsat and its usually done when the vapor contacts a
surface which is at a temperature below the saturation
temperature of the vapor. When the liquid condensate
forms on the surface, it will flow under the influence of
gravity.
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Part Ia: Boiling- classification
 Subcooled Boiling: When the temperature of the bulk
liquid is below the saturation temperature. It occurs at early
stage of boiling where bubbles form and disappear.
 Saturated Boiling: When the temperature of the liquid
is equal or slightly larger than the saturation temperature.
Bubbles rise to the top.
 Pool Boiling: When boiling takes place in the absence of bulk
fluid flow.
• Any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection and the
motion of the bubbles including bubble-induced mixing.

 Forced convection/flow Boiling: It occurs in the presence of

bulk fluid motion which is induced by external means and by
bubble-induced mixing.
• The fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface
by external means such as a pump.

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Part Ia: Boiling-Dimensional Analysis
• Boiling and condensation depends on the numbers of complete and
independent variables which include:
 Difference in temperature ∆T = (Ts − Tsat )

Body force g (ρ l − ρ v )
Latent heat h fg
Surface tension σ
Characteristic length L
Thermophysical properties of fluid ρ , cp , k , µ
•As a result, the heat transfer depends on:
h = h[∆T , g (ρ l − ρ v ) , h fg , σ , L , ρ , c p , k , µ ]
Here 10 variables, 5 dimensions-m,kg,s,j,K
• pi/dimensionless-group:10-5=5 CTCal-2019|SM 5
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Part Ia: Boiling-Dimensional Analysis
• Applying Buckingham pi theorem in previous functions one obtains:
πl = f(π2, π3 , π4, π5)
hL  ρg (ρ l − ρ v )L3 c p ∆T µc p g (ρ l − ρ v )L2 
= f , , , 
k  µ 2
h fg k σ 
 ρg (ρ l − ρ v )L3 
Nu L = f  , Ja , Pr , Bo 
 µ2 
 Nusselt number (characterizes convection heat transfer)

Prandtl number (ratio between dissipation and conduction)

(characterizes buoyancy-induced effects) ρg (ρ l − ρ v )L

3

µ2
c p ∆T
Jakob number (ratio of sensible energy to latent energy) Ja =
h fg
g (ρ l − ρ v )L2
Bond number (ratio of gravitational body force to surface Bo =
tension force) σ

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Part Ia: Boiling Regimes and Curve
The boiling curve reveals different boiling regimes/forms and range of conditions
associated the pool boiling on a heat flux Vs excess temperature ( q′′s − ∆ Te ) plot.

Jets and
columns

Typical boiling curve of water at 1 atm CTCal-2019|SM 7

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Part Ia: Boiling Regimes
• Free Convection Boiling (Point: 1-A) (∆ T
e < 5o C )
 Little vapor formation.
 Liquid motion is due principally to single-phase natural convection.
• Onset of Nucleate Boiling (Point A) - ONB ( ∆ Te ≈ 5 C )
o

• Nucleate Boiling ( 5 < ∆ Te < 30o C )

 Isolated Vapor Bubbles (Point: A-B) ( 5 < ∆ Te < 10o C )

– Liquid motion is strongly influenced by nucleation of
bubbles at the surface.
– h and q′′s increase sharply with increasing ∆ Te .
– Heat transfer is principally due to contact of liquid with the
surface (single-phase convection) and not to vaporization.

 Jets and Columns(Point B-C) (10 < ∆ Te < 30 C )

o

– Increasing number of nucleation sites causes bubble

interactions and coalescence into jets and slugs.
– Liquid/surface contact is impaired.
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Part Ia: Boiling Regimes
′′ ( ∆ Te ≈ 30o C )
• Critical Heat Flux - CHF, qmax
 Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling (water CHF=1 MW/m2@atm).
 In nucleate boiling, convection co-efficient can easily by beyond 104 W/m2K.
• Transition Boiling (Points C-D) ( < ∆ <120°C)
 When ∆ increases beyond critical point, ” starts decreasing due to large
fraction of surface is covered with vapor film which acts as an insulator and ”
reached to minimum at (D)- Leidenfrost point- signifies the onset of stable
film boiling where the ” is minimum and the surface is blanketed by a vapor.
 It is also termed unstable or partial film boiling

• Film Boiling (Points D-E) (∆ >120°C)

After transition phase, the ∆ increases further due
to which the surface is completely covered by stable
vapor film.
 Due to high temperature radiation heat transfer
takes place between the heated surface and the
liquid through the vapor film.
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Part Ia: Boiling Regimes-video
• Natural convection (up to Point A)

• Nucleate boiling(A-B-C)

• Film boiling (D-E)

• Transition boiling(C-D)

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Part Ia: Boiling Regimes

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Part Ia: Boiling- Burnout
• Potential Burnout for Power-Controlled Heating
 An increase in q′′s beyond qmax
′′ causes the surface to be blanketed by vapor
and its temperature to spontaneously achieve a value that can exceed its
melting point ( ∆ Te > 1000o C ).
• A typical boiling process does not
follow the boiling curve beyond point C.
• When the power applied to the heated
surface exceeded the value at point C even
slightly, the surface temperature increased
suddenly to point E.
• When the power is reduced gradually
starting from point E the cooling curve
follows with a sudden drop in excess
temperature until D is reached.
 A reduction in q ′′s below q m′′ in causes an
abrupt reduction in surface temperature to
the nucleate boiling regime.
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Part Ia: Bubbles (Nucleation-dynamics)

Surface defects, chemical inhomogeneity and

roughness
-The size and shape of the nucleation cavities alter
the initial steps of nucleation and bubble growth,
surface wettability (hydrophobic/hydrophilic).

The hydrophilic surface provides a higher HTC than the

hydrophobic surface, although at a higher superheat.

Bubble Coalescence
-Horizontal coalescence due the presence of multiple nucleation sites.
-Vertical coalescence at high rates of bubble release.

Dynamics of the three-phase contact line

The heat removed from the surface varies periodically as bubbles nucleate,
grow and detach from the surface

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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations
• Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character and mechanism
• Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.

Natural convection
•Heat transfer rates can be accurately determined using natural convection
relations.
= Where, n= ¼ for laminar and 1/3 for turbulent

For buoyancy driven turbulent flows over a

hot large horizontal plate:
/
= . Valid for all Pr values

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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations
• Nucleate boiling
 No general theoretical relations for heat transfer in the nucleate boiling
regime is available.
 Experimental based correlations are used.
 The rate of heat transfer strongly depends on the nature of nucleation and
the type and the condition of the heated surface.

”
= ∆
Nucleation site density
(active nucleation per unit
area), = (∆ , )

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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations
In region, A-B, the boiling phenomena is type of liquid phase forced convection where
fluid motion is induced by rising bubbles and a general form of such forced
convention can be: = (,)
 A characteristics length scale and velocity need to be identified for nucleate boiling.

 As the rising bubbles mix the liquid, the length scale: bubble diameter, Db and it can be
obtained from force balance buoyancy force (∝ ! ) and surface tension force (∝ ! )
(" ∝ #! ) =>
! ∝ + #*$(% − % ) (,,)
& (

A characteristic velocity, V for the agitation of the liquid may be obtained from the
distance and time (tb) the liquid travels to fill in behind a departing bubble (∝ ! ).

(,II)

tb=energy it takes to form vapor a

bubble(latent heat)/heat added over
With m=2/3 (expt.), C= Cs,f and applying Eqs. II solid-vapor contact area.
& III in Eq.(I) and simplifying, the well-known
Rohsenow (1952) correlation can be obtained.
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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations

Jacob number, Ja
• The values in Rohsenow equation can be used for any geometry.
• The correlation is applicable to clean and relatively smooth surfaces.

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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations
Critical Heat Flux (CHF):
The CHF in nucleate pool boiling was determined theoretically by Kutateladze
(Russia) in 1948 and Zuber (USA) in 1958 and has the form:

(Geometry constant)

 The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating

surface combination, the viscosity, thermal
conductivity, and Cp of the liquid.
 The CHF increases with pressure (-, hfg) up to 1/3 of Pcr and decreases
(0@Pcr) any further increase of pressure [Cichelli & Bonilla,1945).

Minimum heat flux: Zuber(1958) correlation

(for a large horizontal plate)

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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations
Film boiling: Based on film condensation analogy and for film boiling on a
cylinder/sphere of diameter (D), Bromley developed a model for Nu as:

h conv D
 g ( ρ − ρ ) h′ D 3 1/ 4
 Geometry C
Nu D = =C l v fg
 Cylinder(Hor.) 0.62
kv  ν v kv (Ts − Tsat )  Sphere 0.67
Corrected latent heat, h´fg accounts Esen to maintain Tv.blanket >Tsat and have:
h′fg = h fg + 0.80 c p , v (Ts − Tsat )
When Ts >300°C, radiation became significant and he cumulative (and coupled
effects) of convection and radiation across the vapor layer (Bromley,1950):

h 4 / 3 ≈ hconv + h rad h 1/ 3
4/3
(Outer surface of
horizontal tube but works
for vertical surface too)
If hconv > h rad ,

h ≈ hconv + 0.75 h rad

εσ (Ts4 − Tsat4 )
Emissivity of solid h rad =
from Table A.11. Ts − Tsat
Analogy between film boiling and film condensation
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does not hold for small surfaces with high curvature
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Part Ia: Pool Boiling Correlations
Film boiling:
From the previous Nu correlation, the heat flux for film boiling on a
horizontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D (by Bromley) can be
determined from:

kv = thermal conductivity of the vapor and Cfilm is the same as C in Nu Eq.

When Ts >300°C when radiation is significant, like heat transfer coefficient (h) the
heat flux has the form (Bromley,1950):

For

Where:
- is the Stefan–Boltzman constant and the temperature in this case
must be expressed in K, not °C. Emissivity of solid from Table
A.11.
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Part Ia: Pool Boiling- Parametric effects
Influence of the gravitational field
 The dependence of the critical heat flux, minimum heat flux, and average
Nusselt number for film boiling on g1/4 is correct even for values of g as low as
0.1 m/s2
 However, for nucleate boiling, the heat flux is nearly independent of gravity,
while Rosenhow correlation predicts that it is proporcional to g1/2
Influence of liquid subcooling
 In natural convection, the heat flux increases as (Ts-Tl)5/4=(∆Te+∆Tsub)5/4
 In the nucleate boiling regime, the influence of subcooling on the heat flux is
negligible
 The critical and the minimum heat flux increase linearly with ∆Tsub
 In the film boiling regime, the heat flux increases significantly with ∆Tsub
Influence of surface roughness
 The influence of roughness on the maximum and miminum heat fluxes and on
film boiling is negligible
 Increased surface roughness can cause a large increase in heat flux for the
nucleate boiling regime.

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Part Ia: Pool Boiling- Heat Transfer Enhancement
The rate of heat transfer in the nucleate boiling regime strongly depends
on the number of active nucleation sites on the surface, and the rate of
bubble formation at each site and also to the properties of liquid.
 Modification that enhances nucleation on the heating surface will also enhance
heat transfer in nucleate boiling such as Irregularities on the heating surface,
including roughness and dirt, serve as additional nucleation sites during boiling.
 Customized heater surface- porous, cavities, grooving, particle deposition and
sand blasting etc.
 Modifing liquids adding surfactant (selective) as well as dispersed small
(micro/nano) scale particles can also increase the nucleate boiling (e.g.,
Murshed et al., 2009).

a) low-fin tubing, b) porous metallic

matrix, c) tunnel-and-pore
arrangement, d) T-shape rolled fins,
e)-f) fins, g) knurling and rolling
Examples of commercial structured boiling
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surfaces (Bergles 2011)
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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling

Forced convection (Flow) boiling

 In flow boiling, the fluid (bulk) is forced to move by

an external source such as a pump as it undergoes
a phase-change process.
 Thus the actual flow: bulk motion + buoyancy driven
motion.
 This boiling exhibits the combined effects of
convection and pool boiling.
 Flow boiling is classified as: internal and external
forced convection/flow boiling.
-The flow boiling is commonly referred as two-phase
flow.

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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling
Internal forced convection (internal flow) boiling/Two-phase flow
-Assosicated with bubble formation and dynamics inside the heated duct/tube
-A typical forced convection boiling in a vertical tube subject to uniform heat flux has:

Typical flow boiling

regimes/patterns:
– Liquid single-phase flow,
– Subcool flow boiling
– Bubbly flow,
– Slug flow,
– Annular flow,
– Mist/drop flow,
– Vapor single-phase flow.

Bubble growth and separation are

strongly influenced by the flow velocity,
and hydrodynamic effects differ
significantly from those corresponding
to pool boiling
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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling
Internal forced convection (internal flow) boiling
 Liquid single-phase flow (1st single-phase flow)
 In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is
by forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
 Internal flow (water and
 Subcooled and Bubbly flow
 Individual bubbles forms and increases air co-flow) video
 Low vapor mass fraction/qualities (X)
 Slug flow
 Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor.
 Moderate vapor mass fraction/ qualities(X)
 Annular flow
 Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid adjacent to the walls.
 Very high heat transfer coefficients
 Mist flow/drop flow  um increase several orders
 Liquid in the form of vapor droplet from liquid single-phase to
 A sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficientvapor single-phase flow)
 Vapor single-phase flow (2nd single-phase flow)
 The liquid phase is completely evaporated and vapor is superheated.
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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling
Internal forced convection (flow) boiling
Mean vapour mass fraction in the saturated flow boiling region

 ρ u (r , x ) X dAc
A X: mass fraction of vapour in the fluid
X= c
m&
In the saturated flow boiling region in smooth circular tubes the following
correlation may be used (Kandlikar correlations (1990&1999):
) 0 .1 0.7
 ρ   ′
′ 
= 0.6683  l  X 0.16 (1 − X ) f (Fr ) + 1058  (1 − X ) Gs , f
h 0.64 q s  0 .8
hsp  ρv   m& ′′ h fg 
 
or
0.45 0.7
ρ   q′s′ 
X 0.72 (1 − X ) f (Fr ) + 667.2  (1 − X )0.8 Gs, f
h 0.08 
= 1.136  l 
hsp  ρv   m& ′′ h fg 
 
m& ′′ = m& Ac 0 < X ≤ 0.8

(In utilizing any of this Eq., larger value of h should be used; these Eqs are
valid for both horizontal and verticle tube; properties evaluated at Tsat)

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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling
Internal forced convection (flow) boiling
hsp is the single phase (liquid) convective coefficient and can be determined from
Gnielinski Nu correlation for tube: 0.5≤ Pr ≤ 2000 and
3000 ≤ ReD ≤ 5x106

Froude number: Fr = (m& ′′ ρl ) g D

2

 1
f (Fr ) = 
for vertical tubes and for horizontal tubes with Fr ≥0.04
Stratification parameter: 0.3
2.63 Fr for horizontal tubes with Fr ≤0.04

Coefficient Gsf depends on surface-liquid combination (see Table 10.2)

• Previous correlation is only applicable when
the liquid single-phase flow is turbulent and
the diameter is large relative to the bubble
diameter, i.e., for
σ
Dh ≤ 0.5
g (ρ l − ρ v )

q′s′ π D x
• The mean vapour mass fraction is related to the heat flux by X (x ) =
(x is the axial coordinate with x=0 where X begins to exceed zero) m& h fg

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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling

External forced convection boiling

 External flow ─ the higher the velocity, the higher the nucleate boiling
heat flux and the critical heat flux.
 Forced convection increases the critical heat flux, e.g., from about 1.3
MW/m2 to 35 MW/m2 in the case of water at atmospheric pressure
 Standard forced convection correlations can be used up to the inception
of boiling

Fig: The effect of forced convection

on external flow boiling for different
flow velocities.

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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling
External forced convection boiling
In the nucleate (partial) flow boiling regime, without
excessive vapour formation and subcooled liquid, the
heat flux (/ ” ) can be estimated from Bergles and
Rohsenow (1964) interpolation relation:
”
/0.1.

/2”
”
/0.1. -heat flux for single-phase forced convection
/2” - heat flux for FD boiling correlation at various Tw
”
/24 - FD boiling inception heat flux at Tw@ONB
”
Procedure: /24
- Select Tw
”
- Estimate /2” and /0.1. = ℎ(67 − 6789 )
”
- Determine /24 from FD boiling equation at Tw@ONB
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Part Ia: Forced Convection (Flow) Boiling
External forced convection (flow) boiling
Forced convection boiling for a liquid cross flow
over a cylinder of diameter D:
(Lienhard and Eichhorn 1976)

′′
qmax 1   4 
1 3
′′
qmax
12
0.275 ρl 
= 1+    if >   +1 (low velocity)
ρv h fg V π   WeD   ρv h fg V π  ρv 
 
12
′′
qmax
=
( ρl ρv )
34
+
(ρl ρv )
12
if
′′
qmax
<
0.275 ρl 
  +1 (high velocity)
ρv h fg V 169π 13
19.2π WeD ρv h fg V π  ρv 
Properties are @Tsat
• WeD: Weber number – ratio of inertia to surface tension forces

ρv V 2 D <<
These Equations correlate /:8; within 20%
WeD =
σ
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Part Ia: Pool Boiling of Nanofluids
Nucleate pool boiling of nanofluids
 Nanofluids are a new class of fluids which is
defined as the suspesnions of nano-sized
solid particles in conventional fluids.
 Nanofluids showed significantly increased
critical heat flux (CHF) in pool boiling.
For instance, CHF of SWCNT/water based
nanofluids at very low concentration (0.1 vol.%)
with added surfactant was found to have about
6 times larger than that of pure water (Murshed
et al.,2009)

Nanofluids: Single wall carbon nanotube(SWCNT)/water

Heater: Ni-Cr wire (46 mm in length and 320 μm in diameter)

• Nanoparticles in fluids can change the heater surface morphology and

increase nucleation activities.
• Surfactant can also intensify the nucleate boiling performance of this
nanofluids.
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Part Ia: Pool Boiling of Nanofluids
Nucleate pool boiling of nanofluids
 The CHF value of pure deionized water(DIW) was 750 kW/m2 where as for
SWNT/DIW it was 4440 kW/m2 (5.9 times increase)
 The burnout heat flux (BHF) value of pure deionized water is 1500 kW/m2 where
as for SWNT/DIW is was 5500 kW/m2 (3.67 times increase)

SEM images of NiCr wires after pool

boiling experiments
For more information:
Murshed et al., A review of boiling and convective heat transfer with nanofluids, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 15(2011)2342-2354. CTCal-2019|SM 32