Articles

Bettina Brune DOI: 10.1002/stco.201310020

Teoman Peköz

Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of

EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
This paper compares the design concepts for cold-formed steel members according to lished by ECCS-TC7 [24]. Further in-
the European standard EN 1993-1-3 [22] and the Direct Strength Method (DSM) accord- formation as well as commentaries on
ing to Appendix 1 of the AISI specification [3]. References to where the two approaches EN 1993-1-3 [22] are presented in sev-
are described are followed by comparative analyses focusing on the fundamental design eral documents [8], [11]. Currently, an
concepts, the design procedure, strength curves, opportunities and limits to their appli- Evolution Group is working on a re-
cation. The paper points out similarities and differences, difficulties and opportunities. view of and amendments to EN 1993-
Channel section design examples are used to compare the different approaches. Current 1-3 [22].
and ongoing research to extend the standards is summarized to show the future possibil- The method of effective widths ac-
ities. cording to EN 1993-1-3 [22] predicts
realistic ultimate strengths for cold-
1 Introduction Design of Cold-Formed Steel Struc- formed structures if appropriate buck-
tural Members”, Appendix 1 [3], in- ling curves and improved effective
Cold-formed steel structures are widely clude design concepts for cold-formed widths are used, especially for outstand
used in Europe as well as in the USA, steel members, but they are fundamen- elements [10], [44]. However, from the
Asia and Australia. Primary applica- tally different. user’s standpoint, the method of effec-
tions for cold-formed steel structures tive widths according to EN 1993-1-3
are metal-framed buildings, industrial 2.1  EN 1993-1-3 [22] [22] is far too complicated, time-con-
halls and racking. Cold-formed mem- suming and prone to errors in design
bers in common use are C- and Z-sec- The European design code EN 1993-1-3 applications.
tions, hat-shaped sections and a wide [22] for cold-formed members is based
variety of specialized cross-sections on the traditional philosophy for the 2.2  Direct Strength Method [3]
(with and without lips, stiffeners and design of thin-walled sections well
perforations). known as the method of effective The Direct Strength Method (DSM)
The loadbearing behaviour of widths. This approach is quite similar according to Appendix 1 of the AISI
cold-formed steel members in com- to the effective width approach of the specification [3], was developed by
pression and bending is complex and AISI “Specification for the Design of Schafer/Peköz [36]. It is similar to the
mainly influenced by coupled instabil- Cold-Formed Steel Structural Mem- simplified method of reduced stresses
ities. Local plate buckling, distortional bers”. The essential idea is to idealize (e. g. as used in the German standard
buckling, global flexural or lateral-tor- the reduction in the effectiveness of a DIN 18800-3 [18]) and always refers to
sional buckling modes can occur sep- local and distortional buckling plate the gross section. The ultimate mem-
arately or interact in combined local with a non-linear stress distribution by ber strength is determined using DSM
and global failure modes. When using using an effective plate under a simpli- strength curves that connect elastic
high-strength steel, the risk of instabil- fied stress distribution. The effective buckling solutions directly with mate-
ity rises significantly. cross-section is fundamental to the rial non-linear analysis in all local, dis-
subsequent global buckling analysis. tortional and global buckling modes.
2 Design methods for cold-formed EN 1993-1-3 [22] corresponds, in par- To ease the calculation, DSM includes
members ticular, to the former German stand- a linear eigenvalue analysis of the elas-
ard DASt-Ri.016 [17], which was based tic buckling behaviour based on mod-
Recent years have seen the develop- on the research of Baehre et al. [6], ern computational finite strip methods
ment and introduction of different [25], [48] and refers to the fundamental [16].
design specifications for cold-formed European code EN 1993-1-5 [23] for The commentary to Appendix 1
thin-walled structures. Both the Euro- local plate buckling. An EN 1993-1-3 of the AISI specification [1] provides
pean design code EN 1993-1-3 [22], design manual including the theoreti- helpful detailed information on the
providing “supplementary rules for cal background and design examples design concept, the methods of analy-
cold-formed members and sheeting”, has been prepared by Dubina et  al. sis and the use of the finite strip pro-
and the AISI “Specification for the [19]. Working examples have been pub- gram CUFSM [16]. DSM is reviewed

82 © Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2
 B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
in several publications, e. g. [26], [39].
Design examples and their compara-
tive calculations are given in [9], [13],
[34] and [41], for example. A new edi-
tion of Appendix 1 [4] containing ex-
tensions and improvements is cur-
rently being prepared.
DSM has proved to be efficient
with regard to typical cold-formed
sections [39]; exceptions, and thus ex-
cluded from DSM design, are unlipped
channels in compression (see Lindner/
Rusch [34]) and angle sections (see
Rasmussen [32]), for example. DSM is
formalized, simple to apply and, con-
sequently, an accepted design concept
for the most commonly used cold-
formed sections. Currently, DSM has
been formally adopted in many coun-
tries such as Australia, the USA, Can-
ada, Mexico and Brazil.
3  Application of EN 1993-1-3 and DSM
3.1  Cold-formed members
EN 1993-1-3 [22] is understood to be
a general design concept for cold-
formed structures and thus covers all
types of angle plus C-, Z-, Sigma- and
hat-shaped sections with or without
stiffeners (see Fig.  1) which fit the val-
idated dimensions (see [22], Table 5.1).
But is has to be clearly stated that EN
1993-1-3 has been developed for the
most typical cold-formed sections as
shown in the first two rows of Fig.  1.
More complex section geometries (e. g.
Fig.  1, bottom row) are not covered by
the design concept of EN 1993-1-3.
This also concerns rack sections with
perforations and holes, which still have
to be designed by testing according to
EN 15512 [20].
DSM is a simple design method
for the most typical types of cold-
formed section such as channels, Z-
Fig.  1.  Cold-formed sections according to
EN 1993-1-3 [22]
sections or hat-shaped sections. By
contrast, DSM [3] excludes, for ex-
ample, angle sections and unlipped
plain channels (in compression) from
the design concept. These kinds of
cold-formed section are affected by
dominant local buckling phenomena
that reduce the plate effectiveness and
lead to a significant shift of the inter-
nal forces (see section 4.2.3). Since
this effect is not covered by DSM, the
application of the American design
concept is limited. However, DSM
edition 2012 [4] was extended to cold-
formed sections with the holes typical
of wall studs and floor joists. But per-
forated rack columns cannot yet be
designed according to the DSM. Cur-
rent research aims to fill this gap (see
section 6).
3.2 Loading
EN 1993-1-3 provides design provi-
sions for cold-formed structures loaded
in compression and tension, bending
and shear, torsion and load interac-
tions. EN 1993-1-3 includes column,
beam and beam-column design.
Contrary to this, DSM has only
been developed for column and beam
design so far. Shear design of beams
and combined bending and shear has
been included in the 2012 edition [4]
for the first time. Beam-column design
is still missing, but ongoing research is
already concentrating on this subject
(see section 6).
3.3  Inelastic reserve strength
EN 1993-1-3 [22] excludes inelastic re-
serves in thin-walled cold-formed sec-
tions with reductions in the plate ef-
fectiveness due to local or distortional
buckling and only permits elastic de-
sign. Recent research [12], [35], [34]
has proved the extension of the method
of effective widths for plastic design,
but this has not been introduced into
the code.
DSM edition 2012 [4] upgrades
the rules of Appendix 1 (2004) [3] and
includes inelastic reserve strength for
the first time.
4 Comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and
DSM design concepts
Both EN 1993-1-3 [22] and DSM [3]
are simplified engineering working
models for designing cold-formed steel
columns and beams without resorting
to testing or having to solve a compli-
cated non-linear problem for every in-
dividual member. The two approaches
integrate the elastic buckling analysis
for local, distortional and global flex-
ural(-torsional) or lateral-torsional
buckling as a first fundamental calcula-
tion step. Afterwards, both approaches
predict ultimate capacities by combin-
ing the elastic buckling solutions with
ultimate strength curves, but their cal-
culation procedures, strength curves
and strength predictions differ consid-
erably.
4.1  Elastic buckling analysis
4.1.1 Cross-section for elastic buckling
analysis
Both EN 1993-1-3 [22] and DSM [3]
take the gross section as the basis for
the elastic buckling analysis.
4.1.2  Elastic buckling analysis
In line with EN 1993-1-3 [22] and the
fundamental EN 1993-1-5 [23] for plate
buckling, the critical local buckling
stress of a cold-formed member is de-
termined by regarding each single plate
element separately and assuming a
hinged support at its longitudinal edges
(see EN 1993-1-5, Tables 4.1 and 4.2).
The European design method obvi-
ously ignores inter-element equilibrium
(e. g. between the flanges and the web
of a C-section) and the compatibility
of elastic local buckling modes, and is
thus a conservative approach. Recent
research [12], [35], [46] has proved that
the strength prediction of thin-walled
local buckling members would be im-
proved by implementing the elastic
local buckling stresses for the section
(e. g. calculated with the help of finite
strip analysis [16]) in EN 1993-1-5 de-
sign.
Going beyond the given design
provisions, EN 1993-1-3 section 5.5.3
allows for a numerical elastic buckling
analysis to calculate the distortional
buckling stress of cold-formed mem-
bers. Regarding global critical buckling
stresses, EN 1993-1-3 section 6.2 only
refers to the well-known scientific
background. Numerical solutions are
neither explicitly declared nor excluded
at this point.
However, everyday practical de-
sign of cold-formed structures accord-
ing to EN 1993 is based more and
Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2 83
B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
more on numerical elastic buckling
analyses. A variety of computation
methods such as finite element analy-
sis [5], finite strip analysis [16] or gener-
alized beam theory [40], [7] are used to
obtain accurate elastic buckling solu-
tions for cold-formed members and
beams.
DSM [3] is fully based on the re-
sults of an elastic eigenvalue analysis
and preferably uses the open-source
tool CUFSM [16] to generate the spe-
cific signature curve. The Appendix 1
commentary [1] provides guidance on
the appropriate analysis procedure for
determining elastic buckling stress.
Recently, CUFSM has been extended
to general boundary conditions and
to the constrained finite strip method,
which now enables buckling mode
isolation and identification.
4.2  Design for ultimate strength
4.2.1  General design procedure
The course of design according to EN
1993-1-3 [22] differs substantially from
the DSM [3] procedure. EN 1993-1-3
deals with local and interacting distor-
tional buckling effects first, which re-
sults in an effective cross-section (as
described in section 4.2.2), followed by
the global buckling analysis and the
ultimate strength prediction for the
cold-formed structure. EN 1993-1-3 ac-
counts for the interaction of all local/
distortional/global buckling modes.
DSM [3] starts by analysing the
global buckling strength of cold-
formed members, followed by the de-
sign of the section in coupled local
and global instabilities. In addition,
the ultimate strength for pure distor-
tional buckling is determined. The
lower strength calculated for interac-
tive global-local buckling or distor-
tional buckling is taken as the ulti-
mate strength prediction for the cold-
formed section. Local-distortional
and global-distortional buckling inter-
action is ignored. Schafer [39] details
the theoretical and experimental back-
ground of DSM, summarizing “that
local-global interaction was strong and
must be included, but [the] inclusion
of local-distortional and distortion-
al-global interactions [led] to overly
conservative solutions and [they] were
thus not recommended for inclusion”.
Although recent research, e. g. [41],
has proved local and distortional in-
teraction in some specific cases, DSM
84 Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2
edition 2012 [4] does not provide a cor-
responding amendment.
4.2.2 Cross-section for ultimate
strength prediction
Cold-formed member design accord-
ing to EN 1993-1-3 [22] requires cal-
culating at least two different effective
cross-sections considering the section
in 1) pure compression and 2) pure
(major and/or minor axis) bending,
neglecting any load interaction in the
first step. For typical, singly symmetric
cold-formed sections (e. g. C-sections)
in bending, at last two different effec-
tive cross-sections are required since
the compressive stresses change due to
the bending moment direction. Within
the EN 1993-1-3 design method, the
effective cross-section in pure compres-
sion is fundamental for the column
design when considering global flex-
ural(-torsional) buckling. The effective
cross-section in bending serves to pre-
dict the ultimate strength for later-
al-torsional buckling of beams.
If the effective width method is
applied, it is essential to start off with
the local/distortional analysis and deal
with global instabilities in the last calcu-
lation step as specified in EN 1993-1-3.
Otherwise, the effective cross-section
would have to be calculated consider-
ing both the local/distortional and the
global buckling phenomena, and it
would change with the varying global
length of the member. This scenario
would increase the effort in design and
is thus not intended according to EN
1993-1-3.
For beam-column design, EN
1993-1-3 [22] uses an interaction for-
mula depending on the two afore-
mentioned different effective cross-­
sections in 1) pure compression and
2) pure bending. This simplified ap-
proach, which evidently neglects the
actual stress distribution in members
under combined loading and thus
does not refer to the actual local and
distortional buckling effects, is pre-
ferred in order to minimize the ef-
fort of effective cross-section calcu-
lation.
DSM [3] only deals with the gross
section. One of the fundamental ideas
of DSM is to simplify everyday design
and to determine all of the elastic in-
stabilities and the ultimate strength
based on the gross properties of the
cold-formed section.
4.2.3  Shift of the centroid
Local buckling of thin-walled plates
and sections causes a redistribution of
longitudinal stresses so that the big-
gest part of the loading is carried by
the plate junctions. This produces a
non-linear stress distribution with in-
creased compressive stresses near the
plate junctions. In outstand compres-
sion elements and singly symmetric
cross-sections this also causes a signi­
ficant shift of the action line of the
internal forces. In the effective width
approach this is represented by the
shift of the centroid of the effective
cross-section. The shift of the internal
forces due to local buckling is sub-
stantial, particularly for angle sections
and unlipped plain channels [32], [34],
[44], [51], [52], [53].
EN 1993-1-3 requires calculating
the shift of the effective centroid
based on fundamental loading case 1,
pure compression. Taking account of
the effective cross-section, an axial
normal force (based on the gross sec-
tion) produces an additional bending
moment due to the shift of the effec-
tive centroid. Consequently, this re-
quires a combined beam-column de-
sign for the effective cross-section in
compression and bending (see Fig. 5).
However, EN 1993-1-3 takes the shift
of the centroid of the local buckling
section in pure compression as a con-
stant value for the further design. It is
not considered that the shift of the
effective centroid may decrease due to
the actual stress distribution if com-
bined stresses due to compression and
bending or global flexural buckling
occur.
DSM entirely neglects the shift of
the action line of the internal forces
due to local buckling. Following the
concept of reduced stresses, DSM al-
ways refers to the gross section and the
original stress distribution. A combined
beam-column design has not yet been
introduced into DSM. Consequently,
DSM according to Appendix 1 [3] is
limited to the design of cold-formed
structures for which no significant shift
of the effective centroid appears. This
analysis explains why DSM design
does not apply to the aforementioned
angle sections and unlipped channel
sections (in compression) so far. Ras-
mussen [31] proposed an extension to
DSM verified by tests on angle sections
[32], introducing a reduction factor
 B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
that represents the shift of the centroid.
However, DSM edition 2012 [4] does
not include any amendments for that
kind of cold-formed member.
4.2.4  Ultimate strength curves
4.2.4.1  Global buckling
Fig.  2 compares the ultimate strength
curves for global flexural(-torsional)
and lateral-torsional buckling of cold-
formed columns and beams according
to EN 1993-1-3 [22] and DSM [3] as-
suming that the critical loads are identi-
fied by an eigenvalue analysis and thus
equal slenderness ratios are calculated.
Fig.  2 uses the general EN 1993-1-1 no-
tation for the design of global instabil-
ities, determining a non-dimensional
reduction factor χ for the global stabil-
ity phenomena corresponding to the
associated global buckling slenderness,
which is determined by the elastic crit-
ical buckling load. For a global buck-
ling column, we get the global buckling
strength according to Eq.  (1) as a func-
tion of the global buckling slenderness
“lambda” according to Eq.  (2) (similar
to the DSM approach in this case).
Global reduction factor:
χ = f(λ) = NEd /Npl (1)
(column design)
Global slenderness:
Npl
λ = (2)
Ncr
(= λ c according to DSM)
In the above equations Ned, Npl and
Ncr are the column strength, column
yield load and minimum elastic criti-
cal load (in flexural, torsional or flex-
ural-torsional buckling) respectively.
The strength curves for column
design for typical cold-formed sections
(lipped C-, Z-sections) are quite similar
when considering both the European
and American design codes. EN 1993-
1-3 proposes an additional, conserva-
tive buckling curve (EBC c) for the de-
sign of unlipped cold-formed sections.
The strength curves for beam de-
sign disagree significantly. Again, EN
1993-1-3 prescribes the European buck-
ling curve b, whereas DSM proposes a
distinctly higher strength curve for later-
al-torsional buckling assuming a plateau
length up to slenderness ratio 0.748.
The American strength curve is extraor-
dinary and does not correspond to any
Fig.  2.  Comparison of global buckling strength curves according to EN 1993-1-3
[22] and DSM [3]
lateral-torsional buckling curve used
within the Eurocode generation. Recent
research work [9] emphasizes that the
current DSM [3] strength curve for
beam design cannot be confirmed by
tests and numerical calculations since
it has been shown to overestimate the
ultimate bending strength of thin-
walled cold-formed beams (see sec-
tion 5.2).
4.2.4.2  Local buckling
Fig.  3 shows the strength curves for
pure local buckling according to EN
1993-1-3 [22] and DSM [3]. Fig.  3 uses
the general EN 1993-1-3/1-5 notation
for the design of local instabilities, de-
termining a non-dimensional reduc-
tion factor ρ for local buckling corre-
sponding to the associated local buck-
ling slenderness, which is determined
by the elastic critical buckling stress
(or buckling load). For a local buck-
ling column, we get the local buckling
strength according to Eq.  (3) as a func-
tion of the local buckling slenderness
“lambda” according to Eq.  (4) (similar
to the DSM approach in this case).
Reduction factor:
ρ = f(λ p ) = A eff /A = Neff /Npl (3)
(column design)
Slenderness:
fy Npl
λ p = = (4)
σ cr Ncr
(= λ l according to DSM −
no global buckling)
In the above equations, Npl is the
yield load based on the yield stress fy,
and Ncr and σcr are the minimum elas-
tic critical buckling load and stress
for local plate buckling respectively.
In line with the effective width ap-
proach, Aeff is the effective area of
the plate for local buckling, which is
here compared with the gross section
area A.
Both codes use a modified Win-
ter curve [47] as a strength curve cor-
relating to the critical local buckling
stress and the slenderness of the sec-
tion specified by, for example, a finite
strip analysis. EN 1993-1-3 differenti-
ates strength curves for internal com-
pression elements with different stress
distributions and outstand compres-
sion elements. DSM includes only one
strength curve for local buckling of
both columns and beams.
In Fig.  3 the EN 1993-1-3 design
curves refer to single plate elements
subjected to local buckling, whereas the
DSM strength curve is related to the
gross section. Thus, the DSM strength
curve for local buckling refers to both
local buckling and possibly non-buck-
ling plate elements of the section (e. g.
in tension). The following example
highlights better the differences in lo-
cal buckling design according to the
European and American codes.
Fig.  4 shows the results of an elas-
tic buckling finite strip analysis and a
finite element (FE) analysis (calibrated
to tests [28]) for an unlipped plain chan-
nel in major axis bending (see [28] and
section 5.2). The bottom flange and the
lower part of the web are in tension
and thus not subjected to local buck-
ling. In the tests and FE analysis [28],
local buckling was only observed at
the upper flange in compression, with a
Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2 85
B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
Fig.  3.  Comparison of local buckling strength curves according to EN 1993-1-3 [22]
and DSM [3]
changed axial stress distribution which
is typical for local buckling outstand
plate elements. The web in bending
(due to its low local buckling slender-
ness) and the bottom flange in tension
are fully effective (see Fig.  4). In Fig.  4,
if the yield stress is reached in the top
flange, the actual stress in the bottom
flange is less than the yield stress.
The method of effective widths
according to EN 1993-1-3 focuses on
the plate elements and determines the
(buckling) strength separately for every
single plate element. Thus, EN 1993-1-3
identifies the non-buckling plates (par-
ticularly the plates in tension) and the
local buckling plates for which the ul-
timate strength is determined accord-
ing to Fig.  3. The modified stress dis-
tribution at ultimate strength, which
differs from the original stress distribu-
tion of the gross section in bending (see
Fig.  4, right), can be predicted with
good accuracy using EN 1993-1-3.
Elastic buckling analysis (CUFSM)
Fig.  4.  Elastic buckling analysis (left) and axial stress distribution σx at elastic strength according to an FE analysis (right)
for an unlipped channel section in major axis bending [28]
86 Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2
On the other hand, DSM (similar
to the method of reduced stresses ac-
cording to DIN  18800 part 3 [18], in
this case) reduces the ultimate strength
of the entire section in bending depend-
ing on a local buckling analysis of the
section (which is clearly dominated by
the local buckling of the upper flange
in this case, see Fig.  4). To provide a
realistic strength for this channel sec-
tion, the DSM approach has to cover
both the buckling plates with reduced
strength and even the plates in tension.
DSM therefore provides an “average”
reduction factor for the section which
is higher than the EN 1993-1-3 reduc-
tion factor for the single buckling plate.
Thus, the design methods of EN
1993-1-3 and DSM differ with respect
to local buckling strength curves.
These differences can be best com-
pared by design examples for specific
cold-formed sections as shown in sec-
tion 5.1.1.
FE analysis [28] – axial stress σx
4.2.4.3  Distortional buckling
Strength curves for distortional buck-
ling are compared in Fig.  5, which uses
the general EN 1993-1-3 notation for
distortional buckling design, determin-
ing a non-dimensional reduction factor
cd for distortional buckling correspond-
ing to the associated distortional buck-
ling slenderness, which is determined
by the elastic critical buckling stress.
For a column we get the distortional
buckling strength according to Eq.  (5)
as a function of the associated slender-
ness “lambda” according to Eq.  (6) (sim-
ilar to the DSM approach in this case).
Reduction factor:
χd = f(λ d ) = t eff /t (5)
(column design)
Slenderness:
fy Npl (6)
λd = =
σ cr,s Ncr,s
(= λ d − according to DSM)
In the above equations, Npl is the yield
load based on the yield stress fy, and
Ncr,s and σcr,s are the minimum elastic
critical buckling load and stress for dis-
tortional buckling respectively. In line
with the EN 1993-3 approach, teff and
t are the effective thickness and the ac-
tual thickness respectively of the stiff-
ener in question.
According to the EN 1993-1-3 de-
sign concept, the strength reduction
represented by the reduction in the
plate thickness teff (see Eq.  (5)) only
refers to the single plate elements
close to the edge stiffeners since dis-
tortional buckling is represented here
 B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
Fig.  5.  Comparison of distortional buckling strength curves according to
EN 1993-1-3 [22] and DSM [3]
as flexural buckling of the edge stiffen-
ers modelled as columns on an elastic
foundation. EN 1993-1-3 also uses this
model for the design of plates with in-
termediate stiffeners.
Contrary to this, DSM provides a
direct distortional buckling factor for
the gross section comprising all the
plate elements of the section. Conse-
Fig.  6.  Column design according to EN 1993-1-3 [22]
quently, the DSM strength curves for
distortional buckling are significantly
higher than those of the EN 1993-1-3
approach.
4.2.5 Conclusion
Figs.  6 and 7 summarize the design pro-
cedures for column design according
to EN 1993-1-3 [22] and DSM, AISI
Appendix 1 [3]. It is obvious that cold-
formed section design as provided by
EN 1993-1-3 is an extraordinary chal-
lenge, whereas DSM minimizes the
design effort.
EN 1993-1-3 provides two differ-
ent interaction formulas for beam-col-
umn design (see Fig.  6, bottom). A
linear interaction is given for stub col-
umns covering local and distortional
buckling only. A non-linear, simplified
interaction curve is introduced for
global buckling of thin-walled struc-
tures which differs from the compli-
cated design equations for thick-
walled sections given in annex A and
annex B of the fundamental code EN
1993-1-1 [21]. Unfortunately, the two
EN 1993-1-3 interaction curves are
not compatible. Regarding short
beam-columns, a discontinuous de-
crease in strength is obtained between
the two interaction curves. The EN
1993-1-3 approach leads to a conserv-
ative design in this area (see section
5.1.2).
5 Examples
Due to the multitude of influencing
parameters, a meaningful compari-
son of design concepts for thin-
walled cold-formed members can
only be obtained through design ex-
amples. The focus will be on design
examples for channel sections with
or without lips since they have been
intensively investigated by several re-
searchers [25], [28], [33], [48], [49],
[50], [51], [53]. Results obtained from
EN 1993-1-3 and DSM are compared
with tests and FEA results where
available.
5.1 Lipped channel sections
in compression
The compression tests on typical cold-
formed lipped channels carried out by
Young/Rasmussen [50], [51] are well
documented and have thus been cho-
sen for closer analysis and for verify-
ing the column design strengths. Fig.  8
shows the specimen dimensions and
material properties. Compression tests
were conducted on pin-ended and
fixed-end columns. The basic informa-
tion required for recalculation is given
below. For further details (production,
imperfections, test setup, etc.) see [50],
[51].
Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2 87
B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method

pin-ended columns L36 tested had a

Fig.  8.  Specimen dimensions of lipped channel sections L36 and L48 tested
(see Young/Rasmussen [50], [51])
5.1.1  Local/distortional buckling
Table 1 summarizes the results of EN
1993-1-3 and DSM calculations for
stub columns in local and combined
local/distortional buckling. Although
there are no test results for lipped
channel sections with wider flanges
Fig.  7.  Column design
according to DSM [3]
than those of specimens L36 and L48,
Table  1 also presents the results of cal-
culations for sections with wider flanges
to highlight the essential differences
between the two approaches.
The predicted strengths for test
columns L36 and L48 are compared
with the test results. Unfortunately, the
length of l  =  500  mm which include
combined local and flexural buckling
modes. Although these tests are not
fully suitable for comparing the de-
sign strengths of stub columns, they
are included in Table  1 and Fig.  9.
Fig.  9 illustrates the calculated
design strengths of Table 1.
A comparison of the design
strengths of the L36 and L48 speci-
mens in local/distortional instabilities
reveals the following:
– DSM and EN 1993-1-3 designs lead
to similar ultimate strengths for both
sections, L36 and L48. In general
there is good correlation between
calculated design strengths and test
results. Since both codes were
mainly developed for and calibrated
to this typical kind of cold-formed
section (and these dimensions),
good correlation is expected.
– Both codes overestimate the design
strength of the pin-ended section
L36. As described above, specimen
L36 had a length of 500  mm, for
which significant flexural buckling
is expected. Therefore, the specimen
is not a stub column exhibiting pure
local buckling only (see also section
5.1.2).
– EN 1993-1-3 differentiates the de-
sign for pin-ended and fixed-end col-
umns by including the shift of the
effective centroid for pin-ended col-

Table  1.  Design strengths of lipped channel sections in stub columns (Young/Rasmussen [50], [51])

section L19 L36 L48 L60 L95,7 L136 Remarks

b [mm] 19.1 36 48 60 95.7 136
EN 1993-1-3 Local buckling
eNy [mm] 1.56 2.54 3.00 3.20 3.63 2.31 leff > 80 mm
N (fixed-end) [kN] 90.8 115.8 124.6 128.5 131.1 138.7
N (pin-ended) [kN] 80.8 102.9 111.8 117.3 123.5 135.2
EN 1993-1-3 Local/Distortional buckling
eNy [mm] 0.36 0.14 –1.10 –4.30 –14.47 –30.19 leff > 500 mm
N (fixed-end) [kN] 80.0 99.9 102.3 101.0 94.0 93.6
N (pin-ended) [kN] 80.0 99.3 95.8 85.2 73.2 70.1
DSM Local buckling
Pnl [kN] 81.1 97.2 108.4 119.2 141.9 143.8
DSM Distortional buckling
PNd [kN] 82.0 97.5 99.6 101.3 91.6 82.1
DSM Ultimate strength
Pu [kN] 81.1 97.2 99.6 101.3 91.6 82.1
Tests
N (fixed-end) [kN] 100.2 111.9 * stub column
N (pin-ended [kN] 83.5 100.1 * leff = 500 mm

88 Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2

 B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
umns, but neglecting it for fixed-end
columns (see Young/Rasmussen [50],
[51]). There is a significant difference
in the design strengths for local and
distortional buckling depending on
the boundary conditions of cold-
formed members, particularly for
lipped channels with wide flanges.
– DSM neglects local/distortional in-
teraction. This is in contrast to spec-
imen L48 (fixed-end), for which the
failure mode was identified as cou-
pled local and distortional buckling
(see test report [50], [51]). However,
the DSM strength correlates well
with the test value.
A comparison of design strengths cov-
ering all channel sections reveals the
following:
– DSM neglects any change in stress
distribution due to local buckling
and, consequently, does not include
any shift of the effective centroid.
For pin-ended channel sections,
DSM leads to a significantly higher
design strength compared with the
EN 1993-1-3 approach.
– Focusing on local buckling only,
the European and American design
approaches differ regarding chan-
nel sections with wide flanges. The
biggest difference occurs if the
channel’s flanges and the web have
the same width (b  =  h  =  100  mm).
This can be explained as follows
(see also section 4.2.4):
– According to EN 1993-1-3, which
analyses local buckling for every sin-
gle plate element, the critical elastic
buckling stresses for flanges and
web are approximately the same, so
all the plates of the section fail due
to local buckling approximately si-
multaneously. The modified Winter
curve used in EN 1993-1-3 has been
proved to predict the local buckling
strength of internal plate elements
very well. EN 1993-1-3 most likely
predicts a realistic design strength
for such sections subjected to local
buckling only.
– On the other hand, DSM deals with
the entire section. According to
DSM, the buckling strength Pnl of
the sections is calculated based on
its elastic local buckling load Pcrl
(or, if related to the section area A,
the elastic local buckling stress scr).
In this special case the critical stress
scr obtained from a finite strip anal-
ysis of the section is approximately
equal to the critical buckling stress of
the single plate elements (for flanges
and web) as used in the EN 1993-1-3
approach. Thus, EN 1993-1-3 and
DSM both use approximately the
same critical local buckling load and
stress for design.
– Since DSM uses a higher strength
curve for local buckling of the sec-
tion (see Fig.  3) compared with the
EN 1993-1-3 approach (which has
to be applied to each single plate
element in this case), DSM thus
predicts a significantly higher buck-
ling strength for this kind of chan-
nel section. Unfortunately, tests are
lacking for this type of cold-formed
section. Thus, a clear evaluation of
the different American and Euro-
pean design methods is not possible.
– However, DSM was principally de-
veloped for typical cold-formed
channels with height-to-width ra-
tios b/h  <  0.5, for which the DSM
Fig.  9.  Design
strengths of lipped
channel sections in
stub columns (see
Young/Rasmussen
[50], [51])
strength curve for local buckling
leads to satisfactory results. It would
be interesting to verify its quality for
the design of local buckling sections
with similar dimensions for flanges
and web and both similarly sub-
jected to local instabilities, particu-
larly regarding pin-ended columns.
– The shift of the effective centroid
was determined by the experimen-
tal investigations on channels L36
and L48 (see Young/Rasmussen
[50], [51]). For stub columns with a
length ley  =  140  mm (primarily un-
dergoing local buckling), the tests
generate shifts of 2.5  mm (L36) and
4.0  mm (L48) towards the lips.
These values correspond very well
with the predicted shift of the effec-
tive centroid according to the EN
1993-1-3 approach for local buck-
ling (see Table  1). Moreover, the tests
[50], [51] show that the shift of the
effective centroid decreases as the
length of the specimen increases. EN
1993-1-3 covers this effect since the
predicted effective shift of the cen-
troid essentially decreases if distor-
tional buckling occurs (l ~ 500  mm).
But EN 1993-1-3 simplifies the local/
distortional buckling interaction by
including both the minimum local
and the minimum distortional buck-
ling stresses, neglecting a combined
instability mode and the appropriate
critical wavelength. Thus, compared
with the tests, EN 1993-1-3 overes-
timates the actual decrease in the
shift of the effective centroid in com-
bined local/distortional buckling.
The fundamental results of the above
study have been verified by recalculat-
Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2 89
B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method

Fig.  10.  Example H [24]: lipped chan-

nel in compression (fy = 355 N/mm2;
E = 210  000  N/mm2)

ing a lipped channel with wide flanges

(see Fig.  10). Example H prepared by
the ECCS, Technical Committee 7, is
a worked example according to EN
1993-1-3 and fully documented in
[24]. EN 1993-1-3 provides for a com-
bined local and distortional buckling
behaviour, resulting in a beam-col-
umn design with a significant shift of
the effective centroid amounting to
approx. 8  mm. The design strength is
Nu  =  135.5  kN. DSM predicts an ulti-
mate strength of Nu  =  174.0  kN due to
pure distortional buckling for short
columns (+30  % compared with EN
1993-1-3 design strength). Obviously,
there is a big difference, but unfortu-
nately there are no tests available that
can be used to verify the most conven-
ient design procedure in this area.
Pure FE analyses without calibrations
Fig.  11.  Ultimate strengths of lipped channel sections (see Young/Rasmussen [50],
to tests are not adequate for confirm-
[51])
ing EN 1993-1-3 or DSM since ulti-
mate strengths of thin-walled sections
in coupled instabilities essentially de- local/distortional buckling essentially ing behaviour described above has
pend on the interacting geometric and defines the ultimate strength. If global also been observed in [52], [53] and is
physical imperfections, and a wide buckling becomes dominant, the in- particularly significant for plain chan-
range of ultimate strengths can be de- ternal stresses in the section change nels without lips.
termined numerically. Further investi- from pure axial to combined axial and Table 2 summarizes the results of
gations are desirable. bending stresses, which reduces the a strength calculation according to EN
local buckling effects and thus leads 1993-1-3 and DSM for section L48
5.1.2 Local/distortional and global to a significant decrease in or even a compared with the tests.
buckling analysis total disappearance of the shift of the Fig.  12 illustrates the calculated
effective centroid (see section 4.2.3). design strengths of Table  2.
Fig.  11 shows the test strengths Nu of Thus, the test results for pin-ended
lipped channels L36 and L48 as a and fixed-end L36 columns are quite The analysis of the computation re-
function of the effective length about similar for column lengths l  >  120  cm sults reveals the following:
the minor axis. Results for pin-ended because the shift of the effective cen- – The DSM prediction of the ultimate
(P) and fixed-end (F) columns are troid decreases as the length increases. strengths of fixed-end columns agrees
plotted. Fig.  11 shows that the shift of Owing to the scatter of the test results well with the test results. Regarding
the action line of the internal forces (e. g. the test strength for the pin- pin-ended columns, DSM overesti-
represented by the shift of the effec- ended and fixed-end columns which mates the ultimate strength. The
tive centroid, as identified for pin- are  500  mm long are quite similar and major deviation is about +10  % for
ended columns, reduces the ultimate the test results for long columns dif- the section with length l  =  75  cm.
strength of columns, particularly at fer), the evaluation is not as clear for But the degree of overestimation de-
small global slendernesses for which section L48. However, the loadbear- creases as the length of the column

90 Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2

 B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
Table  2.  Ultimate strengths of test series L48 (Nimpr according to modified approach of section 5.1.2)
global length 1
[cm]
~50
EN 1993-1-3
N (fixed-end) [kN] 98.00
N (pin-ended) [kN] 81.35
Nimpr (pin-ended) 89.30
DSM
Pu [kN] 101.22
Tests
N (fixed-end) [kN] 102.3
N (pin-ended [kN] 100.1
Fig.  12.  Ultimate strengths of test series L48
increases. This could be due to the
fact that for longer lengths the (neg-
ative influence of the) shift of the
effective centroid decreases and thus
the same results are obtained for
pin-ended and fixed-end columns.
– According to EN 1993-1-3, the de-
sign strengths of fixed-end columns
are in good agreement with the test
results; EN 1993-1-3 predicts con-
servative results (deviation <  10  %).
This discrepancy, especially for me-
dium global slenderness ratios, is
based on the conservative European
buckling curve b compared with
the DSM prediction (see Fig.  2).
– The results of EN 1993-1-3 calcula-
tions for pin-ended columns seem
to be too conservative (deviation
<  20  %).
Again, the fundamental results of the
above study can be confirmed by re-
2 3
[cm] [cm]
~75 ~125
90.25 69.24
75.44 59.68
84.00 68.70
95.32 75.56
98.6 73.9
87.6 72.0
calculating the lipped channel with
wide flanges in coupled instabilities
(see Fig.  9 [24]). But the differences in
the design strengths of EN 1993-1-3
and DSM are much bigger compared
with the recalculation of the section
in local/distortional buckling (see sec-
tion 5.1.1). DSM predicts an ultimate
strength of Nu  =  136.0  kN due to com-
bined local and global buckling,
whereas EN 1993-1-3 provides for an
interaction of local/distortional/global
buckling modes, resulting in a beam-
column design due to a constant shift of
the effective centroid of approx. 8  mm.
The design strength Nu  =  85.7  kN
(63  % of DSM result) [24] is based on
the effective cross-sections and the
conservative EN 1993-1-3 design for
short columns (see section 5.1.1) su-
perposed on the conservative effects
due to global buckling prediction (as
described above). However, since sig-
4 remarks
[cm]
~175
42.02
51.90 New approach
53.00
53.2
nificant tests in this area are not avail-
able, a further evaluation is not possi-
ble.
5.1.3 A possible new approach
to improve EN 1993-1-3
As described in section 5.1.2, the re-
sults of EN 1993-1-3 calculations for
pin-ended columns are conservative
(deviation <  20  %, see Fig.  12), although
the fundamental local/distortional ul-
timate strength for a short length is
well predicted, as shown in section
5.1.1. The big difference is essentially
due to three effects:
1. The European buckling curves for
global buckling of columns are con-
servative for medium global slender-
ness ratios when compared with the
DSM approach (see section 4.2.4).
2. The shift of the effective centroid
decreases as global instabilities in-
crease, but EN 1993-1-3 uses a sim-
ple, constant, conservative approach
that always refers to the most sig-
nificant shift of the effective centroid
due to local/distortional buckling
only (see sections 4.2.3 and 5.1.1).
An EN 1993-1-3 modification cou-
pling the shift of the effective cen-
troid to the reduction factor χ for
global buckling may move things
in the right direction.
3. The non-linear EN 1993-1-3 inter-
action formula for beam-column
design of global buckling sections
is quite simple, but has been proved
to be conservative. There is an
abrupt discontinuity for short col-
umns with or without global buck-
ling phenomena since the pure sec-
tion resistance (neglecting global
buckling) has to be calculated based
Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2 91
B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
on a simple linear interaction. Thus,
the EN 1993-1-3 strength curves
immediately drop down with in-
creasing global buckling for short
lengths. It may help to use the com-
plex interaction formula in annex
B of EN 1993-1-1 [21]
Based on this study, the EN 1993-1-3
method may be modified for recalcu-
lating the pinned-end columns (L48)
as follows:
1. The DSM global buckling curve is
included (instead of the conserva-
tive European buckling curve b),
2. the shift of the effective centroid is
reduced and multiplied by the re-
duction factor χ for global buck-
ling, and
3. the interaction formula of EN 1993-
1-1 annex B is applied.
The results of the improved EN 1993-
1-3 design have already been included
in Table  2. Very good agreement with
the test results is obtained as shown
in Table  2. Further investigations are
desirable to verify this approach.
5.1.4  Concluding remarks
EN 1993-1-3 presents a conservative
design method for thin-walled sec-
tions in compression. It refers to the
local, distortional and global stability
phenomena and includes the interac-
tion of all buckling modes. A possible,
improved EN 1993-1-3 approach was
developed in this paper based on a
detailed analysis and calibrated to
tests. Further investigations are desir-
able to verify the proposal for a wider
range of applications.
DSM is a simple and satisfactory
design method for typical cold-formed
sections but seems to be unconserva-
tive for those sections in which a sig-
nificant shift of the effective centroid
due to local buckling can occur. This
Fig.  13.  Specimen dimensions of
tested unlipped plain channel No. 4
(see Ungermann/Kalameya [28], [45])
92 Steel Construction 6 (2013), No. 2
Fig.  14.  Recalculation of tests on unlipped plain channel No.  4 (see Ungermann/
Kalameya [28], [45])
is shown for a lipped channel section
in this paper. Thus, DSM extensions
for angle sections and unlipped plain
channels in compression [31], [32],
[50], [51] have been derived, but not
included in the American standard so
far. Moreover, application to beam-col-
umn design is being researched at the
present time.
5.2 Unlipped plain channel sections in
major axis bending
Tests on thin-walled unlipped plain
channels in major axis bending were
performed by Ungermann/Kalameya
[28], [45]. Section No.  4 of their tests
is shown in Fig.  13. The ultimate bend-
ing moment of this section was calcu-
lated according to the European code
and DSM and compared with the test
results. Only the basic information re-
quired for recalculation is given here.
Further details (production, imperfec-
tions, test setup, etc.) and a numerical
calculation using ANSYS [5] are given
in the test reports [28], [45]. For spec-
imen No.  4, a failure due to coupled
instabilities occurred which was clearly
indicated by both local and global dis-
placements.
Fig.  14 summarizes the results of
calculations according to EN1993-1-3,
DSM and FE analysis (see [9]) as well
as tests. DSM overestimates the ulti-
mate bending moment Mu observed
in the tests and numerical calculations
(see [9], [28]) and deviations of approx.
30  % are obtained. The EN 1993-1-3
design method using annex D for lo-
cal buckling leads to design strengths
that are in good agreement with the
test results. The reason for the DSM
discrepancy is the fact that the global
buckling in the DSM beam design
equation (see Fig.  2) essentially differs
from the European buckling curves
and seems to be unconservative, as
concluded in [9], particularly for plain
channels.
A possible improved design ac-
cording to DSM, introducing Euro-
pean buckling curve b for global buck-
ling design, shows good agreement
with the test results and EN 1993-1-3
calculation results (see Fig.  14). This
leads to the conclusion that the DSM
global buckling curve for beam design
must be further reviewed.
6  Future work
A new Evolution Group has been es-
tablished to review and amend EN
1993-1-3 [22]. Newer European re-
search on cold-formed structures does
not challenge the fundamental EN
1993-1-3 design method, but rather
concentrates on specifics, e. g. improv-
ing annex D [44], implementing nu-
merical calculations (especially con-
sidering critical buckling stresses) in
the design procedure and the interac-
tion of beam-column design.
Currently, the design of perforated
rack sections is a subject for intensive
joint European and American research
since perforated columns and beams
have been excluded from EN 1993-1-3
design up to now and design by testing
is always required. The joint European
and American research results are pub-
lished in [15], [14], [29]. The research
is also aimed at including the Direct
Strength Method in the American rack
standards (RMI) and possibly Euro-
pean standards. The proposed stand-
ards are based on extensive analytical
 B. Brune/T. Peköz · Design of cold-formed steel members – comparison of EN 1993-1-3 and Direct Strength Method
and experimental studies. Experimen-
tal studies included several dozen typ-
ical European perforated columns; at
the present time an extensive test pro-
gramme involving typical American
columns is in progress. Testing of full-
scale rack upright frames is also planned
for the near future.
The new edition of AISI Appen-
dix 1 (2012) [4] already includes some
extensions (see section 2). But research
is still ongoing [30], [38], which will
improve DSM for a wider range of ap-
plications in cold-formed steel.
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Keywords: cold-formed steel; members;
beams; EN 1993-1-3; effective width
method; Direct Strength Method; ­coupled
instabilities
Authors:
Priv. Doz. Dr.-Ing. habil. Bettina Brune,
Technische Universität Dortmund, Germany
Prof. em. Teoman Peköz, PhD,
Cornell University, NY, USA