Term Paper

MTH 202

GRAPH THEORYS AND

PROBABILITY

Topic:-
Explain graph coloring and the various methods to find out
chromatic numbers of a graph and uses of graph in daily
routine.

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mr.Dharmananda Gahir Sahil Batra
Roll No:-B49
Section:-C1803
10801665
 Acknowledgement

I feel immense pleasure to give the credit of my project work not only to one
individual as this work is integrated effort of all those who concerned with it. I
want to owe my thanks to all those individuals who guided me to move on the
track.

I would like to thank, Mr.GURPRIT SINGH BHATIA, Lecturer in Mathematics,

Lovely Professional University, for giving me an opportunity to prove my
worthiness in this project. He always proved as an excellent project guide &
without his guidance this term paper would not have been successful. I have seen
in him an exceptional leader and will try to follow and implement some of the
techniques I have learned from him in my professional life.

Last but not least, I would thank all our friends, faculty members and all
respondents who rendered their precious time for contributing their skills and to fill
the questionnaire, which made my project more appealing and attractive.

-Abhishek jain

(Btech-ME)
 Introduction:-
Method of variation of parameters:- Method of variation of parameter enable to
find the general solution of any linear nonhomogeneous D.E of second order even (with variable
coefficient also) provide its complimentary function is given. The particular integral of
nonhomogeneous eq. is obtained by varying of parameters, by replacing the arbitrary constant in
the C.F. by variable function.

The method of Variation of Parameters is a much more general method that can be used in many
more cases.

The method of variation of parameters applies to solve

a(x)y′′ (1) + b(x)y′ + c(x)y = f(x).

Continuity of a, b, c and f is assumed, plus a(x) 6= 0. The method is important because it solves
the largest class of equations. Specifically included are functions

f(x) like ln |x|, |x|, ex2.

Method of undetermined coefficient:- this method is only on a guessing technique.

The Method of Undetermined Coefficients is a systematic way to determine the general form of
the particular solution Y(t) based on the nonhomogeneous term g(t) in the given equation. The
basic idea is that many of the most familiar and commonly encountered functions have
derivatives that vary little (in the form/type of function) from their parent functions: exponential,
polynomials, sine and cosine. (Contrast them against log functions, whose derivatives, while
simple and predictable, are rational functions; or tangent, whose higher derivatives quickly
become a messy combinations of the powers of secant and tangent.) Consequently, when those
functions appear in g(t), we can predict the type of function that the solution Y would be.

In this section we will take a look at the first method that can be used to find a
particular solution to a nonhomogeneous differential equation.
Method to solve a equation
This method has no prior conditions to be satisfied. Therefore, it may sound more general than
the previous method. We will see that this method depends on integration while the previous one
is purely algebraic which, for some at least, is an advantage.

Consider the equation :-

In order to use the method of variation of parameters we need to know that is a set of
fundamental solutions of the associated homogeneous equation y'' + p(x)y' + q(x)y = 0. We know
that, in this case, the general solution of the associated homogeneous equation is
. The idea behind the method of variation of parameters is to look for a

particular solution such as

where and are functions. From this, the method got its name.
The functions and are solutions to the system

which implies

we have

In case of homogeneous:- The method of variation of parameters uses facts about the
homogeneous differential equation

a(x)y′′ + b(x)y′ (2) + c(x)y = 0.

The success depends upon writing the general solution of (2) as

(3) y = c1y1(x) + c2y2(x)

where y1, y2 are known functions and c1, c2 are arbitrary constants. If a, b, c are constants, then
the standard recipe for (2) finds y1, y2. It is known that y1, y2 as reported by the recipe are
independent.

In case of nonhomogeneous equction:- Given an ordinary non-

homogeneous linear differential equation of order n

(i) let be a fundamental system of the corresponding homogeneous

equation

(ii)

Then a particular solution to the non-homogeneous equation is given by

(iii)

where the ci(x) are continuous functions which satisfy the equations

(iv)

(results from substitution of (iii) into the homogeneous case (ii); )

and

(v)

(results from substitution of (iii) into (i) and applying (iv);

ci'(x) = 0 for all x and i is the only way to satisfy the condition, since all yi(x) are linearly
independent. It implies that all ci(x) are independent of x in the homogeneous case b(x)=0. )

This linear system of n equations can then be solved using Cramer's rule yielding
where W(x) is the Wronskian determinant of the fundamental system and Wi(x) is the Wronskian
determinant of the fundamental system with the i-th column replaced by

The particular solution to the non-homogeneous equation can then be written as

Theorem :-

Wronskian and Independence:- TheWronskian of two solutions satisfies a(x)W′

+b(x)W = 0, which implies

Abel’s identity

Two solutions of (2) are independent if and only if W(x) 6= 0.

Variation of Parameters Formula:-
Let a, b, c, f be continuous near x = x0 and a(x) 6= 0. Let y1, y2 be

two independent solutions of the homogeneous equation ay′′ +by′ +cy = 0

and let

History of Variation of Parameters:- The solution yp was dis-covered by

varying the constants c1, c2 in the homogeneous solution (3), assuming they
depend on x. This results in formulas
By using undetermined cofficent:- This method is based on a guessing
technique. That is, we will guess the form of and then plug it in the
equation to find it. However, it works only under the following two conditions:

Condition 1: the associated homogeneous equations has constant

coefficients;

Condition 2: the nonhomogeneous term g(x) is a special form

where P(x) and L(x) are polynomial functions.

Note that we may assume that g(x) is a sum of such functions (see the
remark below for more on this).

Assume that the two conditions are satisfied. Consider the equation

where a, b and c are constants and

where is a polynomial function with degree n. Then a particular solution

is given by

where

,
where the constants and have to be determined. The power s is equal to

0 if is not a root of the characteristic equation. If is a simple root,

then s=1 and s=2 if it is a double root.

In case of Second Order Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential

Equations:-
We will now turn our attention to nonhomogeneous second order linear

equations, equations with the standard form

y”+ p(t) y′ + q(t) y = g(t), g(t) != 0. (*)

Each such nonhomogeneous equation has a corresponding homogeneous

equation:

y” + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = 0. (**)

Note that the two equations have the same left-hand side, (**) is just the

homogeneous version of (*), with g(t) = 0.

We will focus our attention to the simpler topic of nonhomogeneous second

order linear equations with constant coefficients:

a y”+ b y′ + c y = g(t).

Where a, b, and c are constants, a != 0; and g(t) != 0. It has a corresponding

homogeneous equation a y”+ b y′ + c y = 0.

Theroem: The general solution of the second order nonhomogeneous linear
equation

y” + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = g(t)

can be expressed in the form

y = yc + Y

where Y is any specific function that satisfies the nonhomogeneous equation,

and yc = C1 y1 + C2 y2 is a general solution of the corresponding

homogeneous equation

y”+ p(t) y′ + q(t) y = 0

(That is, y1 and y2 are a pair of fundamental solutions of the corresponding

homogeneous equation; C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants.)

Solution of the nonhomogeneous linear equations:-

It can be verify easily that the difference y = Y1 − Y2, of any two solutions of

the nonhomogeneous equation (*), is always a solution of its corresponding

homogeneous equation (**). Therefore, every solution of (*) can be

obtained from a single solution of (*), by adding to it all possible solutions

of its corresponding homogeneous equation (**).by using this theorm

The term is called the complementary solution

(or the

homogeneous solution) of the nonhomogeneous equation. The term Y is

called the particular solution (or the nonhomogeneous solution) of the same

equation.

In the case of nonhomgeneous equations with constant coefficients, the

complementary solution can be easily found from the roots of the

characteristic polynomial. They are always one of the three forms:

Therefore, the only task remaining is to find the particular solution Y, which

is any one function that satisfies the given nonhomogeneous equation. That

might sound like an easy task. But it is quite nontrivial.

There are two general approaches to find Y : the Methods of Undetermined

Coefficients, and Variation of Parameters. We will only study the former in

this class

Advantage & disadvantage:-

Advantage of variation of parameter:- this method depends on integration
while the previous one is purely algebraic.

Advantage of undetermined coiffceint:-

One of the main advantages of this method is that it reduces the problem
down to an algebra problem. The algebra can get messy on occasion, but for
most of the problems it will not be terribly difficult. Another nice thing about
this method is that the complimentary solution will not be explicitly required,
although as we will see knowledge of the complimentary solution will be
needed in some cases and so we’ll generally find that as well.

Disadvantage of undetermined cofficent:-

There are two disadvantages to this method. First, it will only work or a fairly
small class of g(t)’s. The class of g(t)’s for which the method works, does
include some of the more common functions, however, there are many
functions out there for which undetermined coefficients simply won’t work.
Second, it is generally only useful for constant coefficient differential
equations.

The method is quite simple. All that we need to do is look at g(t) and make a
guess as to the form of YP(t) leaving the coefficient(s) undetermined (and
hence the name of the method). Plug the guess into the differential equation
and see if we can determine values of the coefficients. If we can determine
values for the coefficients then we guessed correctly, if we can’t find values
for the coefficients then we guessed incorrectly.

It’s usually easier to see this method in action rather than to try and describe
it, so let’s jump into some examples.
Example (1) :-
y”− 2y′ − 3y = 5cos(2t)

Again, the same corresponding homogeneous equation as the previous

examples means that as before.

The nonhomogeneous term is g(t) = 5cos(2t). Cosine and sine functions do

change form, slightly, when differentiated, but the pattern is simple,
predictable, and repetitive: their respective forms just change to each
other’s. Consequently, we should choose the form

Y = A cos(2t) + B sin(2t). (Why do we choose to employ both

cosine and sine?) Substitute Y, Y ′ = −2A sin(2t) + 2B cos(2t), and Y” =

−4A cos(2t) − 4B sin(2t) into the equation:

(−4A cos(2t) − 4B sin(2t)) − 2(−2A sin(2t) + 2B cos(2t)) − 3(A cos(2t) +B

sin(2t)) = 5cos(2t)

(−4A − 4B − 3A) cos(2t) + (−4B + 4 A − 3B) sin(2t) = 5cos(2t)

(−7A − 4B) cos(2t) + (4 A − 7B) sin(2t) = 5cos(2t) + 0 sin(2t)

Compare the coefficients:

cos(2t): 5 = −7A − 4B F A = −7 / 13

sin(2t): 0 = 4 A − 7B F B = −4 / 13
Thing to remember: When either cosine or sine appears in g(t), both cosine
and sine (of the same frequency) must appear in Y.

When g(t) is a sum of several terms

When g(t) is a sum of several functions: g(t) = g1(t) + g2(t) + … + gn(t), we

can break the equation into n parts and solve them separately. Given

y_ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = g1(t) + g2(t) + … + gn(t)

we change it into

y_ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = g1(t)

y_ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = g2(t)

y_ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = gn(t).

Solve them individually to find respective particular solutions Y1, Y2, … , Yn.

Then add up them to get Y = Y1 + Y2 + … + Yn.

Example 2:-

Solution:-
Finally, a particular solution for this differential equation is then,

The general solution is then,

Summery of undetermined coefficient :- Let us summarize the
steps to follow in applying this method:

(1)

First, check that the two conditions are satisfied;

(2)

If the equation is given as

where or , where is a
polynomial function with degree n, then split this equation into N equations

(3)

Write down the characteristic equation , and find its roots;

(4)

Write down the number . Compare this number to the roots of the
characteristic equation found in previous step.

(4.1)

If is not one of the roots, then set s = 0;

(4.2)

If is one of the two distinct roots, set s = 1;

(4.3)
If is equal to both root (which means that the characteristic equation
has a double root), set s=2.

In other words, s measures how many times is a root of the

characteristic equation;

(5)

Write down the form of the particular solution

where

(6)

Find the constants and by plugging into the equation

(7)

Once all the particular solutions are found, then the particular solution of
the original equation is