LECTURE NOTES

BENV 1106

THE SOIL ENVIRONMENT

LECTURER: RATEMO SAMMY KINARA

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1: DEFINITION OF SOIL ................................................................................................ 1

UNIT 2: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SURVEY AND CLASSIFICATION ..................... 11

UNIT 3: SOIL SURVEY INFORMATION AND LAND USE PLANNING .......................... 17

UNIT 4: SOIL COLLOIDS AND SOIL REACTION .............................................................. 18

UNIT 5: ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION .............................................. 26

UNIT 6: SOIL ORGANIC MATTER ....................................................................................... 27

UNIT 7: TYPES AND ACTIVITIES OF SOIL ORGANISMS ............................................... 32

UNIT 8: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS........................................................ 39

UNIT 9: SOIL TEXTURE AND SOIL STRUCTURE............................................................. 49

UNIT 10: SOIL MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 57

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UNIT 1: DEFINITION OF SOIL
There have been several conceptions held about soil in the historic past. This has led to
several definitions of soil by different people at various times. Some of the several
definitions range from very simple definitions to very professional definitions such as the
following:

1 Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earth's surface in which plants have their roots.
It is made up of many things, such as weathered rock and decayed plant and animal
matter. Soil is formed over a long period of time.

2 Soil is the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the
Earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.

3 The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the Earth that has been
subjected to and shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of: climate
(including water and temperature effects), and macro- and microorganisms,
conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of time. A product-
soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical, chemical,
biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.

4. Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and
gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one
or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial
material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy
and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment.

Some of the concepts that have affected the definition of soil in the past includes:-
Soil as a thin mantle over the land surface
Soil as a medium for plant growth
Soil as a basic matter of the universe
Soil as a mantle of loose and weathered rock
Soil as an organized natural bodies
Also, the definition of soil varies with the profession and perception of the person defining
soil. What a soil is to civil engineers is different from the definition of soil by geologists,
geomorphologists, archeologists and soil scientists.
However, among the different definitions of soil in the historic past, two have stood the test
of time. These are soil as a medium for plant growth and soil as organized natural bodies.

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The concept of soil as a medium for plant growth must have been one of the first held by
man. When man began to grow his food rather than gather it, the nature of soil assumed a
direct bearing on his welfare. Man then realized that the soil underfoot was a medium for
plant growth, something in which seed could be sown and from which plant could be
produced to provide food, if all went well. This concept regards the soil as a medium for
plant growth, both as a substrate providing mechanical support and as store house for
essential plant nutrients.

Soil, in terms of its morphological characteristics, is defined as unconsolidated surface

material forming natural bodies made up of mineral and organic materials and the living
matter within them. Soil is a dynamic entity with material continually and simultaneously
added, removed, and transformed. Its formation begins with a parent material derived from
either the underlying rock or material transported from somewhere else to its present site.

It is mainly the combined effects of climate and living matter that convert a material to a
soil. For example, in temperate rainy environments, moisture and dense vegetation may
lead to deep, richly organic soils. In deserts, with the lack of moisture and subsequent
vegetation, soils may be thin and remain highly mineral. Human disturbances, such as
dwellings, agricultural practices, grave sites, and garbage dumps, may also affect soils,
giving them other unique characteristics. Soil, in terms of its morphological characteristics,
is defined as unconsolidated surface material forming natural bodies made up of mineral
and organic materials and the living matter within them. Soil is a dynamic entity with
material continually and simultaneously added, removed, and transformed. Its formation
begins with a parent material derived from either the underlying rock or material
transported from somewhere else to its present site.

Soil Composition
While a nearly infinite variety of substances may be found in soils, they are categorized
into four basic components: minerals, organic matter, air and water. Most introductory soil
textbooks describe the ideal soil (ideal for the growth of most plants) as being composed of
45% minerals, 25% water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter. In reality, these percentages of
the four components vary tremendously. Soil air and water are found in the pore spaces
between the solid soil particles. The ratio of air-filled pore space to waterfilled pore space
often changes seasonally, weekly, and even daily, depending on water additions through
precipitation, throughflow, groundwater discharge, and flooding. The volume of the pore
space itself can be altered, one way or the other, by several processes. Organic matter
content is usually much lower than 5% in Nigeria (typically 1% or less). Some wetland
soils, however, have considerably more organic matter in them (greater than 50% of the
solid portion of the soil in some cases).
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Soil Genesis and formation
Factors of soil formation
The five soil forming factors are: parent material, topography, climate, biological activity,
and time. Soil formation begins with a parent material derived from weathering of either
the native rock or material transported to the site. The concerted effect of climate and
biological activity then transforms parent material by producing the physical and chemical
energy to alter minerals and vertically redistribute material through the soil profile. The
effect of climate and biological activity is modified by topography.

Parent material
Parent material is the initial mineral substance that forms a soil. It is derived from the
weathering of rocks and may reside at the site of its origin or be transported from
somewhere else to its current location. A soil formed from parent material found at the site
of its origin is called a residual or sedentary soil. Bedrock weathering in place produces a
stony, massive material called saprolite. As physical and some chemical weathering occur,
the saprolite becomes denser than the underlying bedrock. The texture and original rock
structure remain, but the material is soft enough to dig with a hand shovel. As chemical
weathering converts primary minerals to secondary minerals, particles are redistributed
vertically. As material is both added and removed, a soil develops. A residual soil will
retain many of the characteristics of the underlying bedrock. Also the texture, mineralogy,
pH, and other characteristics of the soil may be a direct result of the saprolite below.

Material can be eroded from one place and transported to another where it becomes parent
material for a soil at the new site. Often weathering occurs before the material is transported
to the new site. In this case, the soil may have few features in common with the underlying
rock. Transported material can bury an existing soil at the new site. Once a depositional
episode is completed, time zero for the new soil’s formation begins. Several forces can supply
energy for the transportation of parent material: ice, wind, water, and gravity.

Ice
Glacial deposits occur at the front and sides of advancing ice. Normally this material is
poorly sorted with respect to particle size. Because ice melts from the bottom, this is also
true of material deposited under a glacier. Also, material can be deposited as outwash in the
glacier’s melt-water.

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Soils formed from glacial deposits vary in composition depending on the rock type over
which the glacier traveled. Since glaciers advance and retreat with time, the composition
and depositional environment of the parent material can be quite complex.

Overall, the texture of soil produced in glacial deposits reflects the mode and distance of
transport and the type of rock scoured. Shale and limestone scouring tends to produce a soil
with relatively more clay and silt-sized material. Igneous and metamorphic rocks produce
mostly sandy soils. Deposits beneath the ice usually result in finer textured, denser
materials, whereas outwash and front and side deposits are generally coarser.

Wind
Wind deposits two major types of material: eolian sands and loess. Clay-sized material (<
0.002 mm) tends to bind together in aggregates too large to be eroded by wind.

Eolian sands are windblown deposits of material predominantly greater than 0.05 mm (0.05
to 2 mm) in diameter. Most of this material moves in a series of short-distance jumps called
saltation. Eolian deposits may move several kilometers from the source.

Material adhering to saltating sand particles and material deposited as an aerosol are the
sources of clay in eolian sand. Normally this material has a narrow textural range and is
deposited on the leeward side of valleys or bodies of water.

Loess, which is windblown silt-sized material (0.002 to 0.05 mm), once airborne, can travel
several hundred kilometers before deposition. The texture of loess usually does not vary in
a vertical direction, but tends to thin with horizontal distance from the source.
Windblown material tends to have sharp edges, a conchoidal shape, and surface etching. In
contrast, material deposited by water tends to have rounded edges and a polished surface.
Careful observation under a hand lens can shed light on the environment present at
deposition.

Water
An alluvial or stream-borne deposit occurs in floodplains, fans, and deltas. Because
fastmoving water picks up debris, a river meandering downstream will undercut the outer
bank of each bend. Water moves slower around the inner bank than the outer bank and
therefore loses energy. Thus, coarse material settles out, forming a bar over the inner bank.
As water levels rise during floods, the stream overflows its channel and spills over onto the
floodplain.

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Typically, alluvial deposits are characteristic of the decrease in energy during deposition.
Where the stream overflows its bank, the energy is still relatively high; only deposits of
coarse material occur, forming a levee. On the far side of a levee, moderate energy is
available, and silty material settles.

On the floodplain, water velocity and its corresponding energy is low, and clay settles.
Because bars form under moderate energy, this type of sorting does not occur on the plain.
However, a floodplain may surround a bar. As the distance from the channel increases, the
material’s texture becomes finer, and the thickness of the deposit decreases. Alluvial fans
form where water in a channel, carrying sediments downhill, experiences an abrupt
reduction in slope. The stream energy is reduced quickly, and material settles. This also
occurs where a narrow valley opens onto a wide flat. Fans have a cone shape, widening in
the downslope direction. Channels shift easily in fan deposits, and sediments are reworked
over time. The texture of a fan becomes finer with distance from its apex. Normally fans in
humid areas are not as steep and cover a much larger area than those in arid regions.

Marine and lacustrine deposits form in low-energy environments under inland seas and
lakes. These sediments are typically coarse near the shore and finer toward the middle of
the lake or sea. Several shoreline features can be associated with inland water bodies,
including deltas, sand dunes, and beaches. Deltas are essentially alluvial fans with their
sediments deposited underwater. As lakes dry, evaporite minerals form. Under other
conditions, eolian sediments can fill in the lakebed. Such soils have a finer texture and
occupy lower sections on the landscape.

Soils formed in shoreline deposits have a coarser texture and occupy higher landscape
positions. In lakebeds with a very low influx of sediments, organic substances dominate the
sediments, and peats form.

Gravity
Colluvium or hillslope sediments result from the force of gravity and runoff moving
downslope. This material may be deposited in catastrophic events, such as mudslides, or by
very slow but persistent processes, such as slope wash or surface creep. As viewed from the
crest of a hilltop, sediments thicken, and the clay content increases on the downslope.

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Topography (relief)
Topographic relief, or the slope and aspect of the land, has a strong influence on the
distribution of soils on a landscape. Two aspects of topography that influences soil
formation are the altitude and the slope. Position on a slope influences the soil depth
through differences in accumulation of erosion debris. Slope affects the amount of
precipitation that infiltrates into soil versus that which runs off the surface. Aspect, or the
direction a slope is facing, affects soil temperature. In northern hemisphere sites,
southfacing slopes are warmer than those facing north. Differences in moisture and
temperature regimes create microclimates that result in differences in vegetation with
aspect. Differences in weathering, erosion, leaching, and secondary mineral formation also
can be associated with relief.

Increase in altitude leads to decrease in ambient temperature and consequently leading to

decrease in soil temperature. An increase of 1000m in altitude leads to a decrease of about
6 in ambient temperature. This change in temperature creates a micro-climatic condition
that differs from the immediate environment. This also creates some unique conditions for
the formation of soils that differs from those of the immediate environment.

Climate
Climate arguably has the greatest effect on soil formation. It not only directly affects
material translocation (leaching or erosion, for example) and transformation (weathering),
but also indirectly influences the type and amount of vegetation supported by a soil. The
two most important aspect of climate that has direct bearing on the process of soil
formation are precipitation (total amount, intensity and distribution) and temperature (soil
temperature). Precipitation is the main force in moving clay and organic matter from the
surface to a depth within the profile. When a soil is at field capacity, the addition of more
water will result in drainage either downward or laterally. Drainage water carries with it
dissolved and suspended clay particles and soluble minerals that collect at a new location
within the soil profile. As a result, soils often show an increase in clay with depth resulting
in an accumulation of clay and some mineral elements at certain depth of the soil. While
the total amount of precipitation affect the amount of dissolved substances passing through
the profile, the intensity of precipitation (amount of rainfall per unit time) affects the
erosive potentials of the rain. Erosion affects the process of soil formation by reducing the

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effective solum depth in the upper and middle slope of the toposequence while increasing
the soil depth at lower slope and valley bottom. Differences in rainfall distribution pattern
accounts for regional variation in soil characteristics. These variations lead to zonation of
soil types.

Temperature affects the rate of biochemical and biophysical reactions taking place in the
soil environment. As we know, the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the soil
temperature. Most soil reactions are enzymatic reaction depending mainly on temperature.
There are optima temperatures for the soil reactions above or below which these reactions
will be negatively affected. The rate of chemical weathering as well as biological
decomposition of plant and animal remains in the soil environment is determined by the
amount of soil moisture and soil temperature. Diurnal and seasonal changes in temperature
cause particles to expand and contract unevenly, breaking them apart. Heat and moisture
are active agents of chemical weathering, the conversion of one mineral into another.

Climate affects the type and amount of vegetation in a region. A warm, humid climate
produces the most vegetative growth; however, microbial decomposition is also rapid.
The net effect is that tropical and subtropical soils are generally low in organic content. In
contrast, organic matter tends to be highest in a cool damp environment where
decomposition is slow.

Temperature and the amount of water moving through a profile affect all of the following:

the amount and characteristics of organic matter;

the depth at which clay accumulates; the type of
minerals present;

soil pH (humid climates tend to produce more acidic soil than do arid climates); soil
color;

iron, aluminum, and phosphorus distributions within a soil profile; and the
depth to calcium carbonate and/or salt accumulation.

Biological activity
Biological activity and climate are active forces in soil formation. Soil pedogenesis
involves a variety of animals, plants, and microorganisms. Ants, earthworms, and
burrowing animals, for example, mix more soil than do humans through plowing and
construction. Plant roots remove mineral nutrients from subsoil and redeposit them at the

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surface in leaf litter. Growing roots open channels through soil where rainwater can wash
clay and organic matter down along these channels. Soil microbes decompose plant and
animal debris, releasing organic acids. This biochemical activity is the catalyst for a great
deal of the oxidation/reduction and other chemical reactions in soil.

The distribution of organic matter in a forest soil is different from that of grassland. The
surface soils of forests tend to have concentrated organic matter, which quickly decreases
with depth. Grassland soils tend to accumulate organic matter to a greater depth than do
forest soils. It is important for pedologist to note that the dark staining from the humic
fraction of organic matter can persist in a buried soil. Thus, ancient buried surface soils
may be recognized in the field by color alone.

The distribution of iron and aluminum throughout a profile also differs between forest and
grass land soils. In forests, due to the greater rainfall, clays and organics drain downward,
leaving behind resistant minerals. As a result, iron and aluminum in B horizons in forest
soils are found in higher concentrations than in grassland soils.

Time
Soils develop over time. Soil formation is a dynamic process, where a steady state is slowly
approached but only rarely reached. The rate at which a soil forms is related more to the
intensity of other soil forming factors than to chronological age.

Soil Formation Processes

Soil development begins with a parent material that has a surface layer altered by
vegetation and weathering. For example, a young Coastal Plain soil has relatively uniform
material throughout, and is altered only by a dark-stained surface layer that has been
formed by vegetation. A more mature soil, on the other hand, shows evidence of the
removal and transport of surface-layer clay to a subsurface layer called the B horizon. In an
even older soil, chemical weathering and leaching have removed silicon, causing a change
in the suite of clay minerals. A senile soil is excessively weathered and dominated by very
resistant iron and aluminum oxide minerals. The rate that a young Coastal Plain soil
becomes a senile soil depends not on its chronological age but on how rapidly minerals are
transported and transformed within the profile.

Human activity frequently alters the process of pedogenesis. Once human activity ends, soil
formation can continue as before if no radical change in the soil-forming factors occurred

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in the interim. Because fine material leaches selectively faster than coarse material,
differences between human-altered and undisturbed soils in the ratio of fine to coarse clay
may be apparent in a relatively short span of time (one hundred years in a humid
environment).

The processes of soil formation has been summarized into four major processes and
represented schematically in the above figure. The four processes are Addition, Removal or
subtraction, Transfer or Translocation and Transformation or Synthesis. These processes
take place simultaneously but at different rates. Equilibrium is rarely attained because the
processes are dynamic. The resulting soil reflects the most predominant of these processes.
Thus a soil that suffers erosion loses or leaching losses may have low level of soluble
elements like calcium, Magnesium, potassium and sodium. Continuous addition of plant or
animal residue may on the other hand leads to accumulation of organic matter, creating a
unique soil known for example as organic soil. There can be movement of materials in and
out of the soil. Dissolved minerals and clay can be translocated from the top soil to the
subsoil, while burrowing animals can remove soils from the subsoils to the top and vice
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versa. Weathering of minerals leads to the formation of new minerals. For example, the
weathering of talc, may lead to the formation of smetite in areas with impeded or poor
drainage. The transformation process will lead to the formation of new products.

History of Soil Science

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UNIT 2: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SURVEY AND CLASSIFICATION

Soil survey
Soil survey is a branch of soil science which involves the identification of the different
types of soil in a given landscape and the location of their distribution to scale on a map. In
addition, soil survey provides information on the quality of the land in terms of their
response to management and manipulation.

From this definition, it is clear that soil classification is a branch of soil survey and the unit
of classification is the taxonomic unit or mapping unit or pedon. A taxonomic class depicts
the properties of a soil profile as given in the profile description and analyses.

Mapping Unit
A mapping unit is a geographical unit and it is an area of land within which the greater
proportion is occupied by the taxonomic class after which it is named. For example, if
about 85% of the soil within a mapping unit is occupied by a soil whose property is that of
Ibadan series, the soil will be named as Ibadan series.

Principles of soil survey

The principles of survey can be discussed under five points
A soil survey must have an objective. The objective or aim of soil survey must be defined
before the commencement of the survey. It may be wide ranging or it may be narrow and
specific.

A soil survey is not the only basis for decision on land use and management, it is only an
aid
Decisions on land management are usually influenced by economic considerations, social
and institutional factors, often by existing legal land rights and sometimes by political
constraints.

Land resources do not consist of soils alone

The potential of land to support crops depends on climate as much as on soils, and
whenever soil-water relationship can be advantageously modified. Other land resources
include vegetation, water resources, social and institutional factors.

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A soil map must show soils. The map produced by a survey is a soil map if mapping units
are based specifically on soil profile. If on the other hand, it is primarily a map of land form
units with soils being added to the legend, it is a geomorphological map.

Soil map and report are complementary. The products of a soil survey include a soil map
and survey report; neither is more important than the other because they are mutually
indispensible.

Type of Survey
Soil survey can be classified using the following criteria
Purpose of survey
Regularity of observation
Based on scale of mapping
Classification by purpose of survey
Based on the purpose of survey, there are two types of survey. These are general purpose and
special purpose survey.

A general purpose soil survey is one that is done mainly to add to the already existing
inventory of soil information. This commonly found in the national survey of each country,
e.g. the USDA, FMAWR. The information may not be needed at the time of survey but
such a survey is done for record purpose.

A special purpose soil survey is done for specific purpose in mind, e.g. survey for irrigation
or survey for citrus plantation.

Based on regularity of observation, three kinds of surveys have been distinguished: - free
survey, rigid grid and flexible grid.

In free survey, there is no rigid pattern of observation. The surveyor uses the field features
such as change in vegetation, topography, slope and even change in sound to movement to
observe soil and to locate soil boundaries. And in most modern soil survey involving 5000 ha
and above, this is usually the type of survey methodology adopted.

In rigid grid survey, examinations of the soil are done at regular and pre-determined
interval. It is normally used when detailed information is required, e. g. mapping the soil of
a research station or mapping for irrigation. Usually, the points of observation are at the
intersection of the two regularly placed vertical and horizontal lines.

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Flexible grid survey method is a compromise between the free and rigid grid methods of
survey. In this system of survey, the number of observation is fixed but the location of the
observation points are not pre-determined and can be fixed at will.

Based on the scale of mapping, there are seven kinds of surveys:- compilation, integrated
survey, exploratory survey, reconnaissance survey, semi-detailed survey, detailed survey
and intensive survey.

Compilation: These are soil maps produced by abstraction from other soil surveys. And
where they exist they are filled by inferences. The scale is usually at 1: 100,000 or smaller.
Many national soil maps of many countries are produced in this way.

Integrated survey: This is also known as land system survey. It is based on mapping the
total physical environment and in fact land forms are mapping unit. Soils are an important
but usually not a defining property of the mapping unit. The scale is 1: 250,000 or smaller.

Exploratory survey: Exploratory surveys are not survey proper. They are usually rapid
road traverse made to provide modicum of information about the area that are otherwise
unknown. Scale of exploratory survey varies from 1: 2,000,000 to 1,500,000.

Reconnaissance survey: These are mostly based on remote sensing especially Area Photo
Imagery (API). They are the smallest scale of survey where the whole area is still covered.
The scale is usually 1:250,000 although smaller scales have been used.

Semi-Detailed survey: In a semi-detailed survey, we have a combination of remote

sensing and field work. Mapping units are usually soil association. Scale of mapping varies
from 150,000 to 100, 000.

Detailed survey: Detailed surveys are executed through field examination with
predetermined numbers of observation points and or spacing. These kinds of surveys are
usually employed for small area and for special purposes. Scale of observation varies between
1: 10,000 and 1: 25,000. Mapping unit are usually soil series.

Intensive survey: Intensive survey rigid grid approach, i.e. number of observation and
spacing of observation are pre-determined. Mapping units are soil series and phase of soil
series. Scale of mapping varies from 1: 1,000 to 1: 10,000 or even larger. They are usually
experimental station surveys.

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Principles of classification •
Why do we classify?

Why we classify
• The purpose of any classification is so to organize our knowledge that the properties
of objects may be remembered and their relationships may be understood most easily
for a specific objective.

• Classification helps us deal with complexity. There are too many objects to consider
individually. If we can find some common properties or behaviour between them, we
can make meaningful classes.

• Classification also help to simplify our decision-making.

• Classification help us to exchange scientific findings internationally
• To provide a basis for research and experimentation

• To understand relationships among individuals of the population

The process involves formation of classes by grouping the objects on the basis of their
common properties. The properties chosen as the basis for grouping are known as
differentiating characteristics. The differentiating characteristics chosen for any
classification must:-

a) be a property of the object to be classified

b) be important for the purpose of the classification
c) be associated with other characteristics (accessory or covarying characteristics) which
are also important for the purpose of the classification

We classify individual objects, for example soil profiles, by grouping them into classes, for
example soil series. These classes then form other objects that can in turn be classified into
still more general classes, for example, reference soil groups. This is a hierarchical
classification, and is common in soil science.

The characteristic used for classification of soils are those of the soil profiles and include the
following:

1. Number of horizons in the profile

2. Colour of various horizons with special emphasis on the surface one or two

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 3. Texture of each horizon
4. Structure of the horizons
5. Relative arrangement of horizons
6. Thickness of horizons
7. Thickness of the true soil (profile)
8. Chemical composition of horizons
9. Character of the soil material [alluvial, loess, sand]
10. Geology of the soil material [parent material]
Major ways of classifying soils
There are various ways to organise a soil classification. A major distinction is between
natural and technical approaches:

• Natural soil classifications group soils by some intrinsic property, behaviour, or genesis of
the soils themselves, without reference to use. Examples of natural classification include
grouping of soil by ecologic region, e.g. “prarie soils”, “boreal soils”, grouping by
presumed genesis, i.e. the development pathway of the soil profile (These are called genetic
soil classifications) and grouping by similar properties.

Technical soil classifications group soils by some properties or functions that relate
directly to a proposed use or group of uses. Examples of technical classification includes:-

• Hydrologic response
• Suitability classes (FAO Framework for Land Evaluation)
• Land Use Capability (USDA LCC)
• Fertility Capability Classification (FCC)
• Engineering group
Principles of classification
1. Principle of Purpose. The reasons for wanting to organize soil knowledge.
2. Principle of Domain. The universe of objects relevant to the purpose.
3. Principle of Identity. The individual members of the domain are defined and named.
4. Principle of Differentiation. The protocol-guided hierarchical structure of a system with
categories, and classes within categories.
5. Principle of Prioritization. The priority of knowledge by sequencing categories and
sequencing classes within categories.

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6. Principle of Diagnostics. The quantification and use of soil properties, sets of properties,
and selected features (diagnostics) that provide objectivity.
7. Principle of Membership. Class membership for individuals based on quantified class
limits and described central tendencies.
8. Principle of Certainty. The recognition that change is inevitable and the driving force
continual testing of a system.

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UNIT 3: SOIL SURVEY INFORMATION AND LAND USE PLANNING

One of the motives behind soil survey was the recognition that the productive capacity of the
land, as measured by the crop yield varies.

Land comprises the physical environment, including climate, relief, soils, hydrology and
vegetation, to the extent that these influence potential for land use. It includes the results of
past and present human activities.

Planning is the process of allocating resources, including time, capital, and labor, in the
face of limited resources, in the short, medium or long term, in order to produce maximum
benefits to a defined group. Although individuals plan for the future, by ‘planning’ in the
context of land evaluation we understand some form of collective activity, where the
overall good of a group or society is considered.

Land use planning is the process of allocating uses to land areas, and resources to those uses.

The function of land use planning is to guide decisions on land use in such a way that the
resources of the environment are put to the most beneficial use for man, whiles at the same
time conserving those resources for the future. This planning must be based on an
understanding both of the natural environment and of the kinds of land use envisaged. Land
evaluation is concerned with the assessment of land performance when used for specified
purposes. It involves the execution and interpretation of basic surveys of climate, soils,
vegetation and other aspects of land in terms of the requirements of alternative forms of
land use. To be of value in planning, the range of land uses considered has to be limited to
those which are relevant within the physical, economic and social context of the area
considered, and the comparisons must incorporate economic considerations.

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UNIT 4: SOIL COLLOIDS AND SOIL REACTION
• Next to photosynthesis and respiration, no process in nature is more vital to plant and

animal life than the exchange of ions between soil particles and plant roots.

• These cation and anion exchanges occur mostly on the surfaces of the finer or

colloidal fractions of both the inorganic and organic matter (clay and humans).

• Colloids are substances whose particle size is about 1 to 1000nm when they are mixed

with another substance, usually air or water.

• Colloids are action sites for chemical reaction, microscopic, large surface area. The

larger the surface area, the better they are for chemical reaction.

• Molecules of some compounds can come within the colloidal range but most colloids

consist of aggregate of molecules. Colloids are so ubiquitous in nature and so

distinctive that they have common names as fog, smoke, aerosol, foam, emulsion, soil

and clay. All are small particles suspended in a fluid. as

General properties of soil colloids

• Size

• Surface area

• Surface charges

• Adsorption of cations and water

Types of soil colloids

There are four major types of colloids present in soil

1) Layer silicate clays

2) Iron and Aluminum oxide clays

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3) Allophane and associated clays

4) Humus

(Generally 1, 2, 3 are inorganic while 4 is organic colloids)

Sources of charges on soil colloids

There are two major sources of charges on soil colloids:

1) Hydroxyls and other such functional groups on the surfaces of the colloidal particles

that by releasing or accepting H+ ions can provide either negative or positive

charges.

2) The charge imbalance brought about by the isomorphous substitution in some

clay structures of one cation by another of similar size but differing in charge.

Permanent charges

• Negative charges

A net negative charge is found in minerals where there has been an isomorphous substitution

of a lower charged ion (e.g. Mg2+ for a higher-charged ion (e.g. Al3+).

• Positive charges

Isomorphous substitution can also be a source of positive charges if the substituting cation has

a higher charge than the ion for which it substitutes.

pH- dependent charges

• Negative charges

The pH-dependent charges are associated primarily with hydroxyl (OH) groups on the edges

and surfaces of the inorganic and organic colloids. The OH groups are attached to iron and/or

19
Al in the inorganic colloids (e.g. Al-OH) and to the carbon in CO groups in humus (e.g. –CO-

OH). Under moderately acid conditions, there is little or no charge on these particles, but as

the pH increases, the hydrogen dissociates from the colloid OH group, and negative charge

result.

Positive charges

Under moderate to extreme acid soil conditions, some silicate clays and Fe, Al oxides may

exhibit net positive charges. The exposed OH groups are involved. In this case, however,

as the soils becomes more acid, (protonation), the attachment of H+ ion to the surface OH

groups takes place.

SILICATE MINERAL CHEMISTRY

The silicate minerals are responsible for the important, physical and chemical properties of

most soils. Silicate minerals characteristically contain Si, O2 and Al.

Silicon

It makes up of 27.6% of the Earth crust, second to O2. Si compound make up of the

framework for most soils except tropical soils. It is amphoteric and usually slightly acidic,

forming weak acid.

Definition of clays

Clays are the active mineral portion of soils dominantly colloidal and crystalline. The

crystalline nature of clays is such that they have definite repeating arrangement of atoms

which they are composed of. Majority are made of planes of O 2 atoms with Si and Al

atoms holding the O2 together by ionic bonding.

20
Classification of clays

Clays are usually given group names based on their structure or on purely chemical

composition. There are 3 groups.

1) Silicate clays: - These are crystalline clays e.g. Montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite,

kaolinite, chlorite. Each crystalline clay is like a particular deck of cards. Each

card represent a layer each of which is an exact replication of each other layer.

2) Amorphous clays:- These are non-crystalline, which have silica, they are mixtures of

Si and Al that have not formed well oriented crystals but sometimes have high

cation or anion exchangeable capacity.

3) Sesquioxides:- These consists of groups of Fe, Al and Ti oxides clays. They are

present in condition where there is excessive leaching caused by rainfall and

sometimes intensive weathering of minerals in humid warm climate. They can be

crystalline or armorphous.

Structures of layer silicate clay

This implies the basic building blocks of clays. All soil clays are formed from the same 2

basic structural units. It is the way these 2 basic building units are put together that gives

the soil clay distinctly different properties. They are:

21
1) Silica tetrahedron:- This is a silica dominated sheet is a unit composed of one silicon

atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms.

Si
SiO4
O O O

ii) Aluminum and/or Mg octahedron:- In this unit, an Al or Mg is surrounded by 6

oxygen atoms or hydroxyl groups, the center of which define the apices of an 8sided
solid. .

O O O

Al2O6 or Al or Mg Mg3O6

O O O

MINERALOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF SILICATE CLAYS

On the basis of the number and arrangement of tetrahedral (silica) and octahedral (AlMg)

sheets contained in the crystal units or layers, silicate clays are classified into two different

groups, 1:1 – type minerals and 2:1 – type minerals.

1:1 type minerals

The layer of the 1:1 type minerals are made up of one tetrahedral (silica) sheet and one

octahedral (alumina) sheet hence the terminology 1:1 type crystal. Kaolinite is the most

prominent member of this group, others are halloysite, nacrite and dickite.

Characteristics of kaolinite

1) It has strong H-bonding

2) It does not allow water to penetrate between the layers and have almost no swelling

22
3) It has low cation exchangeable capacity.
4) Kaolinite exhibits less plasticity (capacity to be molded), stickiness, cohesion, shrinkage
or swelling.
5) Kaolinite containing soils make good bases for road beds and building foundations.

2:1 type minerals

The crystal unit (layers) of these minerals are characterised by an octahedral sheet

sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets. Four general groups have this basic crystal

structure. Two of them, smectite and vermiculite (expanding – type) and the other two

fine-grained (illite) and chlorite (non expending).

Expanding minerals

• The smectite group

Characteristics of smectites

1) High plasticity and cohesion

2) Their marked swelling when wet and shrinkage on drying

3) Has high CEC

4) Permeability to water is low.

• Vermiculites, these are also 2:1 type minerals, an octahedral sheet being found

between two tetrahedral sheets. In most soil verticulites, the octahedral sheet is

aluminum dominated (dioctahedral), although Mg-dominated (trioctahedral)

vermiculites are also found.

• Non-expanding minerals

Micas and chlorites are the types of minerals in this group.

• Muscorite and biotite are examples of unweathered micas often found in sand
23
 and silt separates.

• Soil chlorites are basically Fe-Mg silicates with some Al present.

Soil Reaction (Acidity, Alkalinity)

The degree of acidity or alkalinity is an important variable that affects all soil properties

(chemical, physical and biological).

• Soil acidity is then total amount of acid present in the soil. The soil reaction is

expressed as the soil pH, this is the measure of the relative acidity and alkalinity of the

soil

• Active acidity is that measured by the soil pH while the

• Reserve acidity is that left within the soil microcell, it is usually measured by titrating

the soil solution with a base.

Causes of soil acidity:-

1) Leaching loss of bases like Ca, Mg, etc.

2) Application of acid-forming fertilizers e.g. urea, NH4+ based fertilizers

3) Acid rain

4) Decomposition of organic matter, CO2 is evolved, it mixed with soil water to form weak

carbonic acid (H2CO3)

5) Hydrolysis of Al. Al3+ + 3H2O Al(OH)3 + 3H+

24
Importance of soil pH in crop production

1) It is useful in determining the availability of plant nutrients e.g. P is fixed by Al and Fe

oxides at low pH, at high pH it is fixed by Ca. Therefore, P is available maximally at

near neutral pH.

2) pH influences the availability in toxic amounts minerals and elements that may reduce

crop growth (At low pH, Fe and Mn are present in toxic amount in soil).

3) It influences the population and activities of beneficial microbe.

Lime requirement ((LR)

Lime requirement is the amount of liming material required to bring about a desired pH

change. (i.e., amount of lime required to raise a soil from one pH to a desired pH value).

LR is determined by (1) the change in pH required (2) the buffer capacity of the soil (3)

chemical composition of the liming material (4) finess of the liming materials.

Methods of determining lime requirements

1) Field plot techniques (apply rates, plant and monitor for best yield and best rat

performance

2) Titration with a base (soil solution with a base)

3) Incubation studies (8 weeks with different rates of lime test for best pH

4) Use of buffer like woodruff buffer, Adams and Evans, etc.

25
UNIT 5: ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION
There are 17 nutrient elements that are essential and are classified into 4 categories

i) Structural components of the plants viz C, H, O.

ii) Major nutrient elements also known as primary nutrients viz N, P, K iii) Secondary

nutrient elements viz Ca, Mg, S (S can be a major nutrient in some ecology as

savanna e.g. 20-10-10, 5 S - 2 Zn

This underlines the complexity in sulphur

- (NH4)2SO4, Bordeaux mixture (CuSO4), SSP (21% P, 9 % S) iv) Micronutrients these

are important but needed in small quantity they act as enzyme system and cofactors viz Fe,

Mn, Cu, B, Zn, Mo, Cl, Co

v) Others, they have been established to be very useful to plants e.g. sodium (Na) important

to tomato

NUTRIENT ABSORPTION BY PLANT ROOTS

• Root interception,

• Mass flow,

• Diffusion process,

26
UNIT 6: SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
INTRODUCTION
Soil organic matter is the organic component of the soil and it includes all parts of living
and dead plants and animals, micro-and macro-organisms and products of decaying
processes that occur in the soil. The dark colouration of certain soils is attributed to the
presence of organic matter because dark coloured colloidal humus compounds are able to
coat mineral particles of soil; hence the darker the soil, the more organic matter it is likely
to contain. In addition to clay minerals in the soil, organic matter is a major source of plant
nutrient elements. The greatest amount of organic matter in the soil resides in the top soil.
The organic matter of most soils ranges between 1-5% mostly in the top 25cm of soil, and
the concentration reduces with depth except, relatively in cases in which deep ploughing is
being used to incorporate organic materials into the soil.

Definition: Soil organic matter (SOM) could be defined as any material produced
originally by living organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and goes through
the decomposition process.

Composition of Soil Organic Matter

About 75% of green tissue is made up of water while 90% of the remaining dry matter is
made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Nitrogen and other mineral elements constitute
the remainder of organic matter. The major source of soil organic matter (plant tissue) is
made of very complex substances such as carbohydrates (Sugar, starch, hemicellulose,
cellulose, pectiles, muscilages) lignins, proteins (soluble proteins and crude proteins), fats
(oil), waxes, tannin, resins, pigments and organo-mineral compounds. The largest
percentage of soil organic matter is made of lignins and proteins. Lignin builds up as the
plant ages and it is resistant to decomposition.

Sources of Soil Organic Matter

There are two main sources of organic matter in soils and these include:
(i) Plant sources: These are the most prevalent and they include dead and decayed
plant roots, leaf droppings, crop residues, green manures and dead and decayed
“above ground” parts of plants.
27
 (ii) Animal sources: These form the next most important source of soil organic
matter. They include all residues of animals and micro-organisms, domestic
wastes, animal faeces, animal feeds, and animal manures.

Classification of soil organic matter

For practical purposes, organic matter may be classified into (a) aboveground and (b)
belowground fractions.

(a) Aboveground organic matter comprises plant residues and animal

residues; Organic matter existing on the soil surface as raw plant residues helps
protect the soil from the effect of rainfall, wind and sun. Removal,
incorporation or burning of residues exposes the soil to negative climatic
impacts, and removal or burning deprives the soil organisms of their primary
energy source.

(b) Belowground organic matter consists of living soil fauna and

microflora, partially decomposed plant and animal residues, and humic
substances. Organic matter within the soil serves several functions. From a
practical agricultural standpoint, it is important for two main reasons: (i) as a
“revolving nutrient fund”; and (ii) as an agent to improve soil structure,
maintain tilth and minimize erosion.

Importance of Soil Organic Matter

Organic matter is so important to the soil that it has been described as the life blood of the
soil. Its importance is enumerated as follows:
1) It is a storehouse of plant nutrients.
2) The stable organic fraction (humus) adsorbs and holds nutrients in a plant available form.
Hence, it contributes to the cation exchange capacity of the soil.

3) It improves soil physical conditions.

4) It provides medium for microbial growth and activities.
5) Humus adds substantially to the buffering capacity of soils making it less amenable to pH
changes by bases or acids.
28
6) Organic acids released during decomposition of the soil organic matter aid in the process of
rock mineral weathering.

Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter

When plant residues are returned to the soil, various organic compounds undergo
decomposition.

Decomposition is a biological process that includes the physical breakdown and

biochemical transformation of complex organic molecules of dead material into simpler
organic and inorganic molecules ones by the activities of microorganisms such as bacteria,
fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and protozoa.

In the decomposition process, different products are released which include carbon dioxide
(CO2), energy, water, plant nutrients and re-synthesized organic carbon compounds.
Successive decomposition of dead material and modified organic matter results in the
formation of a more complex organic matter called humus. This process is called
humification. Humus is a by-product of organic matter decomposition. It is resistant to
further decomposition and is the source of nutrient storage capacity. In the formation of soil
humus, there is a rapid decomposition of the water soluble constituents: sugars, organic
acids, amino acids, lipids, and nucleotides. SOM is frequently said to consist of humic
substances and nonhumic substances.

Humic substances are series of relatively high-molecular-weight, brown to black colored

substances formed by secondary synthesis reactions. It comprises of humic acid, fluvic acid
and humins.
Nonhumic substances are compounds belonging to known classes of biochemistry, such as
carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids.

Decomposition of organic matter is largely a biological process that occurs naturally. The
rate at which the organic matter decomposes in the soil is determined by some major
factors.

29
Factors Affecting the Rate of Organic Matter Decomposition
i) The quality of organic material such as the type of plant material, age of the plant and the
chemical composition ii) The physical environment which could be categorized into two:

a) Soil factors such as aeration, temperature, moisture, pH, and fertility status
b) Climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature
iii) Population of soil microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa

Mineralization of Organic Matter

This is the process involved in the release of plant nutrients from organic matter. Most of
the soil nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are present in the organic forms which are only
converted to the mineral forms, utilizable by plants, through the mineralization process.
Mineralization of organic matter to release mineral nutrients is a two step process, namely:

i. Aminization which is the decomposition of organic matter by heterotrophic

bacteria to release amino acids and amides.

ii. Amonification which is the release of ammonium ion from amino acids and
amides. Amino acids + amides heterotrophic bacteria NH4+

The ammonium ion (NH4+) further undergoes Aminoacid amides heterotrophic bacteria
oxidation process as a result of participation of special purpose bacteria in another twostep
process called nitrification.

Maintenance of Soil Organic Matter

The maintenance of the organic matter in soils used for agricultural production is an
important practice. Where the rate of addition is less than the rate of decomposition, soil
organic matter declines. Conversely, where the rate of addition is higher than the rate of
decomposition, soil organic matter increases. The term ‘steady state’ describes a condition
where the rate of addition is equal to the rate of decomposition. For adequate maintenance
of soil organic matter, the rate of addition must be equal to the rate of decomposition i.e. a
steady state condition must be maintained. The practices involved in the maintenance of
soil organic matter include:
30
i) Addition of new organic materials: This is an essential part of good soil management
practice. It involves the addition of bulky manures, such as farmyard green manures, compost
and processed animal wastes at least once a year depending on the intensity of cultivation.

ii) Sound cropping system that reduces the intensity of cultivations and keeps the soil
protected e.g. cover cropping and good crop rotation.

iii) Green manuring: This is the practice of enriching the soil by turning under soil green
tender plants, usually legumes grown on the field or brought from outside.

iv) Management of crop residues: Crop residues provide varying amounts of organic carbon
when incorporated into the soil or used as mulch.

31
UNIT 7: TYPES AND ACTIVITIES OF SOIL ORGANISMS

INTRODUCTION

All the organisms living within the soil are collectively termed soil life or soil biota. Soil
organism is any organism inhabiting the soil during part or all of its life. Soil organisms
range in size from microscopic cells that digest decaying organic material to small
mammals that live primarily on other soil organisms. They play an important role in
maintaining fertility, structure, drainage, and aeration of soil. They also break down plant
and animal tissues, releasing stored nutrients and converting them into forms usable by
plants. They are the life force of soil. More living organisms occur in soil than in all other
ecosystems combined. The living portion of soil is a diverse and dynamic collection of
organisms, from types that you can easily see with an unaided eye down to creatures that
you can observe only by using a high-powered microscope.

Classification of Soil Organisms

The soil organisms are classified into two broad groups, these include:

1. Soil flora – subdivided into:

(a) microflora size range 1-100 micrometres, e.g. bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and algae

(b) macroflora: size range 20 mm upwards, e.g. roots of higher plants

2. Soil fauna – subdivided into:

(a) Megafauna: size range 20 mm upwards, e.g. moles, rabbits, and rodents.

(b) Macrofauna: size range 2–20 mm, e.g. woodlice, earthworm, beetles, centipedes,
slugs, snails and ants.

32
(c) Mesofauna: size range 100 micrometer - 2 mm, e.g. tardigrades, mites and springtails.

(d) Microfauna: size range 1-100 micrometres, e.g. protozoa, nematodes and rotifers.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microbes that are so abundant that a square inch of soil contains
millions of these microorganisms. Bacteria primarily act as decomposing agents and
usually break down organic material in its initial stage of decomposition due to high
moisture levels conducive for their growth. Other nitrogen- fixing bacteria help in
converting nitrogen gas into simpler forms that can be consumed by plants.
Some common soil bacterial are the species of Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter,
Achromobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Chromobacterium
and Mycobacterium. Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria present in the soil are the species
of Thiobacillus, Ferrobacillus, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.

Fungi

Fungi are microscopic cells made up of spores, hyphae and gills. They are aerobic and
largely distributed in forests. These organisms benefit the soil as they function as
decomposers and also act as soil binders, making the earth’s water retention more efficient.
Aside from its ability to break down complex dead organisms, fungi also thrive by having a
mutual relationship with plants.

Some important soil inhabiting microfungi are the species of Aspergillus, Botrytis,
Cephalosporium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Monilia, Fusarium, Verticillium, Mucor,
Rhizopus, Pythium, Cunninghamella, Chaetomium and Rhizoctonica. Some microfungi,
such as species of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Dematium, are helpful, are
helpful in the preservation of organic materials in the soil.

Actinomycetes.

A large number of actinomycetes are particularly abundant in the soil rich in decomposed
organic materials; species .of Streptomyces, Micromonospora and Nocardia are some

33
common actinomycetes occurring in soils. They are responsible for the characteristic musty
or earthy smell of a freshly ploughed field. They are capable of degrading many complex
chemical substances and thus play an important role.

Algae.

Many microalgal forms occur on the surface of moist soils, where sufficient light is
available. The growth of microalgae is helpful for soil conservation and in improving soil
structure. In paddy fields, blue-green algae play a significant role in nitrogen fixation.
Species of Chlorella, Chlorococcum, Protosiphon, Aphanocapsa, Anabaena,
Chroococcus, Nostoc and Scytonema are some common microalgae present in the soil

Protozoa

Protozoans are single-organisms slightly larger than microbes that are organized into three
general categories: cilliates, amoebas and flagellates. The protozoans main diet consists of
both dead and living bacteria thus controlling its rapid increase in population. Like the
bacteria, it also releases excess nitrogen only this time in the form of ammonia. Protozoans
are helpful in maintaining equilibrium of the microbial flora in the soil. Some important
protozoans present in the soil are species of Allantion, Biomyxa, Nuclearia, Trinema,
Balantiophorus,Colpoda, Gastrostyla, Oxytricha, Pleurotricha and Vorticella.

Nematodes

Nematodes are a group of tiny roundworms that demonstrate the wide diversity and the
inextricable food web that exists in a healthy soil. Most soil nematodes eat bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, and other nematodes, making them important in nutrient cycling. Others are plant
parasites and cause disease symptoms such as malformed or dwarfed plants, or root
structures with deformities such as galls and cysts. The root knot nematode, for instance,
stimulates parasitized plants to form root galls. The galls choke off the flow of water and
nutrients to the above-ground portion of the plant. Plants infected by root gall nematodes
may live through the season but crop yields will be dramatically reduced.

34
The following shows the approximate numbers of organisms (per gram) commonly found in
the microbiota:-

Organism Estimated number/gram

Bacteria 3 000 000 - 500 000

000
Actinomycetes 1 000 000 - 20 000 000

Fungi 5 000 - 900 000

Algae 1 000 - 500 000

Protozoa 1 000 - 500 000

Activities of Soil Organisms

Healthy soil is a jungle of rapacious organisms devouring everything in sight (including

each other), processing their prey or food through their innards, and then excreting it. The
activities of these organisms have been categorized into two, namely, beneficial and
detrimental activities.

A) Beneficial Activities

1. Nutrient cycling.

2. Enhancing soil structure, which improves water and air movement.

3. Controlling disease and enhancing plant growth. 1. Nutrient cycling

Soil organisms continually transform nutrients among many organic and inorganic forms.
(Organic compounds contain carbon. Inorganic compounds do not.) Plants primarily need
simple inorganic forms of each nutrient. Soil organisms create many of these plantavailable
35
nutrients and help store nutrients in the soil as organic compounds. Cycling of nutrients
involves the following transformation processes:
decomposition: turning organic compounds into other organic compounds
mineralization: turning organic matter into inorganic compounds that may be used by
plants

immobilization: turning inorganic compounds into organic compounds. Farmers

depend on bacteria for one more transformation:

mineral transformation: turning inorganic matter into other inorganic compounds

Bacteria Involved in Mineral Transformations

Bacteria that perform mineral transformations are important in nitrogen cycling and these
include the following:

i) Nitrogen fixing bacteria: The roots of legumes host nitrogen-fixing bacteria that convert
large amounts of dinitrogen (N2) from the atmosphere into forms that plants can use.
Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live free in the soil.

ii) Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) into nitrate (NO3-).

iii) Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate into gases that are lost into the atmosphere. These
species are anaerobic so denitrification occurs only in places in the soil where there is
little or no oxygen.

Other soil bacteria are important for similar mineral transformations of sulfur, iron, and
manganese.

2. Forming soil structure

Most crops grow best in crumbly soil that roots can easily grow through and that allows in
water and air. Soil organisms play an important role in the formation of a good soil
structure.
36
As the soil heats up, fungi grow long filaments called hyphae that surround soil particles
and hold them together in soil aggregates. Some bacteria produce sticky substances that
also help bind soil together.

Many soil aggregates between the diameters of 1/1000 and 1/10 of an inch (the size of the
period at the end of this sentence) are fecal pellets. Arthropods and earthworms consume
soil, digest the bacteria, and excrete a clump of soil coated with secretions from the gut. As
beetles and earthworms chew and bury plant residue and burrow through the soil, they
aerate the soil and create nutrient-lined channels for roots and water to move through.

3. Controlling disease and enhancing growth

Soil organisms have many methods for controlling disease-causing organisms. Protozoa,
nematodes, insects, and other predatory organisms help control the population levels of
their prey and prevent any single species from becoming dominant. Some bacteria and
fungi generate compounds that are toxic to other organisms. Some organisms compete with
harmful organisms for food or a location on a root.

In addition to protecting plants from disease, some organisms produce compounds that
actually enhance the growth of plants. Plant roots may excrete compounds that attract

such beneficial organisms.

B) Detrimental Activities
1. Some cause plant diseases e.g. fusarium wilt caused by fungus attack.
2. Some cause root damage e.g. root knot nematode.
3. Some cause tuber destruction e.g. yam beetles in the soil.

Factors Affecting Distribution, Activity and Population of Soil Microorganisms

Soil microorganisms (Flora & Fauna), just like higher plants depends entirely on soil for
their nutrition, growth and activity. The major soil factors which influence the microbial
population, distribution and their activity in the soil are
37
1. Soil fertility

2. Cultural practices

3. Soil moisture

4.Soil temperature
5. Soil aeration

6. Light

7. Soil PH (H-ion Concentration)

8. Organic matter

9. Food and energy supply

10. Nature of soil and

11. Microbial associations.

All these factors play a great role in determining not only the number and type of organism
but also their activities. Variations in any one or more of these factors may lead to the
changes in the activity of the organisms which ultimately affect the soil fertility level. Brief
account of all these factors influencing soil organisms and their activities are given as
follows:

38
UNIT 8: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS
What is a fertilizer?

A fertilizer is any material, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, which supplies plants
with one or more of the nutrient elements required for normal growth and development.
Fertilizers are of two types namely organic and inorganic. The primary
nutrients supplied by fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Their concentration
in a fertilizer is expressed as percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O.

Inorganic (or mineral) fertilizers are fertilizers mined from mineral deposits with little
processing (e.g., lime, potash, or phosphate rock), or industrially manufactured through
chemical processes (e.g., urea). Inorganic fertilizers vary in appearance depending on the
process of manufacture. The particles can be of many different sizes and shapes (crystals,
pellets, granules, or dust). Inorganic fertilizer could be classified into three based on the
nutrient composition as follows:

1. Straight fertilizers: These are fertilizers which contain and supply one or single nutrient
element only. They could be nitrogenous, phosphatic or potassic fertilizers supplying
nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium, respectively.

a) Nitrogenous fertilizers: Nitrogen is the first fertilizer element of the macronutrients

usually applied in commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen is very important nutrient for plants and
it seems to have the quickest and most pronounced effect. In the case of nitrogenous
fertilizers, nitrogen may be in the ammoniacal, nitrate (or a combination thereof) or amide
form.

39
Nitrogenous fertilizer - Source of Nitrogen

Percentage of Nitrogen
Name of fertilizers

Ammonium Sulphate 20.6-21.0

Urea 44.0-46.0
Ammonium Chloride 25+
Ammonium Nitrate 32-35
Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate 2.6
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate 25.0
(CAN)
Sodium Nitrate 16.0
Calcium Nitrate 15.6-21.6
Potassium Nitrate 13.0
Calcium cynamide 212.0

b) Phosphatic fertilizers: Phosphorus is the second fertilizer element and it is an essential

constituent of every living cell and for the nutrition of plant and animal. It takes active part
in all types of metabolism of plant. Phosphate present in phosphatic fertilizers may be in
the water soluble form or citrate soluble form. That portion of phosphate which is soluble
in water is called water soluble phosphate and that which is not soluble in water but in 2 per
cent neutral ammonium citrate solution is called citrate soluble phosphate.

The sum of water soluble and citrate soluble values is termed as available phosphates.
Phosphatic fertilizer – Source of phosphorous

Percentage of P2O5
Name of fertilizers

Single 16.1-20+.0
Superphosphate
Double 30.1-35.0
Superphosphate
Triple 45.0-50.0
Superphosphate
Basic Slage (India) 3.0-8.0
Dicalcium 35.0-40.0
Phosphate
Rock Phosphate 20.0-25.0
40
c) Potassic fertilizers: Potassium is the third fertilizer element. Potassium acts as a
chemical traffic policeman, root booster, stalk strengthener, food former, sugar and starch
transporter, protein builder, breathing regulator, water stretcher and as a disease retarder
but it is not effective without its co-nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

Potassic fertilizer – Source of potassium

Name of fertilizers Percentage of K20

Murate of potash 50.0-60.0
Potassium sulphate 48.0-52.0

2. Complex/Compound fertilizers: These are fertilizers which contain two or more

nutrient elements usually combined in a homogeneous mixture by chemical interaction.
Complex NPK fertilizers have the advantage of having each nutrient in each granule.

Examples of complex fertilizer are listed in the following table.

Complex fertilizers

Material Total Neutral Water Water

Nitrogen ammonium soluble soluble
(N) citrate phosphate potash
soluble (P2O5) (K2O)
phosphate
(P2O5)
Ammonium Phosphate
11-52-0 11.0 52.0 44.2
18-46-0 18.0 46.0 41.0
Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate
16-20-0 16.0 20.0 19.5
20-20-0 20.0 20.0 17.0
18-9-0 18.0 9.0 8.5
Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate
Nitrate
20-20-0 20.0 20.0 17.0

41
 Nitrophosphate
20-20-0 20.0 23.0 12.0
23-23-0 23.0 23.0 18.5
Ammonium Nitrate Phosphate
23-23-0 23.0 23.0 20.5
Urea Ammonium Phosphate
28-28-0 28.0 28.0 25.2
24-24-0 24.0 24.0 20.4
20-20-0 20.0 20.0 17.0
Potassium Nitrate
(cystalline/prilled)
13-0-45 13.0 45.0
Mono Potassium Phosphate
0-52-34 52.0 34.0

3. Fertilizer blends or mixed fertilizers: These are fertilizers formed by physically

blending mineral fertilizers to obtain desired nutrient ratios. Two or more of the separate
fertilizer carriers or straight fertilizers are mixed to obtain the desired nutrient ratios.

Examples are NPK 15-15-15, NPK 20-10-10 etc.

Common Terms used in Fertilizer

1. Fertilizer Grade: This is the numbering system of a particular element in the mixture or
the compound. It is usually written in real figures for mixed or compound fertilizers. It is
often expressed in a set of three numbers e.g. 15-15-15 indicating manufacturer’s
guarantee of the percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O. When an element is missing. it is
represented as zero.

2. Fertilizer Ratio: This is the relative proportion or ratio of two or more nutrient
elements in fertilizer grade e.g. NPK 10-10-10 has a ratio of 1:1:1. This ratio is obtained
by dividing the fertilizer grade figures by a factor that produces the smallest possible
whole numbers.

42
 Grade Ratio
5-10-10 1-2-2

3-9-9 1-3-3
4-8-12 1-2-3

3. Fertilizer Material or Carrier: This is a material which contains at least one plant
nutrient.

4. Filler: This is a material added to a mixed fertilizer to make up weight requirements in

a ton (1000 kg). Examples are sand, soil, coal powder, ground lime etc.
Example: ton of 0-8-8

add 0-20-0 superphosphate 400 kg add

0-0-60 muriate of potash 133.5 kg filler
466.5 kg total 1000 kg or 1
ton

Advantages and Disadvantages of Inorganic Fertilizers

Advantages Disadvantages
• Works immediately • Leaching occurs beyond plant’s
rooting zone

• Contains all necessary nutrients • Too much may burn and kill
that are ready for use plants

• Affordable • Some are not affordable

• Convenient to use, it is easy to • Accumulation of toxic wastes

apply

43
 Major limitations of Inorganic Fertilizers

1. As inorganic fertilizers are both powerful and take effect too quickly, they can burn
and totally destroy plants when applied excessively.

2. Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers can also kill earthworms and microorganisms in
the soil that help in the plants' growth.3. The nitrates contained in some inorganic
fertilizers can actually pollute groundwater that we use for drinking.
4. Some inorganic fertilizers may contain wastes that went through a recycling process. As
such, they may have in them lead or other heavy-metal residues which can be taken
in by growing plants and which, in turn, we eventually consume as food.

5. When applied excessively or too liberally, inorganic fertilizers can be washed and
transported by rain into water sources (such as rivers and lakes) and end up
polluting them. If this happens, it may result to an increase in growth of several
aquatic plants which can then substantially lessen the supply of oxygen in water and
kill fish.

6. It requires high purchasing power

7. Availability is an obstacle, especially in remote areas

Organic fertilizers are natural materials of either plant or animal origin, including
livestock manure, green manures, crop residues, household waste, compost, and woodland
litter. Organic fertilizers include both plant and animal bi-products. They are slow acting.
Organic nitrogen fertilizers include oil cakes, fish manure, dried blood from slaughter
houses etc., where as organic phosphorus fertilizers are from bone meal and organic
potassium from cattle dung ash, wood ash, leaf mould, tobacco stems and water hyacinth.

Organic fertilizers are categorized into two:

1. Bulky: This consists of the slow acting organic manures with large quantities of
organic matter. Examples are Cattle, Sheep Poultry, Pig, Goat, Horse manures,
Compost, Green Manures, and Sewage Sludge.

44
 2. Concentrated: This consists of the quick acting organic manures with small
quantity of organic matter. Examples are Groundnut cake, Castor cake, Bone
meal, Blood meal, Horn meal, Wood ash, Cotton and Linseed Meal.

Specific properties of organic fertilizers

Organic nutrient sources are highly heterogeneous and vary in quality and quantity. The
quality aspect is important in determining the nutrient release potential of the organic
fertilizer. Microorganisms that decompose organic fertilizers use the carbon in such materials
as an energy source for growth. Required in even bigger quantities by microorganisms for
growth and reproduction is nitrogen (N). Commonly available materials are often particularly
low in N content. For organic fertilizers with low N contents (such as cereal straw and most
smallholder farmyard manures), microorganisms themselves will consume much of the
available N for their own growth. Consequently, insignificant amounts of N will be released
for the crop. Thus, on their own, poor quality materials have limited potential to enhance
productivity.

Advantages of Organic Fertilizers

1. Organic fertilizers mobilize existing soil nutrients, so that good growth achieved with
lower nutrient densities while wasting less. By their nature, they increase physical and
biological nutrient storage mechanisms in soils, mitigating risks of over-fertilization.

2. They release nutrients at a slower, more consistent rate, helping to avoid a boom-and-
bust pattern.

3. They help to retain soil moisture, reducing the stress due to temporary moisture
stress.

4. They improve the soil structure.

5. They help to prevent topsoil erosion (responsible for desertification and the Dust
bowl.

45
Organic fertilizers also have the advantage of avoiding certain problems associated with the
regular heavy use of artificial fertilizers:

6. The necessity of reapplying artificial fertilizers regularly (and perhaps in increasing

quantities) to maintain fertility.
7. Extensive runoff of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus leading to eutrophication of
bodies of water (which causes fish kills).

8. Costs are lower for if fertilizer is locally available.

9. Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically
much lower than mineral (inorganic) fertilizers.

Disadvantages of Organic Fertilizers

Organic fertilizers have the following disadvantages:

1. Generally require large amounts to have desired effects.

2. As a dilute source of nutrients when compared to inorganic fertilizers, transporting

large amount of fertilizer incurs higher costs, especially with slurry and manure.

3. The composition of organic fertilizers tends to be more complex and variable than a
standardized inorganic product.

4. Improperly-processed organic fertilizers may contain pathogens from plant or animal

matter that are harmful to humans or plants. However, proper composting should
remove them.

5. More labor is needed to compost organic fertilizer, increasing labor costs. Some of
this cost is offset by reduced cash purchase.

46
 6. Unavailability of seed for green manures is one of the major limitations.

7. Green manures must occupy land at a time when other food crops could be grown.
Methods of Fertilizer Application

Fertilizers can be applied to soil before seeds are sown, at the time of planting and while the
plants are growing. Fertilizers can also be added to the hole when transplanting vegetables,
flowers, trees, shrubs and other plant types. The method of fertilizer application to be used
is dependent upon the following factors:

i) Type of plant being fertilized

ii) Type of soil,

iii) Type of fertilizer, and

iv) Size of the area that needs fertilizing.

The following methods are adopted to apply fertilizers-

A) Application of fertilizer in solid form

1. Broadcasting: This type of application method basically refers to the spreading of the
fertilizer uniformly over the entire area. This is usually done with a spreader of some sort.

2. Band Placement: This is a method in which fertilizer is placed in a band about 5 cm to

the sided of the plant. Inserting or drilling or placing the fertilizer below the soil surface by
means of any tool or implement at desired depth to supply plant nutrients to crop before
sowing or in the standing crop is called placement.
3. Drilling: This is a method where fertilizer is applied with a drill at the same time as the
seed is sown.
4. Side Dressing: This is a method in which the fertilizer is placed either in a continuous
band 4-5 cm deep near the crop or in between the plants in a row.

47
B) Application of fertilizer in liquid form
1. Foliar Application
2. Starter solution
3. Application through irrigation water

5. Foliar Application: This refers to the spraying on leaves of growing plants with
suitable fertilizer solutions. These solutions may be prepared in a low concentration to
supply any one plant nutrient or a combination of nutrients.

6. Starter Solutions: This is a method where solutions of fertilizers, generally consisting

of N, P2O5, K2O in the ratio of 1: 2: 1 and 1: 1: 2 are applied to young vegetable plants at
the time of transplanting. These solutions are known as 'Starter Solutions'. They are used in
place of the watering that is usually given to help the plants to establish. Only a small
amount of fertilizer is applied as a starter solution.

7. Application through irrigation water: This is a method where fertilizers are allowed
to dissolve in the irrigation stream and the nutrients are carried into the soil in solution.

This saves the application cost and allows the utilization of relatively inexpensive waters.

48
UNIT 9: SOIL TEXTURE AND SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL TEXTURE

Soil texture is the relative proportion of various soil separates in a soil. It is usually expressed

on percentage basis.

Soil separates are group of soil particles of given size range i.e. different size of particles

which together make up a given soil.

The main textural classes are sand, silt and clay. These textural classes may be modified by

addition of suitable adjective based on relative amount of each separate that make up the

soil e.g.

Loam: Soil material with clay, silt and sand in close proportion (e.g. 7-27% clay; 28-

50% silt and <50% sand).

Loamy sand: Materials with about 80-90% sand.

Sandy loam: <7% clay; <50% silt; about 52% sand.

Other modifications include silty loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam, gravelly loamy sand

etc.

Determination of Soil Texture

Soil texture may be determined on the field by textural feel and in the laboratory by soil

mechanical analysis or soil particle size distribution. The mechanical analysis in the

laboratory may be carried out either by Pipette or hydrometer method.

After the proportion of each of the soil separates are determination, the textural class of the

soil is identified using a USDA Soil Textural Triangle. The sides of the soil texture triangle

are scaled for the percentages of sand, silt, and clay.

49
 Systems of soil particle size classification
There are two widely used systems of soil classification. These are: United State
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and International Soil Science Society (ISSS)

USDA Classification system

Fraction Diameter (mm)

Very coarse sand 2.00 – 1.00
Coarse sand 1.00 – 0.50
Medium sand 0.50 – 0.25
Fine sand 0.25 – 0.10
Very fine sand 0.10 – 0.05
Silt 0.05 – 0.002 Clay <0.002
ISSS Classification system

50
Fraction Diameter (mm)
Coarse sand 2.00 – 0.2
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02
Silt 0.02 – 0.002
Clay <0.002

Generally
Materials : >20 mm diameter – stone
20-2 mm diameter – gravel
<2mm diameter – Fine earth (soil)

SOIL STRUCTURE

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles to form peds. Or, the arrangement of primary

particles into secondary particles (aggregate).

Each individual unit of soil is called a ped.

Classification of soil structure

There are three basic groups of classification

1. Classification based on shape of aggregate

(i) Simple structure: this includes (a) Single grain and (b) Massive structure

(ii) Compound structure: under this we have:

Spheroidal (Granular, crumb)

Block-like (Blocky; sub-angular blocky)

Prism-like (Prismatic; columnar)

Platy – flat, plate like. These are soil found in compacted soils.

2. Classification based on size and shape of pores

Coarse pore – >200 µm

51
 Medium pore – 200 - 20 µm

Fine pore – 20 - 2 µm

Very fine pores - <2 µm

3. Classification based on grade

Poor e.g single grain structure

Weekly developed: contains high level of sand and silt

Well developed: contains some amount of binding agents

Strongly developed: contains high level of binding agents e.g. soil Organic matter.

52
Pictorial Description of Soil Structure
Granular: Granular: Resembles cookie
crumbs and is usually less than
0.5 cm in diameter. Commonly
found in surface horizons where
roots have been growing.
Prismatic: Vertical columns o
Blocky: Irregular block s that
soil that might be a number of
are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in
cm long. Usually found in
diameter.
lower horizons.
53

Platy: Thin, flat plates o
soil that lie horizontally.
Columnar: Vertical columns of soil have a salt Usually found in compacted
"cap" at the top. Found in soils of arid climates. soil.
Massive: Soil has no visible structure, is hard to
break apart and appears in very large clods.
54
Single Grained: Soil is broken
into individual particles that do
not stick together. Always
accompanies a loose
consistence. Commonly found
in sandy soils.
Images of the different soil structures are shown below.

Granular Blocky

Prismatic Columnar

Platy

55
 Structureless:

Single grained Massive

Importance of soil structure

It affects water and nutrient holding capacity of the soil
It affects germination and root growth and development
It affects water retention and transmission of fluid in soil
It affects soil aeration
It influences soil thermal properties

56
UNIT 10: SOIL MANAGEMENT
Soil management refers to the practices adopted for a particular soil, such as methods of

cultivation, erosion control measures, fertilizer practices and pest control.

Soil management should include a practice of suitability classification where various farm

activities (such as cropping, grazing, shelter belts, woodlots and irrigation) are assigned to

the most suitable soil unit.

TILLAGE PRACTICES

Tillage is a physical /mechanical manipulation of the soil for the purpose of crop production.

Tillage affects soils structure, soil water conservation, weed infestation, rate of

decomposition of soil organic matter, population of soil fauna, soil temperature, seed

germination, seedling emergence, crop growth and yield.

Types of tillage

There are three basic types of tillage

1. Zero tillage: this involves planting on a piece of land without the use of any farm

machinery such as tractor; plough. Under zero tillage weeds are destroyed with the aid of

herbicides before planting.

Advantages of zero tillage

i. maximum soil erosion control

ii. soil moisture conservation

iii. minimum fuel and labour cost. iv. promotes soil carbon and nitrogen sequestration
57
2. Minimum tillage: this involves the use of primary tillage implements such as plough for

soil preparation before planting. It is also called reduced tillage. Advantages of minimum

tillage

i. less erosion control

ii. well adapted for lighter or medium textured, well-drained soil

iii. excellent incorporation of plant materials

3. Conventional tillage: this involves the use of primary tillage implements such as plough

followed by the use of secondary tillage implement such harrow or ridger. Advantages of

conventional tillage

i. excellent control of weeds

ii. provides ease of seed planting

iii. seed germination or seedling emergence is faster

SOIL WATER MANAGEMENT

The rapidly increasing urban population and development with limited water supply has led

to increasing competition for water between urban users and agriculture. This calls for

urgent need for proper management of available water to agriculture.

There are 3 basic approaches to soil water management

1. Conservation of natural precipitation

2. Addition of water to supplement the amount of natural precipitation

3. Removal of water from wet land

58
Conservation of natural precipitation: these practices are important in areas with large

water deficit and are designed to increase the amount of water that enters the soil and to

make efficient use of this water. These practices are popular in Sub-humid and Arid

regions. These practices include vegetative cover, contour tillage, terraces, application of

organic manures, fallowing etc.

59
IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to the crops to supplement rainfall Methods

of irrigation

i. Flood irrigation

ii. Furrow irrigation

iii. Sprinkler irrigation

iv. Drip irrigation

TYPES OF IRRIGATION

Flood irrigation

60
 Furrow irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation

61
 Drip Irrigation

DRAINAGE

Drainage or dewatering is the removal of excess water that has accumulated on the soil

surface.

Types of drainage

1. Surface drainage: collection and removal of water from the soil surface through open

ditches.

2. Subsurface drainage: installation of drainage ditches under ground with the aid of a

trenching machine. It is usually laid around 1 m depth to the soil surface.

62
 Drainage trencher installing subsurface pipe drains

SOIL EROSION CONTROL

Soil erosion is the wearing away of the soil surface either by water or by wind

Types of water erosion

i. Splash erosion

ii. Sheet erosion

iii. Rill erosion iv.

Gully erosion

63
Control of water erosion

1. Agronomic practices: these include vegetative cover, cropping systems (e.g. mixed

cropping, strip cropping, intercropping and contour cropping).

2. Engineering practices:

Contour bounding: making embankment with a narrow base at intervals across the

slope and along the contour.

Gully plugging: this done with live edges, earth, sand bags, brick masonry and

boulders.

Small gully can be controlled by clearing, levelling and constructing

diversion/check bunds and disposal of excess runoff at the end of the bounds into

grassed slope.

Wind erosion

This is the movement of soil and loss by the action of wind.

Control of wind erosion

i. Construction of windbreak and shelterbelts

ii. Cropping system e.g. cover cropping, strip cropping

iii. Residue of crop left over following harvest

iv. Avoidance of overgrazing

v. Vegetative cover.

64
Expanded Summary of the Soil Environment

Soil is a major part of the natural environment, alongside air and water, and is vital to the
existence of life on the planet.

Soil is the result of the process of the gradual breakdown of rock - the solid geology that
makes up the earth. As rock becomes broken down through a variety of processes, such as
weathering and erosion, the particles become ground smaller and smaller.

As a whole, soil is made up from four constituents: mineral material, organic material, air and
water. There are considered to be three main mineral parts to soil; ‘sand’, ‘silt’ and ‘clay’.
These parts give the soil its 'mineral texture'. In addition, as leaves and other organic material
fall to the ground and decompose - there also forms an ‘organic’ layer. Soil scientists (or
pedologists) use a series of sieves info to separate out the constituent parts in order to
characterise soil by texture class.

Soils may be characterised in terms of the properties they inherit from the underlying rock
(the parent material) and the properties resulting from alteration of the original parent material
by soil forming processes (also called ‘pedogenic’ processes). The latter effects can be
observed in the surface and subsurface horizon layers. A good place to look at these layers is
where a construction project has exposed a cross-section of earth, for instance where a new
road is being built. The depth of soil varies geographically, but a depth of 2 metres in the UK
is usually taken as the average depth to consolididated material (rock). Tropical soils can be
tens of metres deep!

Soil Formation - Introduction

65
All soils initially come from rocks, this is termed the ‘parent material’. The Parent Material
may be directly below the soil, or great distances away if wind, water or glaciers have
transported the soil.

In addition to the soil parent material, soil formation is also dependent upon other prevailing
processes affecting soil formation. The soil formation process is termed 'pedogenesis'.
Climatic conditions are important factors affecting both the form and rate of physical and
chemical weathering of the parent material.

The formation of soils can be seen as a combination of the products of weathering, of

structural development of the soil, of differentiation of that structure into horizons or layers,
and lastly of its movement or translocation. In fact there are many ways in which soil may be
transported away from the location where it was first formed.

Water is also very important in moving soils. As rivers flow, so they transport soil particles
along. If soil is washed into a river, the smallest particles will be carried the furthest by the
water as they weigh the least. Heavier particles, such as sand, will be dropped earlier by the
river. If you see an aerial photograph of a river as it flows into the sea or a lake, you may see
the ‘fan’ of deposited soil materials. Soils deposited in this way around lakes and rivers are
termed ‘alluvial’. Soils deposited in lakes are called 'lacustrine', soils deposited by rivers
'riverine' and by sea 'marine' alluvial soils.

Rainfall is also important in washing soil off exposed land. Even gentle rain can dislodge and
move small soil particles. If this happens all across a field the process is termed ‘sheet
erosion’.Where there is a lot of rain, small gulleys can form which can speed up the process of
‘gulley erosion’. In tropical countries where there is extremely heavy rain, these gulleys can
become so deep that you can walk down into them. Farmers should be aware of the effects of
erosion upon their soil resource. Fields on slopes should be ploughed in lines across the
gradient to prevent excess runoff and erosion. However, one can often see fields ploughed
down the slope. This has the effect of creating small channels for rain water, and these
channels can soon enlarge.

One way scientists can try to quantify the effects of such erosion is to employ dye tracers in
the field. To do this, during a rain event, a dye tablet is placed in the field and the extent of the
resulting runoff pattern then becomes only too clear.

66
The wind is also able to move surprisingly large quantities of soil. On occasions fine soil
deposits can be seen in many parts of the South of England which have been blown all the
way from North African deserts.

Soil in your garden is likely to be well mixed both as a result of years of digging and from the
activities of animals in the soil such as worms. In agricultural fields there may be less mixing
as there are fewer animals present due to the use of chemicals and compaction from heavy
machinery. Ploughs are used to aerate and mix the soil instead. Where ploughs are continually
used at a certain set depth, there may form a hard layer called a ‘pan’ below which there is
little mixing. Such hard pans can also affect the drainage in the field where water cannot flow
downwards affecting crop yields.

Weathering Processes

One important influence on the formation of soils is weathering. There are two main
categories of weathering, both having different effects:

Physical Weathering

Freezing and Thawing - here, the expansive force of water pushes the soil structures apart.
Water expands considerably when frozen and this expansion literally pushes the soil apart,
breaking it down. When the ice thaws the soil can slump back again. The overall process is
rather like a very slow 'churning'. Freeze-thawing can literally grind mountains down over
time!

Heating and Cooling - here soils subjected to extremes of temperature are affected as they
expand and contract. The effect is less pronounced that that of freezing and thawing but over
time this can become significant.

Wetting and Drying - soils that are wetted up may be prone to swelling. Clay minerals in
particular exhibit this property. The soils that have thus expanded then shrink when the soils
dry out. These seasonal effects are termed shrinkage and swelling. Many household claims for
subsidence are based upon such shrinkage and swelling of clays under foundations.

Grinding or Rubbing - most obvious on the beach, grinding of particles against each other
leads to particle disintegration. This is why beach pebbles become smooth. Abrasion similarly
breaks down the soil particles.

67
Organisms - the effect of organisms, plants and animals, living in the soil cannot be
overstated. Soil is home for a wide range of organisms. If plants can push through concrete -
soil presents little obstacle! Worms churn their way through soil, mixing and aerating it all
through their lives and there can be thousands of worms in a field.

Unloading - when pressure is placed upon soil it becomes compressed. Never mind tractors,
imagine the weight of a glacier! When ice melts a huge weight is lifted and the soils may react
accordingly by uplifting and expanding.

Chemical Weathering

Solution - certain solid components in the soil can be dissolved in soil water. In this way
underground caverns can form in limestone karst landscapes. The name Karst comes from the
Krass plateau in Slovenia where there are some of the most magnificent cave systems
anywhere in the world - valley sized caves!

Hydrolysis - certain compounds in the soil can react to elements in the water.

Carbonation - soil compounds can react with carbonic acid.

Hydration - water in the soil can act to change the chemical structure of the soil components.

Oxidation - oxygen in the soil can act to change the chemical structure of the soil components.

Reduction - a lack of oxygen in the soil can act to change the chemical structure of the soil
components

Soil Forming Processes

There are five key processes by which soil is formed, they are:

Leaching - leaching is the removal of soluable components of the soil column. As water
washes down through the soil it can carry away bases such as calcium, held as exchangeable
ions in clay-humus complexes, as well as acidification through the substitution of hydrogen
ions.

Eluviation - here soil particles held in suspension, such as clay, are removed (eg. washed
away).

Illuviation - here soil particles held in suspension, such as clay, are accumulated (eg.
deposited).

68
Podsolisation - podsolisation occurs when strongly acid soil solutions cause the breakdown of
clay minerals. As a result silica, aluminium and iron form complexes with organic substances
in the soil. These minerals are removed from the surface zone of the soil and can accumulate
in distinct dark sub-surface layers - very evident on inspection. Upland heaths and moors
often contain podsols.

Gleying - gleying occurs in waterlogged, anaerobic conditions when iron compounds are
reduced and either removed from the soil, or segregated out as mottles or concretions in the
soil. Marshy wetlands often contain gleyed soils.

It is important to realise also that soil types are closely related to the shape of the landscape -
or its 'topography'. Soil scientists use this to help them create soil maps. An experienced eye
can determine changes in underlying soil types when walking through a landscape and
observing changes in topography (and often vegetation too).

The relationship of soil and topography

Soil Structure

All the effects of soil forming processes, weathering, translocation leaching and so on leave
the soil with a particular 'structure'. Soil structure refers to the shape, size and degree of
development of the aggregation, if any, of the primary soil particles into naturally or
artificially formed structural units and to their spatial arrangement. In describing soil
structure, we refer to soil 'peds' and soil fragments or 'clods'.

Soil peds are natural, relatively permanent aggregates, separated from each other by voids or
natural surfaces of weakness. Peds persist through cycles of wetting and drying. Soil

69
Fragments and Clods are artificial structural units, formed at or near the surface by cultivation
or frost action, and are not peds.

Degradation of soil structures occur by a number of manners including:

Slaking - the breaking down of aggregates by rain impact or under wet conditions; sorting soil
particles and washing them into depressions – such slaking can form surface crusts or caps
hindering shoot emergence in young crops. The winter of 2002 in the UK saw many fields in
the South East becoming 'capped' by the intense pounding of rain on the soil surface - which
dramatically affected subsequent soil water runoff.

Cementation - in certain cases, a subsoil iron 'pan' or hard ferrous layer can form, effectively
preventing root penetration. Iron pans can be surprisingly hard, and if dug out can be held up
and may need to be 'snapped' to break them!

Sodium leaching - as saline soil solutions are diluted, sodium-saturated clays become unstable
causing clay deflocculation and structural collapse.

Cultivation - the downward compression from machinery when the soil is too 'plastic' can
form a barrier to rooting and drainage as massive or platy structures form. This emphasises
the need for the correct design of vehicles designed to work the soil. The following picture
highlights a highly compressed soil, with a massive structure showing horizontal fracturing
and stressed roots. So called 'plough pans' can also form if a plough of a set depth is used over
and over again year after year. Where this happens a hard layer of soil can build up just under
the depth of the plough. This hard layer can impede field drainage and adversely affect crop
yield.

70
Soil compaction caused by machinery

Soil Profile

The soil profile is one of the most important concepts in soil science. It is a key to
understanding the processes that have taken in soil development and is the means of
determining the types of soil that occur and is the basis for their classification. The soil profile
is defined as a vertical section of the soil from the ground surface downwards to where the
soil meets the underlying rock. The soil profile can be as little as 10 cm thick in immature
soils and as deep as several metres in tropical areas where the climate is conducive to rapid
alteration of the underlying rock to form soil. In temperate areas, the soil profile is often
around a metre deep and in arid areas somewhat shallower than this.

Virtually all soil profiles are composed of a number of distinctive layers, termed horizons,
interpretation of which is the key to understanding how the soil has formed. Most soils will
have three or more horizons. Soils that have not been cultivated will normally have L, F and
H layers at the surface. These layers largely represent different degrees of decomposition of
organic matter, the L layer representing the litter layer formed of recognisable plant and soil
animal remains, the F layer below, the fermentation layer, usually consisting of a mixture of
organic matter in different stages of decomposition, and the H layer, the humose layer,
consisting largely of humified material with little or no plant structure visible. Below these,
and in cultivated soils occupying the surface layer, is the A horizon composed of a more or
less intimate mixture of mineral and organic matter. The A horizon is often referred to as the
‘ploughed layer’ in cultivated soils. It is an important part of the soil because it is a source of
plant nutrients and contains the majority of plant roots. The A horizon may lie directly on the
B horizon or, in well developed soils, there may be an intermediate leached horizon, termed E
or A2, depending on the nomenclature system used. The E/A2 horizon is usually paler in
colour than the horizons above and below because it is a horizon that has been subject to
leaching and loss of components compared to the A and B horizons.

A: An A horizon is a mineral horizon. This horizon always forms at the surface and is what
many people refer to as topsoil. Natural events, such as flooding, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, and dust deposition can bury an A horizon so that it is no longer found at the
surface. A buried A horizon is a clear indication that soil and landscape processes have
changed some time in the past. Compared to other mineral horizons (E, B, or C) in the soil
profile, they are rich in organic matter, giving them a darker color. The A horizon, over time,
is also a zone of loss – clays and easily dissolved compounds being leached out – and A
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horizons are typically more coarse (less clay) compared to underlying horizons (with the
exception of an E horizon). Additions and losses are the dominant processes of A horizons.

A horizon

B: A B horizon is typically a mineral subsurface horizon and is a zone of accumulation, called

illuviation. Materials that commonly accumulate are clay, soluble salts, and/or iron. Minerals
in the B horizon may be undergoing transformations such as chemical alteration of clay
structure. In human modified landscapes, processes such as erosion can sometimes strip away
overlying horizons and leave a B horizon at the surface. Such erosion is common in sloping,
agricultural landscapes. A bulldozer preparing land for a new subdivision can also leave a B
horizon at the surface. The dominant processes in a B horizon are transformations and
additions.

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B horizon

C: A C horizon consists of parent material, such as glacial till or lake sediments that have little
to no alteration due to the soil forming processes. Low intensity processes, such as movement
of soluble salts or oxidazation and reduction of iron may occur. There are no dominant
processes in the C horizon; minimal additions and losses of highly soluble material (e.g.,
salts) may occur.

C horizon

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O: An O horizon has at least 20% organic matter by mass. Two main scenarios result in the
formation of an O horizon: saturated, anaerobic conditions (wetlands) or high production of
leaf litter in forested areas. Anaerobic conditions slow the decomposition process and allow
organic material to accumulate. An O horizon can have various stages of decomposed organic
matter: highly decomposed, sapric; moderately decomposed, hemic; and minimally
decomposed, fibric. In a fibric O layer, plant matter is recognizable (e.g., it is possible to
identify a leaf). Sapric material is broken down into much finer matter and is unrecognizable
as a plant part. Hemic is in between sapric and fibric, with some barely recognizable plant
material present. It is possible to have multiple O horizons stacked upon one another
exhibiting different decomposition stages. Because of their organic content, these horizons are
typically black or dark brown in color. The dominant processes of the O horizon are additions
of organic matter, and transformations from fibric to sapric.

E: The E horizon appears lighter in color than an associated A horizon (above) or B horizon
(below). An E horizon has a lower clay content than an underlying B horizon, and often has a
lower clay content than an overlying A horizon, if an A is present. E horizons are more
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common in forested areas because forests are in regions with higher precipitation and forest
litter is acidic. However, landscape hydrology, such as perched water tables, can result in the
formation of an E horizon in the lower precipitation grasslands, as seen in the profile below.
The dominant processes of an E horizon are losses.

E horizon

R: An R layer is bedrock. When a soil has direct contact with bedrock, especially close to the
soil surface, the bedrock becomes a variable when developing land use management plans and
its presence is noted in the soil profile description.

Soil Types

Many natural bodies, such as plants and animals, are discrete entities which can be classified
and guidelines for their identification followed. Soils are much more difficult to identify and
classify than these discrete bodies for two main reasons: (i) soil is more or less a continuum
covering the land surface of the earth, not a set of discrete entities; and (ii) most of the soil is
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below ground and therefore not readily visible. Soils grade into one another across the
landscape usually without sharp boundaries between one type of soil and another. Soil
surveyors who make maps of soils have to use their skills in reading changes in the landscape
coupled with auger borings in the soil to identify the nature of the soil.

There are several ways of classifying a soil, from the simple to the complex. A soil type may
be as simple as ‘a sandy soil’ or ‘a clayey soil’ and this is often the perception of many land
users, such as farmers or civil engineers, who see it as material they have to deal with to
achieve an end result, such as the growing of a crop of wheat, or the building a road. Simple
classifications tend to be of local and restricted relevance only. At the other end of the
spectrum is the soil scientist who needs to understand how soils have formed, which types
occur where, and for what the different types of soil can be used. The soil scientist seeks a
much broader understanding, with the aim of underpinning the use and preservation of this
important natural resource, and this has manifested itself in a number of detailed soil
classification systems worldwide.

There is an enormous diversity of soils across the world. This is hardly surprising given the
fact that soil formation and soil type are influenced by several key factors: the parent material,
usually rock or sediment, but occasionally organic materials such as peat; climate, particularly
temperature and rainfall; vegetation and other biota; topography/ relief; time; and,
increasingly, the influence of humans. All these factors will have an influence on soil
development and hence soil type. The potential for different combinations of these factors
across the world is immense and hence it is not surprising that there are many thousands of
different types of soil in the world, with different properties and potential.

Just as Linnaeus produced a classification of plants that is in regular use today, over the
centuries attempts have been made to develop classifications of soils on the basis of their
properties, their genesis and in some cases their use potential. Since the late 19th century there
have been several national classifications developed and used. Most countries now have a
system of nomenclature for their soil types. These classifications have grouped together
similar soils and given names to the soils in the various classes. The classifications are mostly
hierarchical in the sense that they consist of a number of levels, starting at the top with a
number of major divisions, which can be subdivided into further subclasses and degrees of
complexity.

There have also been several major attempts at a world classification of soils, each of which
have differed in the emphasis they have given to different soil properties. Such classification
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systems enable soil types to be classified and identified within a national and international
framework. The two most widely used international classifications are those of Soil
Taxonomy (developed by the US Soil Conservation Service) and based on soil properties that
can be objectively measured and observed and the FAO/UNESCO legend/classification which
is along broadly similar lines but not as precisely defined. It is regrettable that to date it has
not been possible to produce an international classification that has been adopted worldwide
but soil science is a young science with an important future and a unified classification system
should eventually be developed. Until that is available, soil types should be named using both
national nomenclature and have this linked to one or more of the international systems.

Examples of some soil types from different parts of the world are given in the section on Soil
Profiles.

Soil Functions

Soils have many important functions. Perhaps the best appreciated is the function to support
the growth of agricultural and horticultural crops. Soil is the mainstay of agriculture and
horticulture, forming as it does the medium in which growth and ultimately the yield of food
producing crops occurs. Farmers and gardeners have worked with their soils over many
centuries to produce increasing amounts of food to keep pace with the needs of a burgeoning
world population. The soil's natural cycles go a long way in ensuring that the soil can provide
an adequate physical, chemical and biological medium for crop growth. The farmer and
horticulturalist have also become skilled in managing soils so that these natural cycles can be
added to as necessary to facilitate adequate soil support and increasing yield to enhance
production.

Although it is difficult to rate the importance of the different soil functions, since all are vital
to some extent, this function of supporting world agriculture and horticulture is a key one in
the preservation and advancement of human life on this planet.

As well as this agricultural and horticultural remit, soil also supports a wide range of trees
grown for commercial purposes, e.g. plantations such as forests of commercially grown
conifers. Soil type is a fundamental factor in deciding what to grow and where to grow it - or
rather optimising land use patterns.

In addition to supporting world agriculture and horticulture, soil is also essential for
maintaining natural and semi-natural vegetation, our forests, our grasslands and the huge
breadth of species that occur worldwide. Generally in these situations, the reliance is on the
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soil's natural cycles to provide the necessary medium for this huge range of vegetation
worldwide, in conjunction with the prevailing climate, landscape and the length of time the
soils have been in existence. One of the best examples of this soil function is the tropical rain
forest where more and more is now being learned of the important soil cycles that maintain
this huge ecosystem.

As well as being essential to agriculture, horticulture, forestry and natural and semi-natural
systems, soil also plays an important role for our fauna. The soil itself contains million of
organisms, the exact nature and role of which we are still trying to determine. Undoubtedly
the soil flora and fauna play a vital role in cycles which are fundamental to the ability of the
soil to support natural and semi-natural vegetation without additions of fertiliser and other
support mechanisms. They breakdown plant debris, take in components from the atmosphere,
aerate the soil together with many other functions that make the soil such an important
medium.

It is quite staggering how much variety of life exists in soil. A recent key EU document on
Thematic Soil Protection identifies that 1 gramme of soil in a good condition can contain as
many as 600 million bacteria belonging to up to 20,000 species! Even a similar amount of
apparently barren desert soils can contain 1 million bacteria from up to 8,000 species. As well
as those soil organisms that spend their whole life in the soil, there are also larger organisms
that spend a part of their existence in soil but depend on the soil for important parts of their
daily life, e.g. badgers, rabbits, prairie gophers, reptiles. Although it is not as well recognised
as many of the other soil functions, the soil plays an important role for many birds. Some
birds nest on its surface, many birds rely on it for a food supply and a very large number of
birds rely on the vegetation for which the soil is responsible. Many birds also nest in burrows
in the soil.

Soil is increasingly being recognised as playing a fundamental role in the quality and
distribution of our water supply. The soil, coupled with the landscape and its vegetation is
responsible for the distribution of all rainwater falling upon it. The nature of the topsoil will
influence greatly whether the rainwater will run away across its surface, where it can
supplement surface bodies of water, e.g. lakes, rivers, and in extreme situations lead to flash
flooding, whether it will infiltrate to become stored in the soil for use by vegetation growing
on it and by the soil based organisms, or whether it will flow through the soil to the reach the
groundwater and at what rate it will do this. The soil thus holds a key position with respect to
our water supply cycle and is now seen as a key element as such by hydrologists.

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Related to how water moves through the soil and the absorption properties of soils is the soil's
ability to perform an important function in pollution control. The fate and behaviour of
pesticides in soils has become a key issue in relation to human health, in particular around the
world. Soils differ greatly in their ability to manage applied pesticides. Levels of organic
matter in the topsoil, soil structure, particularly the presence of prismatic structure with large
flow channels, and the texture and adsorption properties of the soils all affect the fate and
behaviour (and 'attenuation') of pollutants in the soil. In recent decades the problem of
managing nitrate levels in water has become a key issue as levels of nitrates in aquifers and
surface water bodies continue to increase. Again the soil type and its inherent properties have
become important in the attempts to regulate the movement downwards of the nitrate through
the soil.

Soil has always been important for the foundation platform of buildings, roads and other
communications and never more so. There is an ever increasing need to expand the number of
dwellings and the supporting communication network. The problem with this is that buildings
and engineering structures such as roads 'seal' the soil and negates the use of land for other
purposes in the future. The nature of the soil, be it sandy, silty or clayey, has an important
influence on the foundations to the structures and the measures that need to be taken to ensure
stability to the structures.

Many people are interested in their origins and how earlier man lived. Soil plays an important
part in the preservation of the earth's history. Archaeologists have come to recognise the
importance of soils not only as a medium that has preserved evidence of the wares, properties
and way of living of previous cultures and generations but also as a crucial component in
determining the extent to which artefacts have been able to survive. Many village and town
names today reflect the relationship between soil and society in the past - for instance 'Barton-
le-Clay' in the UK.

Finally, soils have been recognised as having a key role in modifying and ameliorating the
risks and effects of climate change. Soil organic matter is one of the major pools of carbon in
the biosphere and is important both as a driver of climatic change and as a response variable
to climate change, capable of acting both as a source and sink of carbon. There is significant
interest in the fate of soil carbon, particularly the extent to which soils and land use may
sequester carbon from the atmosphere, thus reducing CO2 levels in the atmosphere or lose
organic carbon to the atmosphere, thus increasing already existing levels in the atmosphere.

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Soils can also act as a source and sink for nitrous oxides and methane, both also important in
creating the greenhouse gas effect.

Preserving Soils

The Degradation and Future Preservation of Soils

Soils are one of the world’s most precious commodities. It is probably safe to say that without
soils there would be no support for life on this planet. The fact that the world’s population is
forecast to rise to from its current 5.8 billion to 8 billion by 2025, with a huge increase in
demand for food highlights the reason why soils need to be preserved.

For the past few decades there has often been a lack of appreciation of why we need to
preserve soils. During this period there have been numerous examples of damage to world
soils, some of which are now irreparable. Some examples of the problems that face soils
include:

Soil erosion and desertification: This is a major problem in many countries in the world,
particularly, but not solely, in the drier, warmer parts of the world. Desertification currently
affects about one-sixth of the world’s population and a quarter of the world’s land. Six to
seven million acres are lost annually to soil erosion and both these processes continue to
increase despite the many attempts made to introduce measures to stop or reduce erosion. It is
a major threat to world soils and because of this there have been major initiatives to reduce
desertification and erosion, including those by UNESCO, FAO, and the European and US
Conservation bodies. However factors such as the need to increase food production and the
likely impacts of global climate change are likely to make the fight against erosion and
desertification increasingly difficult.

Salinisation and alkalisation: It is estimated that over 20 million hectares of land is affected
by salinisation and alkalisation, again mainly the drier more arid areas of the world. Salts may
be deposited in a number of ways; by winds coming in from the oceans, by use of irrigation
with salt-containing water, and by salt accumulation in low-lying spots in the landscape as the
climate varies. Like erosion and desertification, it is only in recent years that the problem has
been recognised as a serious one and steps taken to reduce its spread. However, once
accumulated in the soil it is a difficult and long-term problem to get rid of it.info
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Impact of intensive agriculture: The last four decades has seen a major increase in intensive
agriculture in the bid to feed the world population more efficiently than ever before. In many
countries, particularly the more developed countries, this intensification of agriculture has led
to the use of more and heavier machinery, deforestation and clearing of land for use in
cultivation. This has led to several problems including loss of organic matter, soil compaction
and damage to soil physical properties generally, over-application of many nutrients in the
form of fertilisers and pesticides, leading to problems with contamination of water supplies,
potential loss of soil fauna and flora, such an essential part of a healthy soil, amongst others.

Urbanisation and land contamination: Urbanisation and the sealing of soils by infrastructures
(i.e. building structures on top of soil) represents a significant loss of soil, particularly because
the loss becomes more or less permanent. In developed countries there is a loss of about 1 per
cent of land to urbanisation each decade.

The 18th and 19th centuries also saw enormous industrial expansion in many parts of the
world with two major consequences for soils. Firstly, the widespread burning of fossil fuels in
industry has led to widespread acidification of rainwater; for many decades soils of Western
Europe have been leached by rainwater with a ph of about 4, i.e. strongly acidic. The second
legacy of industry is contaminated land, the extent and effects of which are still not fully
known.

Thus in the last few decades there have been many pressures put on global soils and already
significant and irrecoverable damages have been done. We now need to move forward with
much more awareness about the damage that has been caused to global soil resources and
with a realistic programme for the preservation and protection of this unique natural entity,
soil. Already there is increasing awareness of soil erosion and desertification in many
countries and measures in place to protect soils from future damage. But in some
environments, such as parts of Africa, the soil is a fragile entity, it lacks a robust nature, and
therefore particular attention needs to be paid to its management and to ensuring that the
management is clearly in tune with the soil. This is a real challenge but unless this challenge
is accepted the route to future use of many of these soils could become a dead-end, with
catastrophic results for many communities. Many of the techniques needing to be applied are
already well known, the challenge will be to integrate them into land use practice, particularly
in a likely changing climate.

The problems of salinisation and alkalisation continue and are reversible only with great
difficulty. As with erosion and desertification, the causes are generally well established but
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very difficult and costly to remediate and solve. It is important that the problem does not
continue to increase and there therefore needs to be better communication between the land
user and those that advise them about their soils, and between policy makers and
environmental scientists.

The problems associated with intensification of agriculture outlined above are more readily
treatable. The causes of the problems are well established and already in many developed
countries actions are being taken to work more in harmony with the soil. Some of the
problems may take just a few years to improve upon whereas others, e.g., low contents of
organic matter and nitrates moving downwards into groundwater, may take decades to
remediate.

There need to be national and international plans for urbanisation that take into consideration
the importance of protecting soils. Everyone is aware of the need to build more houses and to
improve infrastructures but this process needs much more careful planning than before, with
the need to preserve and protect soils in mind. Already we are much more aware of the
problems of soil contamination and the difficulties that arise from 'post-industrial' use
contaminated land. Many countries now have safeguards in place to help to prevent soil
contamination. Clean up of the contaminated land, however, remains a problem both
technically and financially.

Soils have suffered from several decades of damage on a scale that we must not allow to
continue. The reasons for this neglect are many. But if we are to ensure the protection of
global soils into the future there must be much stronger awareness and acceptability among
the public, policy makers and land users of the need to preserve soils for current and future
generations. To ensure that this takes place it will be important that World Organisations and
National Governments ensure there are adequate measures in place to give a much needed
emphasis on soils and their future protection.

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