University of Alexandria Dept.

of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering

Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

CHAPTER 9 PIPELAYING
A pipeline is a primarily horizontal pipe lying on, near or beneath the seabed,
normally used for the transportation of hydrocarbon products. Pipelines are classified
as flowlines, gatherlines, trunk lines and export pipelines. Flowlines are usually small
diameter and may be bundled, and they connect the wells to the platform or subsea
manifold. The gatherlines (infield flowlines) are small to large diameter pipelines that
connect between platforms, and they may also be bundled lines for oil, gas,
condensate, etc. The combined flow from one or more platforms is accommodated
through trunk lines that are large in diameter and transport products from different
platforms. Export (transportation) pipelines transport fluids from producing platforms
or subsea manifolds to a loading or onshore facility through small to large diameter
pipes. Fig. 71 shows the uses of flowlines offshore. Pipes may be rigid, flexible or
coiled line.
A pipeline system is an integrated set of subsea flowlines and pipelines including
pertinent instrumentation, foundations, coatings, anchors, etc. Pipeline components
are any items which are integral parts of the pipeline system such as flanges, tees,
bends, reducers and valves. A riser is a conducting pipe connecting sub-sea
wellheads, templates or pipelines to equipment located on a buoyant or fixed
offshore structure.

Fig. 71

9.1 Pipeline Routing

The pipeline route is usually selected with due regard to safety of the public and
personnel, protection of the environment, and the probability of damage to the pipe
or other facilities. Factors to take into consideration include the following:
— ship traffic;
— fishing activity;
— offshore installations;

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

— existing pipelines and cables;

— unstable seabed (subject to scouring);
— subsidence (sinking into seafloor for lack of support);
— uneven seabed;
— turbidity flows;
— seismic activity;
— obstructions;
— dumping areas for waste, ammunition etc.;
— mining activities;
— military exercise areas;
— archaeological sites;
— exposure to environmental damage; and
— oyster beds.
Seabed preparation may be required to:
- remove obstacles and potential hazards interfering with the installation operations;
- prevent loads or strains that occur as a result of seabed conditions such as
unstable slopes, sand waves, deep valleys and possible erosion and scour;
- prepare for pipeline and cable crossings; and
- fill in depressions and remove high-spots to prevent unacceptable free spans.

9.2 Pipeline Installion

There are various methods for installing pipelines. The most common methods are:
• Installation by pipelay vessel;
• Pipelaying by reel ship;
• Installation by tow or pull method.
At present, laying depths of 10000 ft have been reached. For both laying and
burying, the maximum water depth reached is 7000 ft.

Installation by pipelay vessel

Offshore pipelines are placed on the seafloor by large pipelay vessels that weld
lengths of pipe that are subsequently deployed over a device called a stinger which
minimizes the bending stresses in the pipe. Typical pipelay vessels used to lay pipe
may be: flat-bottomed (barge), ship-shape or semi-submersible vessel in which
individual pipe joints are welded together on the vessel (to make a continuous string)
and subsequently laid onto the seabed in a controlled manner. In medium water
depths the pipe-lay vessel is anchor-moored. In deepwater areas the vessel is
dynamically positioned (DP). The two methods used today are the S-lay and the J-
lay methods, capable of laying both rigid and flexible lines.

Pipelaying by reel ship

The pipe reeling method is mainly used in the North Sea for coiled line sizes up to 16
inches and for flexible pipelaying and cable laying. The pipeline is made up onshore
and is reeled (coiled) onto a large drum on a special-purpose built vessel. During the
reeling process, the pipe undergoes plastic deformation on the drum. During
installation, the pipe is unreeled and straightened using a special straightening ramp.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Installation by tow or pull

In some cases, a pipeline may be installed by a towing technique where long

sections of line are made up onshore and towed either on the seabed or off bottom
by means of tugs or pull barges. The technique has its advantages for short lines
and for bundled lines where several pipelines are collected together in a carrier. This
way, difficult fabrication procedures are carried out onshore.

9.2.1 S-Lay

For S-lay installation, the pipe is laid from a near-horizontal position using a
combination of horizontal tensioners and a stinger (long ramp extension) at the stern
controlling the curvature at over-bend. The lay-vessel can be a ship, barge or a
semi-submersible vessel. The required lay tension is to be determined based on the
water depth, the submerged weight of the pipeline, the allowable radius of curvature
at over-bend, departure angle and the allowable curvature at the sag-bend, see Fig.
72. The stinger is normally made up of more than one section in order to control the
radius of curvature. At the vessel, there is a near horizontal ramp that includes
equipment like welding stations and tensioners, see Fig. 73. The pipelay vessel may
be of the center lay or side lay type depending on the position of the ramp on the
deck. A number of rollers are placed at the stinger and vessel to support the pipeline
when it moves from the vessel and into the sea. The purpose of the tensioners is to
control the curvature of the sag bend and the moment at the stinger tip and reduce
the tendency to buckle through supporting the submerged weight of the suspended
part of the pipeline.

Figure 72

Pipelay semisubmersibles were developed as a direct response to the large weather

downtime being experienced by the monohull pipelay barges in the North Sea. The
pipelaying operation is carried out in the following sequence:
1- Using vessel cranes, 12m pipes are lifted on deck, turned and set in storage;
2- Pipes are put on conveyors for beveling and welding into double joints;
3- Double joints are moved forward with other double joints being added and welded;

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

4- The welded line passes through tensioners and goes through the X-ray station to
check the welds;
5- Anti-corrosive coating followed by a concrete coating is applied at the joints. The
joints are then protected by sheet metal wrapping.
6- Pipeline is layed on the seabed by moving the vessel forward on its anchors using
anchor handling boats.
7- The integrity of the pipeline is checked using divers or ROV.

The main constraint of the pipelay vessels is the cost. They typically require a large
number of personnel, two anchor handling vessels, a survey vessel, and the supply
vessels for transporting pipeline, Fig. 74. Rigid pipelines ranging from 6” to 60”
diameters may be installed using this method, with occasionally diameters up to 72”.

Fig. 73

Fig. 74

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

9.2.2 J-Lay

A pipe-lay method used in very deep water to allow the pipe to leave the pipe-lay
vessel at a near vertical departure angle.
For J-lay, the pipe is laid from a hinged ramp (tower) on a lay vessel using a
longitudinal tensioner. The ramp supports the up-ended pipes. In this way over-bend
at the sea surface is avoided. In general, J-Lay follows the same procedure as S-
Lay.
Laying pipe at near-vertical angles reduces distance to touchdown and allows
pipelines to be laid to exacting routes, safely negotiating around sea bottom hazards
and through complex infield lines, even at extreme depths. Lines can also be
precisely located over preinstalled crossings. Semi-cylindrical, bracelet-type
sacrificial anodes are pre-installed at selected joints.

Fig. 75

9.2.3 Reel Lay

For reel lay, the pipe is spooled onto a large radius reel aboard a reel lay vessel, Fig.
76. The reel-off at location will normally occur under tension and involve pipe
straightening through reverse bending on the lay vessel. The straightener must be
such as to ensure that the specified straightness is achieved. Anodes are in general
to be installed after the pipe has passed through the straightener and tensioner. The
reel lay vessel lays out the entire line, letting the end down on the sea floor by
means of a line from a constant-tension winch.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

The reel lay vessel is generally moved by tug power. Small diameter (2”-16”) coiled
line pipes may be installed. Because of the limit on the permissible plastic
deformation, larger diameters are not practical. Also, due to the limited size of drum,
only short lengths of pipe can be laid (usually 3-15 km depending on pipe size).
Cable laying may also be performed using reel ships capable of laying trans-ocean
communication cables, or power cables.

Fig. 76

9.2.4 Tow Installation

The pipe is transported from a remote assembly location to the installation site by
towing; either on the water surface, at a controlled depth below the surface or on the
sea bottom, see Fig. 77. The submerged weight of the towed pipeline is to be
designed to maintain control during tow. Ballast chains may be attached to the
carrier pipe at regular intervals along the pipeline length to overcome the buoyancy
and provide the desired submerged weight. The line may be given net positive
buoyancy by attachment of floats which are later cut free. To keep the pipeline in
tension and prevent buckling, one boat tows while a second boat astern acts as a
drag. This method is applied to short lines, usually less than 4 km, which would
prove difficult, impossible or more expensive to install from a pipelay vessel.

Fig. 77

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Tow methods may be of the bottom, near bottom, below surface or surface types.
The bottom tow method is used in coastal zones. The friction force limits the length
that can be pulled using this method. When the pipeline has been pulled it is flooded
for stability. In the near bottom tow method, the pipeline is designed for slight
positive buoyancy. Short lengths of chain are attached at frequent intervals to give
the overall combination a negative buoyancy. Thus it is the end of the chain that
drags on the sea floor, not the pipe. In the below-surface tow method, the pipeline,
having slight net negative buoyancy, is towed at a depth of 5 m or so below the sea
surface. Support for the line is by hinged or articulated spar buoys attached at
frequent intervals. The line is lowered to the sea floor by removing progressively the
top sections of the spar buoys (articulated) or by attaching weights progressively to
the line. When the line is on the sea floor, remaining spars may be removed by a
diver or ROV. In the surface tow method, floats are attached to give the net positive
buoyancy. These will be cut off later. Problems with this method include: snaking due
to wave action and consequently coating damage, failure of float attachments due to
fatigue, and sharp bending and buckling when floats are cut loose at one end when
ballasting down to the sea floor.

9.3 Pipeline Tie-in

After installation of the flowlines, these must be tied in with other flowlines, pipelines,
risers, etc. It is natural to assume that each pipeline has two tie-ins, one at each end.
This is not always true. Where the installation method is only suitable for limited
lengths of pipeline, midline tie-ins may be required. The following are the methods of
pipeline tie-in, see Fig. 78:
1- Spoolpiece;
2- Lateral pull;
3- J-tube;
4- Connect and lay away;
5- Stalk on.

Spoolpiece

This is the most popular method of tie-in. Divers measure and then assist the
installation of a piece of pipe to fit in between the two ends of flowlines to be tied
together. The spool is made up after diver measurements and accommodates
misalignment and inaccuracies in placing the pipelines down by having bends. The
connection method can either be by flanges or dry welding. Dry welding requires a
hyperbaric chamber (habitat) to be lowered down and centered over the line.
Compressed gas is used to expel the water and divers descend to make the weld in
the gas atmosphere. Should there be large flowline expansion, an expansion tie-in
spoolpiece is used.

Lateral pull

This involves positioning the flowline end to one side of the target structure and then
pulling it laterally into position. The flowline may be pulled in by a single wire or a
series of wires. This method requires extensive diver intervention.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 78

J-tube pull-in

This method requires the flowline to have the capacity to easily move axially over a
relatively large distance. This method is to connect the flowline to a wire and by
pulling the wire to pull the flowline through a riser (J-tube) up to the topsides of the
platform. This method requires the J-tube to be of reasonably large diameter
compared to the flowline. The principal advantage of this method is that the flowline
is tied-in directly to the topside, so avoiding subsea tie-in work. However, it may only
be used for small diameter lines and it can not accommodate pipeline expansion.
The pipelaying usually starts at the target structure in this method.

Connect and lay away

This method is very similar to the J-tube pull-in method with the exception that the
tie-in is performed subsea. It is applied in diverless operations, where a mechanical
connecting system is utilized to make the connection. It is mainly used at subsea
manifolds/wellheads.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Stalk-on

It is primarily used in shallow water applications (less than 40 m). It involves laying
the flowline down adjacent to the structure it shall be tied into. The vessel maneuvers
over the flowline, lifts it up and welds on (or flanges on) the riser. The pipeline and
riser are then lowered onto the seabed/jacket structure. The clamps are closed
around the riser. The riser will be subjected to the expansion of the flowline as no
expansion spool is used.

9.4 Trenching and Burying

Special dedicated trenching vessels are used. The new trend is the use of DSV’s as
surface vessels. The following methods may be used:
1- Jet sled;
2- Ploughing;
3- Mechanical cutter.

Jet sled

This is the traditional method for trenching a pipeline, see Fig.79. The jet sled works
on two principles:
- High power jet nozzles power water to break up the soil;
- Air is pumped into pipes and lifts the broken soil away from the location through
eductors. An eductor is a device for evacuating liquid from a space.
The jet sled is designed to be guided by the pipe and excavates the soil beneath it
so that the pipeline will sink below the seafloor. Trenching ROV’s are now being
used for deep water applications.

Fig. 79

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Ploughing

The general principle of pipeline ploughing has been adapted from the technique
used in agriculture to plough fields. It consists of a very large share (broad metal
blade) which the pipeline rests on top of. The pipeline is pulled along (usually by a
surface vessel) and as the ploughshare passes the flowline settles in the trench (Fig.
80). A backfill plough may be employed to push the spoil back into the trench, so
burying the flowline. Rock dumping might still be required. This is the only system
that can trench and bury in one operation. The maximum trench depth is 1.5 m,
which is a main disadvantage of this method. An additional disadvantage is that it
may cause damage to the flowlines. This method usually requires diver assistance.

Fig. 80

Mechanical cutter

This is a diverless option to trench for small diameter flowlines. In this method, the
controls and power source are onboard a surface vessel, which via an umbilical
powers a subsea machine. This machine moves along the seabed on tracks (Fig.
81). These machines handle small diameter flexible lines. They trench in reasonably
firm soil.

Fig. 81

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Pipelines are buried by dumping rocks or gravel over them. Gravel or rock dumping
is to be controlled such that the required gravel (rock) is dumped over and under the
pipeline and sub-sea structures and over the adjacent seabed. During the rock
dumping operations, inspection is carried out to determine the performance of the
dumping. Upon completion of the rock dumping, a survey is conducted to confirm the
compliance with the specified requirements.
Rock dumping vessels are designed to deposit large quantities of rock in localized
areas. The three main rock dumping techniques are:
1- Side dumping;
2- Fall pipe dumping;
3- Bottom dropping.

Side dumping

This method involves loading selected stone onto a flat decked ship, positioning the
ship over the required location to dump rock, and pushing the rock over the side by
hydraulic rams which clear the rock from the center line of the vessel and outboard,
see Fig. 82. This is an efficient method for dumping large quantities of rock in short
lengths. It is not suitable for dumping on flowlines.

Fig. 82

Fall pipe dumping

In this method, rock is dumped down through a tube (fall pipe), see Fig. 83. An ROV
monitors and controls the location of the rock. This is ideal for dumping rock on
flowlines/pipelines. It provides accurate dumping, which minimizes wastage and
permits long stretches of rock to be dumped during one trip.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 83

Bottom dropping

There are two methods of bottom dropping. One method incorporates ports which
open at the bottom of the hold, see Fig. 84, and the second is to apply a split barge
which drops all the rock at once. Both methods are suitable for dropping large
quantities of rock, when great accuracy is of less importance. This method is not
suitable for rock dumping on flowlines.

Fig. 84

9.5 Pipe-in-Pipe and Bundle Systems

The main feature of pipe-in-pipe is that the pipeline is made of concentric inner and
outer pipes. The inner pipe carries the production fluid and is insulated, while the
outer pipe provides mechanical protection. Concrete weight coating is not required
due to high submerged weight and low current speeds in deepwater areas, where
pipe-in pipe systems are usually used.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Pipeline bundle systems may be used in applications where pipe insulation and
heating is required to avoid hydrate and wax formation as the product cools along
the length of the pipeline. The product lines, umbilical and insulation are usually
enclosed in a single carrier pipe, see Fig. 85. The bundles are designed to have
sufficient buoyancy by encasing the bundled pipelines, control lines and umbilical
inside the carrier pipe.

Fig. 85

9.6 On-Bottom Stability and Corrosion Protection

Weight coating is applied to rigid pipelines to ensure vertical and horizontal on-
bottom stability by providing negative buoyancy to the pipeline. A flexible mattress is
sometimes positioned over the pipeline to provide the required on-bottom stability
and protection, see Fig. 86.

Fig. 86

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Adequate anti-corrosion coating (bitumastic or epoxy) and cathodic protection are

provided for protection against external corrosion (Fig. 87). Adequate measures are
also taken against internal corrosion through proper selection of pipe material,
internal coating, injection of a corrosion inhibitor, or a combination of such options.

Fig. 87

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