Unit 3 - Grinding-2 PDF

Manufacturing Science & Technology-II
Course Instructor- Shailendra Pratap Singh
Unit 3
Grinding & Super-finishing
Contents
Grinding
 Introduction
 Grinding wheel
 Abrasive & bonds
 Cutting action
 Grinding wheel specification
 Grinding wheel wear- attritions wear, fracture wear
 Dressing and truing
 Maximum chip thickness and Guest criteria
 Surface and cylindrical grinding
 Center-less grinding
Super-finishing
 Honing
 Lapping
 Polishing
1
Introduction
 Grinding is a process of removing material by the abrasive action of a rotating wheel on
the surface of a work piece
 Machining by cutting utilizes single or multi-point cutting tools with a definite number of
cutting points
 Abrasive tools containing an indefinite number and shape of cutting points remove
material in the form of minute chips that are nearly invisible to the naked eye
 The operation is performed to bring the work piece to the required shape and size
 The rotating wheel is known as grinding wheel. It consists of sharp abrasives held
together by a binding material or bond. Bond acts as a tool holder.
 In most cases, it is a finishing operation and a very small amount of material is removed
from the surface during the operation
 Abrasive processes are classified according to the type of the abrasive tool and type of
bonded abrasives in the form of grinding wheels, stones and sticks. Other processes use
loose abrasives during lapping and polishing processes
Features of abrasive process

 Due to the varying shape of abrasives situated in a random position, only a portion
carries out abrasion machining action while another part plastically scratches the work
surface. The remaining part rubs against the work surfaces cause elastic deformation
 The size of the un-deformed chip removed by a single abrasive grain is very small
compared to machining by cutting processes and varies from point to point
 The maximum machining speed is more than 10 times higher than the used in
machining by cutting processes
 Processes of cutting action in Grinding
 Elastic deformation- only elastic deformation of the work piece, grit and bond
takes place. No material is removed, however substantial heat is generated by
both elastic deformation and friction
2
 Plowing- at lager depths of engagement, the grit may simply plow through the
work piece surface, pushing material to the side and ahead of the grit, causing
burnishing to the surface. Burnishing is one of the causes of higher specific
cutting forces in abrasive machining processes
 Chip formation- chips are formed at less negative rake angles, larger depths of
grit penetration, higher speeds and with less ductile materials
 Hence abrasive machining is a mixture of cutting, plowing and rubbing actions
 Note- Grits with negative rake angles or rounded cutting edges do not form chips
but instead plow or simply rub a groove in the surface
3
Grinding wheels
 These wheels are made of abrasive grains, held together by means of a suitable binding
material called bond
 Grinding wheels are produced by mixing the appropriate grain size of abrasive with the
required bond and then pressing them into desired shape
 The wheel matrix exhibits porosity which is important for the effectiveness of coolant
and chip disposal.
Wheel material (Abrasive + Bond)

I. Abrasive-
 It is the material of grinding wheel which does the cutting action
 These are extremely hard materials consisting of very small particles called as
grains i.e., abrasive is composed of small particles called as grains
 Which carry a number of sharp cutting edges and corners
 Friability- describes the ability of an abrasive grain to fracture under certain
grinding conditions. Friability index increases with increasing hardness.
Friability is the important property of abrasive which indicates self-
sharpening behavior of grains
Types of abrasives
a) Natural
 They are obtained directly from mines
4
 The common natural abrasives are sand stone, emery, corundum,

quartz and diamond (used for dressing the grinding wheels and
abrasive for grinding hard materials)
b) Artificial or manufactured
 They are manufactured under controlled conditions in closed
electric furnaces
 The main artificial abrasives are- Silicon carbide, Aluminium oxide,
artificial diamonds
 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 It is made from silicon dioxide (or pure white quartz), coke,
sawdust and salt
 Silicon carbide crystals are broken into grains
 It is used to grind low tensile strength materials such as
aluminium, copper, bronze etc.
 It is not effective for grinding steel due to the high
chemical solubility of carbon in iron which leads to rapid
wear
 Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
 It is obtained by fusing the impure aluminium oxide called
Bauxite in an electric arc furnace with coke and iron chips
 It has high hardness, very tougher and can withstand high
temperatures
 These grains of aluminium oxide are less hard and less
brittle than silicon carbide
 The common trade name of these abrasives are ‘alundum’,
‘aloxite’ and ‘borolon’
 Aluminium oxide is the most widely used abrasive
 It is used to grind carbon steel, alloy steel, malleable iron
and super alloys
5
 Artificial diamonds
 The diamonds produced through artificial means are
comparable to the natural diamonds
 It has three times abrasion resistance of silicon carbide
 It is used effectively in grinding cemented carbide tools,
ceramics and glass
 It is also not effective for grinding steel due to high
chemical solubility of carbon in iron
 CBN
 Aluminium oxide is often replaced by CBN for hardened
steels, superalloys, high speed steels and cast iron
 CBN has four times abrasion resistance of aluminium oxide
Material to be ground Recommended abrasive
Cast iron, Aluminium, Copper, Plastics, Rubber, Soft Brass and Silicon Carbide
Bronze, Glass and Stone, leather
Alloy steels, Malleable iron, Hard Brass and Bronze, Mild Steel Aluminium Oxide
II. Bond-
 This material of the grinding wheel acts as a binder to hold the abrasives
together
 Grains of abrasive material should be held firmly together to form a
series of cutting edges
 The material used for holding abrasive is known as bond
 Desired properties of bond

 Bond should have sufficient rigidity and ability to retain sharp
abrasive grains during cutting and release dulled grains
 The bond must withstand grinding forces and temperatures
 The bond must resists chemical attacks by the cutting fluid
6
Types of bonds are:

i. Vitrified bond (V)
 It is a clay bond, reddish brown in color
 The base material is Felspar which is fusible clay. Proper
proportion of refractory and flux are added to it and mixed
thoroughly. This mixture together with abrasive grains is fed into
revolving drums containing water, where mixture forms a paste.
The paste is then placed in moulds to get the shape of a wheel.
Then wheels are placed into furnace for proper fusion of bond
and finally this wheel is trimmed to the required size.
 Inside temperature of furnace is close to 1260°C
 Advantages
 It is not affected by water, oil, acids etc
 The bond itself is very hard and also acts as abrasive
 It is made porous and enables a quicker stock removal
 Disadvantage
 The process of manufacture is very slow
 Cracks may develop in large wheels during fusing
 High temperature in furnace tends to make the abrasive
grains weak
ii. Silicate bond (S)

 Its base material is silicate of soda
 Furnace temperature is close to 260°C
 Wheels possesses this bonds looks light grey
 The specific use of these wheels is there where a cool cutting
action with less wear is needed
 Advantages
7
 It is more rapid process than vitrified bond

 The cutting action of the wheel is smoother and cooler
 Large size wheels can easily be produced
 Fusing is better controlled hence bond is more reliable
 Disadvantage
 Extra hard wheels cannot be produced with this bond
iii. Oxychloride bond (O)
 It is a mixture of oxide and chloride of magnesium and setting
takes place in cold state
iv. Resinoid (B)
 It is a synthetic organic compound which is enough strong and
flexible
 It provides a sharp cutting action and enables a high rate of stock

removal at high speeds
 Furnace inside temperature is close to 200°C

v. Shellac (E)
 Shellac bonded wheels are produced by mixing the bond and the
abrasive grains in a steam heated mixer followed by moulding
under pressure in steam heated moulds
 These wheels are cool cutting

 They help in producing high surface finish
 They can run safely in water but use of oil is avoided
vi. Rubber (R)

 It is composed of hard vulcanized rubber
 Passing rubber and sulfur through the mixing rolls and adding the
abrasive slowly
8
 The mixture is passed through another set of rolls to obtain the

required thickness
 The wheels are then cut and placed in preheated moulds and
vulcanized under pressure
 These wheels are quite string, close grained and can be made in
very thin sections
 They are mainly used for achieving good surface finish

Grain or grit
 Grain or grit denotes the approximate size of the abrasive particles
 The size of an abrasive grain is identified by a number based on the number of openings
per square inch of the sieve size. A larger grain number represents fine grains and vice
versa
 It gives an idea of the coarseness or fineness of the grinding wheel
 A grinding wheel may have the abrasive particles of same size (known as straight wheel)
or different size (known as compound wheel)
 Choice of grain size depends on “quality of finish required, amount of stock material to
be removed and physical properties of material to be ground”
 The coarse grain will remove the stock at a faster rate and finer finish will require a finer
grain
 Coarse grit wheels are more suitable for grinding soft and ductile materials where as
hard and brittle materials are best ground with finer grit wheels
 For example Grinding [coarse (grit size- 10), medium (30), fine (80)] and for Honing [very
fine (220)]
Grade
 Grade indicates the strength of bond in a wheel i.e. the power of the abrasive particles
to hold together and resist disintegration under cutting pressure
 The grade depends on the percent of grain and bond in the wheel
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 The wheel is characterized as hard or soft depending on the strength of the bond and its
ability to withstand cutting forces
 Higher proportion of bond for a specified quantity of abrasive particles the harder will
be the wheel
 Lower proportion of bond for a specified quantity of abrasive particles the softer will be
the wheel
 Abrasive particle retention is higher for harder wheel is more as compare to softer
wheel
 Softer grinding wheels are preferred for grinding harder material because the grain is
likely to become dull this increases the grinding force and tends to knock off the dull
grains
 Hard grinding wheels are preferred for grinding softer material to retain the abrasive
grains for a longer period of time, improving material removal rate
 Soft grades are preferred for rough grinding, vertical spindle surface grinding and for
machines that are relatively free for vibration
 Hard grade are used in internal grinding, peripheral surface grinding and peripheral
cylindrical grinding
 Smaller the size of the work piece the harder should be the wheel and vice versa
 Different wheel grades are represented by English alphabets from A to Z, A being the
softest and Z being the hardest.
 Soft (A to H), Medium (I to P) and Hard (Q to Z)
Structure
 It denotes the spacing between the abrasive grains or in other words the density of
wheel
 The proportion of bond in a certain volume of the wheel effects the structure
 Higher proportion of bond represents an open structure and lower proportion of bond
represents close structure
 Two wheels of same grit and grade on same material one having open structure will be
found to cut faster and also will have more life
10
 Selection of particular structure depends on hardness of work material, type of grinding

operation and quality of surface finish needed on the work piece
 Brittle and hard materials and finish grinding work will need a dense structure
 Open structure wheels are used for high material removal rates and hence produce
rough surface finish
 Dense structures are used for precision form grinding operations
 Soft and tough work material and rough grinding operation will need an open structure
 Structure of grinding wheel is represented by numbers- dense (1 to 8) open (9 to 15 or
up)
 Lower the number, the more dense (compact) the structure or the closer the grain
spacing
 The higher the number the more open or porous structure
Specification of grinding wheel

 According to BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) the various elements and characteristics
of grinding wheels are represented in a definite sequence- [Abrasive-grain size-grade-
structure-Bond]
 In order to specify a grinding wheel completely the diameter and width or thickness and
the diameter of bore are also required to mention
 The use of prefix and suffix is optional. It depends on manufacturer’s own symbolic
representation
 Grinding wheel having marking [250×25×32 W A 46 L 4 V 17] represents-
 Wheel diameter = 250 mm, Thickness of wheel = 25 mm, Bore diameter = 32 mm
 W- Manufacturer’s prefix to abrasive. It is optional. Here it denotes ‘white’
 A- abrasive (Al2O3)
 46- grain size (medium)
 L- grade (medium)
 4- structure (dense)
 V- Bond (Vitrified)
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 17- Suffix (Bond type)
Types of grinding processes

1. Cylindrical grinding
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a. Center type grinding
 In this process the work piece is held rigidly between centers (headstock
and tailstock) in a chuck or in a suitable holding device rotating about its
axis
 The work past the rotating wheel or grinding wheel past the work piece
 The feeding of wheel or work is done either by hydraulic or mechanical
power or by hand
 In case the width of wheel face is more or equal to the length of the work
surface to be ground the wheel may be fed in with no traversing
movement of it or that of work. This is known as Plunge Grinding.
13
 The wheel head is generally mounted on horizontal cross ways on the

bed and travels along these ways to feed the wheel to the work. This
movement is known as in-feed.
b. Center-less grinding
i. External Center-less grinding
 The work piece instead of mounting between centers it is supported by a
combination of a grinding wheel, a regulation wheel and a work rest
blade
14
 The principle of center less grinding is used for both the external and
internal grinding
 Many hollow cylindrical and tapered work pieces like bushes, pistons,
valves, tubes and balls etc., which either do not or cannot have centers
are best ground by center-less grinding process
 Grinding operation is performed by the grinding wheel only
 Regulating wheel provides the required support to the work piece. This
helps the work piece to remain in contact with the grinding wheel.
 The required support from the bottom is provided by the work rest as the
work piece, while rotating the work piece rests on the blade of the work
rest
 The regulating wheel carries rubber bond and helps in rotation of the
work piece due to friction
 The direction of two wheels are same
 The common method of feeding is either through feed or in-feed or end
feed
i. Through feed
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 In this method of center-less grinding the work piece is supported

and revolved as usual but is simultaneously given as axial
movement also by the regulating wheel and guides so as to pass
between the wheels
 To do so the regulating wheel is inclined at 2 to 10 degrees with

the vertical
 This method is used for straight cylindrical jobs
ii. In-feed
 This method is similar to plunge grinding
 In this method both regulating and grinding wheels are more in
width than the work length to be ground
 Axis of regulating wheel is inclined a little
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 This method is used for grinding shouldered or formed

components
 In this method work rest does not carry guides instead it is made
to have an end stop at the rear end
iii. End feed
 This method is sort of form grinding
 In this both the wheels are dressed to contain the required shape
or form
 The work piece is fed longitudinally from the side of the wheels
 As it advances between the revolving wheels its surface is ground
till is farther end touches the end stop
 This method can be used for grinding of both spherical and
tapered surfaces, but it suits best to the grinding of short tapered
surfaces
ii. Internal Center-less Grinding
 The work piece is supported between control wheel, support
wheel and a pressure roll
 The centers of control wheel, work piece and grinding wheel all lie
on the same line
 This is also known as on-center internal center-less grinding
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2. Surface grinding
 The work piece is usually held on a magnetic chuck
 This is used for grinding flat surfaces
 The feed is given to the work by reciprocating table

3. Internal grinding
 The work piece is either held is chuck or face-plate. It is used for grinding the
inner diameter of tubular object
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 Work piece or object will have already drilled hole and internal grinding process
will be performed to finish the inner surface of work piece with the help of small
grinding wheel rotating at higher rpm
 Internal grinder wheel will be attached with internal grinder spindle
 Internal grinder will have rotary and translatory motions to grind the internal
surface of the work piece
4. Creep-feed grinding
 It is a method in which a soft grinding wheel is used
 The wheel revolves in a position while work is fed past this revolving wheel at a
very slow speed
 Multiple passes are avoided and the entire depth of material is to be removed in
a single pass
 Ample amount of coolant usually sulfurised oil under pressure is used in the
process
 Dressing of grinding wheel is continuously done during the process for which a
diamond coated dressing wheel is mounted above the grinding wheel
 Due to continuous dressing the wheel is likely to go undersize
 Therefore a mechanism continues to press it downwards to compensate for the
lost of size and maintain the same depth of cut throughout
Truing & Dressing

 With continuous use the grinding wheel becomes dull and the sharp abrasive grit
becomes rounded
 Condition of a dull grinding wheel with worn-out grains is termed as glazing
 Some grinding chips can get lodged into the voids between the grits resulting in a
condition known as grinding wheel loading. Generally loading occurs during the
grinding of soft and ductile materials
 A loaded grinding wheel cannot cut properly. Such a grinding wheel can be
cleaned and resharpened by means of a process called wheel dressing and the
surface of the grinding wheel can be obtained by truing
19
 During the truing process a diamond is used to remove material from the cutting
surface in order to bring the wheel to the required geometric shape
Wheel wear
 Grinding wheel ratio is parameter of grinding wheel wear
 A grinding ratio is the amount of material of removed from the work piece to the
amount of material lost from the grinding wheel
 The grinding wheel wear occurs due to two main mechanisms
 Attritional wear
 This type of wear is similar to the flank wear of a single edged cutting tool
 It occurs when cutting and rubbing with the work piece surface
 Due to attritional wear the grains become flat faced
 Resulting wear is measured by the ratio of the flat area of the grinding
wheel
 This type of wear can be reduced by the choice of a suitable grinding fluid
 Wear by fracture
 This type of wear occurs by grain and bond fracture
 Grain fracture is more likely to occur during wet grinding rather than dry
 The more effective is the coolant the greater us the likelihood of the
fracture
 The bond fracture occurs when the whole grain is fractured from the
wheel
Creep Feed Grinding

 This type of grinding process is used for machining difficult to machine materials.
 In this process the depth of cut is many times that in normal grinding process
 But the work feed is reduced
20
Super-finishing
Lapping
 Lapping is an abrasive process in which loose abrasives function as cutting
points
 Material removing in lapping usually ranges from 0.003 to 0.03 mm but many
reach 0.08 to 0.1 mm in certain cases
Characteristics of lapping process

 Use of loose abrasive between lap and the work piece
 Usually lap and work piece are not positively driven but are guided in contact
with each other
 Relative motion between the lap and work should change continuously so that
path of the abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the work piece
Abrasive of lapping
 Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5-100 micron
 Cr2O3, grain size 1-2 micron
 Diamond, grain size 0.5 – 5 micron
Vehicle Material for lapping

 Machine oil
 Grease
Parameters affecting lapping process

21
 Unit pressure
 The grain size of abrasive
 Concentration of abrasive in the vehicle
 Lapping speed
Lapping Method
a. Hand Lapping
 Hand lapping of flat surface is carried out by rubbing the master lap usually
made of a thick soft close grained cast iron block
 Abrading action is completed by a very fine abrasive powder held in vehicle
 Hand lapping requires high personal skill because the lapping pressure and speed
have to be controlled manually
b. Machine Lapping
22
Honing
 Honing is a finishing process in which a tool called hone carries out a combined
rotary and reciprocating motion while the work piece does not perform any
working motion
 Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface such as automobile cylindrical
walls
 The honing stones are held against the work piece with controlled light pressure
 The honing stone is not guided externally but instead floats in the hole, being
guided by the work surface
 The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit
from repeating its path over the work surface
Process parameters
1. Rotation speed
2. Oscillation length
3. Length and position of the stroke
4. Honing stick pressure
23
Parameters that affect MRR

1. Unit pressure
2. Peripheral honing speed
3. Honing time
Effect of honing pressure on MRR (Q) and surface roughness (R)

 It is evident from the graph that the unit pressure should be selected so as to get
minimum surface roughness with highest possible MRR
Effect of peripheral honing speed on MRR (Q) and Surface finish (R)
 It is evident from the graph that an increase of peripheral honing speed leads to
enhancement of MRR and decrease in surface roughness
24
Effect of honing time on MRR (Q) and surface roughness (R)

 It is evident from the graph that with the honing time, MRR decreases
 Surface roughness decreases and after attaining a minimum value again rises
 The selection of honing time depends very much on the permissible surface roughness
25
Super finishing
 In this the abrasive stones are held in a disc which oscillates and rotates about the axis
of the work piece
Burnishing
 The burnishing process consists of pressing hardened steel rolls or balls into the surface
of the work piece and imparting a feed motion to the same
 During burnishing operation considerable residual compressive stress is induced in the
surface of the work piece and thereby fatigue strength and wear resistance of the
surface layer increase
Electro-polishing
 Electro-polishing is the reverse of electro-plating
 Here the work piece acts as anode and the material is removed from the work piece
by electrochemical dissolution
 The process is particularly suitable for irregular surface since there is no mechanical
contact between work piece and polishing medium
 The electrolyte electrochemically etches projections on the work piece at a faster
rate thus producing a smooth surface
 This process is also suitable for deburring
26
Buffing
 Buffing uses loose abrasive
 It is the process used to shine work material using cloth wheel
27
Limits, Fits & Tolerance and Surface Finish
28
University Questions
1. Explain the dressing and truing of grinding wheel.
2. Discuss various factors considered in selection of grinding wheel.
3. Show that the chip length ls in horizontal surface grinding using grinding wheel of
diameter D is given by ls  1   Dd ; where V is the wheel speed, v is the work speed
v
 V
and d is the wheel depth of cut.

4. Explain the center less grinding process. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
5. How are grinding wheels specified as per Indian standard? Explain truing and dressing of
grinding wheel.
6. What is the difference between honing and lapping operations? Give their applications.
7. What are the parameters that control the grinding process? Explain their effect on
grinding processes.
8. Why surface finish is important for many applications? Illustrate your answer.
9. Define flaw, roughness and waviness to characterize surfaces. Show surface profile fo r a
rough, lapped and finished object.
10. Give the significance of dimensional tolerance control during various machining
processes.
11. What is fit? Explain different types of fits.
12. What is super finishing operation? Explain honing, lapping and polishing.
13. What are the various factors to be considered in selection of a grinding wheel? Discuss
each in detail.
14. Define: Limits, fits, tolerance, allowance and Basic size.
15. What is meant by grit, grade and structure of grinding wheel? Explain
16. Discuss various methods used for expressing the surface roughness.
17. Explain three different ways in which the wear of grinding wheel takes place. What can
be done to prevent them?
18. What is an abrasive? What are its types & characteristics?
29
19. Explain the terms: CLA method of measuring surface finish, Selective interchangeability,
standardization and its advantages, limit gauging and transition fit
20. What is buffing?
21. State and explain Taylor’s principles of gauge design.
22. How is surface finish expressed quantitatively? Describe the CLA and RMS methods of
doing so. What is the difference between surface texture and surface finish?
23. What is the advantage of center less grinding? Describe this process. Why is it called
centre less? Explain the terms (i) through feed (ii) infeed and (iii) End feed
24. Justify the common saying that recommends use of hard wheels for soft materials and
vice-versa. What is meant by G- ratio?
25. What are common abrasives used in a grinding wheel? Which abrasives are
recommended for grinding (i) medium carbon steel and (ii) brass? What is meant by grit
size and state its effect on ground surface.
26. Derive the expression for maximum chip thickness in surface grinding.
27. What are the important factors which need to be considered for specifying a grinding
wheel? Explain with suitable example.
28. What is meant by grit, grade and structure of grinding wheel?
29. Describe the main features of surface grinding?
30. What is the function of bond in grinding wheel? Indicate bonding materials and name
their corresponding grinding wheel.
30

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Manufacturing Science & Technology-II

Course Instructor- Shailendra Pratap Singh

Features of abrasive process

Wheel material (Abrasive + Bond)

 The common natural abrasives are sand stone, emery, corundum,

 Desired properties of bond

Types of bonds are:

ii. Silicate bond (S)

 It is more rapid process than vitrified bond

 It provides a sharp cutting action and enables a high rate of stock

 Furnace inside temperature is close to 200°C

 These wheels are cool cutting

vi. Rubber (R)

 The mixture is passed through another set of rolls to obtain the

 They are mainly used for achieving good surface finish

 Selection of particular structure depends on hardness of work material, type of grinding

Specification of grinding wheel

 17- Suffix (Bond type)

Types of grinding processes

a. Center type grinding

 The wheel head is generally mounted on horizontal cross ways on the

 In this method of center-less grinding the work piece is supported

 To do so the regulating wheel is inclined at 2 to 10 degrees with

 This method is used for grinding shouldered or formed

 The feed is given to the work by reciprocating table

Truing & Dressing

Creep Feed Grinding

Characteristics of lapping process

Vehicle Material for lapping

Parameters affecting lapping process

Parameters that affect MRR

Effect of honing pressure on MRR (Q) and surface roughness (R)

Effect of honing time on MRR (Q) and surface roughness (R)

Limits, Fits & Tolerance and Surface Finish

and d is the wheel depth of cut.

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