Senior Management Aspirations of Managers and Professionals:

A Career Decision-Making Perspective

A Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty

of

Drexel University

by

Barrie Elise Litzky

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree

of

Doctor of Philosophy

May 2002
 ii

Dedication

With Love

For

Elizabeth Henley Dillon

And

Gordon Boyd Lang

 iii

Acknowledgments

There are a number of people who have helped me through the dissertation

process, the Ph.D. program, and through the highs and lows of the last seven years. First

and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Jeffrey H. Greenhaus, my supervising professor,

who by his example as a scholar, a teacher, a mentor and a colleague, has motivated me

to demand excellence from myself and to not be so shocked on the occasions that I may

actually achieve it. Dr. Greenhaus is one of the most generous individuals I have ever

met. His generosity with his time, his wisdom, and his humor sustained me throughout

the dissertation more than I can express. Dr. Greenhaus has set an example of the type of

scholarship that is attainable when you are truly dedicated to your field. I respect him

tremendously, and hope that I will take the tools that he has imparted on me and make

him proud, and glad that he spent the last three years in the “front row” seat of this

wonderful and challenging journey.

Dr. Saroj Parasuraman, honorary committee member, mentor and friend. Truly

one of the most creative individuals I have ever met, Dr. Parasuraman’s agility with

words is something that I continue to be awed by. Not only is Dr. Parasuraman to be

thanked for believing in me from the beginning, but for passing along her passion for

research, and for being a constant reminder to me of what being determined really means.

Dr. Karen Collins from Lehigh University was extremely supportive and helpful

throughout the entire dissertation process. Dr. Collins was always there for me with a

quick turnaround, excellent suggestions and encouragement. I am very grateful to Dr.

 iv

Collins, whose knowledge of aspirations in the accounting field brought tremendous

insight to this project.

Dr. Dona DeCarolis was enthusiastic about my dissertation from the beginning.

Her adeptness at research and her knowledge of the management literature, helped in the

framing and definition of some of the major constructs in this paper. Dr. DeCarolis is a

good friend, whose sincerity and belief in my abilities helped to keep me motivated.

Dr. Veronica Godshalk of Penn State Great Valley, sits in the office next door to

me. Aside from her vast knowledge of the careers literature, Ronnie was available to

talk, every time I popped my head into her doorway. She always finished the

conversation with “you’re doing great, you’re almost there.” I am so grateful that Ronnie

and I have the opportunity to work together.

Dr. Frank Linnehan is an extremely prolific researcher, and an equally wonderful

human being. Dr. Linnehan challenged me from the beginning to think through the

implications of all of my decisions. His vast knowledge of methodology and statistics

brought tremendous value to this research project. I cannot thank Dr. Linnehan enough

for his extremely quick turnarounds, his thoroughness and his ongoing support.

Aside from my committee members, I would like to thank Dr. Steve Bagjier and

Dr. Patrick Donnelly, two wonderful statistics professors without whom I don’t think I

could have gained the understanding that I needed to make it through the Ph.D. program.

Their passing was a terrible loss to the Drexel community, and I am very thankful that I

had the pleasure of learning from them. I would also like to thank Dr. Andrew Verzilli

who offered an enormous amount of social support the first year of the program,

especially during the core exam.

 v

A list of thank yous would certainly be incomplete without mention of my other

wonderful friends and colleagues from Drexel, Rachel Becker, Carolyn Feruggia Coco,

JB Dickinson, Michele Galan, June Morris, Sandy Naringsingh, Charlene Nessler, Jenifer

Pierce, Dr. Yasmin Purohit, Dhatri Purohit, Dr. Cathy Ridings, Dr. Sidney Siegel, Dr.

Romila Singh and Dr. Stephanie Weidman, who offered support, encouragement, and

empathy throughout the entire Ph.D. program.

My colleagues at Penn State Great Valley have also been very supportive and

encouraging through the dissertation process. I would especially like to thank Dr. Ellen

Foster-Curtis and Dr. William Milheim for the belief that they had in my ability to work

full-time and complete the Ph.D., to Dr. David Fritzsche for hiring me, to the office staff,

Lillian Mina, April Pumala, Cari Raezer, Susan Rivera, Suzanne Shaffer and Carolyn

Wilson. A special thanks to April Pumala for her help with the typing and editing of the

dissertation, and to Stacy Wessel for her help in the final edits. Additionally, I would like

to thank Julie Meyer, whose instructional design capabilities helped me with the online

survey and data collection. Without Julie, I would still be fiddling around with Perseus.

My friends are a wonderful group of people. Whether they were calling long

distance, emailing to cheer me on, or over at my house doing my laundry while I was at

work, I will never be able to express what it is that their love and support has meant to me

over these last seven years. I would like to make a special mention of Joan and Barry

Dickinson, my faux parents in Philadelphia, who always took care of me through their

generosity and love, and to Andrea Klopfer, my aunt, who always took me to dinner on

her business trips and always was expressed a true interest in my research.
 vi

I would like to thank Sheila and Marty Litzky, my parents, who I love more than

ever. It is the two of you who helped to fuel my intellectual curiosity and my love of

learning. It is also the two of you who made me know that it didn’t matter what I “did”

as long as I “did my best”. And finally, it is because of the two of you, that I developed

the imagination to dream, the self-confidence to pursue my dreams, and the tenacity to

achieve them. Additionally, I am thankful to my siblings, for their love, support and

encouragement.

Last, but certainly not least, I must thank Solomon Shag, my best friend, for his

unique ability to sense my every emotion, and for allowing me to experience pure,

genuine, unconditional love.

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Table of Contents

Dedication .................................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................iii

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................vii

List of Tables...........................................................................................................................xii

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................xiv

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 1

Research Opportunities and Scope of Study................................................................... 5

Senior Management Aspirations: What We Know - What We Need To Learn ....... 5

Individual, Lifestyle and Work Factors: An Interaction at Work .............................. 8

Theoretical Contributions and Practical Significance................................................... 12

Overview of Forthcoming Chapters.............................................................................. 15

Chapter 2: SENIOR MANAGEMENT ASPIRATIONS OF MANAGERS

AND PROFESSIONALS..................................................................................... 16

Literature Review.......................................................................................................... 16

Senior Managers........................................................................................................ 16

What are Aspirations? ............................................................................................... 20

Determinants of Senior Management Aspirations .................................................... 26

Career Development of Managers and Professionals ............................................... 28

Senior Management Aspirations as a Component of a Career Decision .................. 31

Research Opportunities ................................................................................................. 62

 viii

Chapter 3: RESEARCH FOCUS ............................................................................................ 64

Research Purpose and Questions................................................................................... 64

Hypothesized Relationships .......................................................................................... 65

The Impact of Congruence on Desired Aspirations .................................................. 66

The Impact of Lifestyle Factors on Desired Aspirations .......................................... 72

The Impact of Desired Aspirations on Enacted Aspirations ..................................... 74

The Role of Expectancy in a Model of Senior Management Aspirations................. 77

Potential Contributions to the Literature....................................................................... 88

Chapter 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY................................................. 90

Overview ....................................................................................................................... 90

Research Design............................................................................................................ 90

Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................................ 91

Pilot Study ................................................................................................................ 92

Main Study ............................................................................................................... 93

Respondents .............................................................................................................. 93

Sample........................................................................................................................... 93

Desired Sample Size.................................................................................................. 94

Demographics of Respondents.................................................................................. 95

Measurement of Variables ............................................................................................ 96

Tests of Reliability and Validity ............................................................................... 96

Independent Variables............................................................................................... 98

Moderator Variables................................................................................................ 103

Dependent Variables ............................................................................................... 109

 ix

Additional Variables of Interest .............................................................................. 111

Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 112

Descriptive Statistics and Correlational Analysis ................................................... 112

Tests of Hypotheses ................................................................................................ 113

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 119

Chapter 5: RESULTS............................................................................................................ 120

Correlational Analysis................................................................................................. 120

Intercorrelations Among Demographic and Model Variables ................................ 120

Intercorrelations Among Model Variables.............................................................. 122

Tests of Hypotheses .................................................................................................... 124

Hypothesis 1: Relationship Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations. ......... 124

Hypothesis 2: Moderating Effect of Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations.................................... 125

Post Hoc Analysis ................................................................................ 126

Hypothesis 3: Relationship Between Desired Aspirations

and Enacted Aspirations ………………………….............................. 127

Hypothesis 4: Moderating Effect of Advancement Prospects on the Relationship

Between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations....................... 128

Post Hoc Analysis ................................................................................ 128

Hypothesis 5: Moderating Effect of Career Support on the Relationship

Between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations....................... 129

Hypothesis 6a: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations.................................... 130

Post Hoc Analysis ................................................................................ 131

Hypothesis 6b: Relationship Between Gender and Off-Job Involvement. ............. 131
 x

Hypothesis 6c: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations Disappears
when Controlling for Off-Job Involvement. ........................................ 132

Hypothesis 6d: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations....................... 132

Hypothesis 6e: Relationship Between Gender and Advancement Prospects.......... 133

Hypothesis 6f: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations Disappears when
Controlling for Advancement Prospects. ............................................. 134

Hypothesis 6g: Relationship Between Gender and Career Support........................ 134

Hypothesis 6h: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations Disappears
when Controlling for Career Support................................................... 135

Post Hoc Analysis: Model of Senior Management Aspirations........... 135

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 136

Chapter 6: DISCUSSION...................................................................................................... 138

Research Gaps in the Career Development and Decision-Making Literature ............ 138

Congruence as a Determinant of Senior Management Aspirations ............................ 139

Environmental Factors as Determinants of Senior Management Aspirations ............ 141

Attitudes, Intentions and Behaviors in Senior Management Aspirations ................... 143

The Role of Gender ..................................................................................................... 145

Dominant Concepts in Career Development and Decision-Making........................... 147

Theoretical Contributions of the Study ....................................................................... 149

Practical Implications of the Study ............................................................................. 151

Limitations of the Research......................................................................................... 152

Directions for Future Research in this Area................................................................ 154

 xi

List of References.................................................................................................................. 159

Appendix A – Study Measures.............................................................................................. 211

Appendix B – Polynomial Regression Results ..................................................................... 231

Appendix C – Web Survey.................................................................................................... 237

Vita ………………. .............................................................................................................. 253

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List of Tables

Table 1 Empirical Studies of Managerial Aspirations .......................................................... 171

Table 2 Expectancy Theory as a Framework for Present Study ........................................... 173

Table 3 Summary of Hypotheses .......................................................................................... 174

Table 4 Demographic Summary ........................................................................................... 175

Table 5 Rotated Factor Structure of Senior Management Schema Scale………..……………..177

Table 6 Rotated Factor Structure of Senior Management Self-Assessment Scale .…………178

Table 7 Factor Structure of the Global Congruence Scale .…………………………………….…179

Table 8 Rotated Factor Structure of Subjective Off Job Involvement Scale ........................ 180

Table 9 Rotated Factor Structure of Subjective Advancement Prospects Scale ................... 181

Table 10 Factor Structure of the Career Support Work Domain Scale................................. 182

Table 11 Factor Structure of the Career Support Non-Work Domain Scale ........................ 183

Table 12 Factor Structure of the Desired Aspirations Scale ................................................. 184

Table 13 Factor Structure of the Enacted Aspirations Scale................................................. 185

Table 14 Summary of Factor Analyses and Reliability Analyses......................................... 186

Table 15 Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Intercorrelations

among Demographic and Study Variables.......................................................... 188

Table 16 Moderating Effect of Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations (Hypotheses 1 and 2)................ 191

Table 17 Moderating Effect of Advancement Prospects on the Relationship

Between Desired and Enacted Aspirations (Hypotheses 3 and 4) ...................... 192

Table 18 Moderating Effect of Career Support on the Relationship

Between Desired and Enacted Aspirations (Hypothesis 5)................................. 194

Table 19 Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations (Hypotheses 6a)........................ 196
 xiii

Table 20a Relationship Between Gender and Objective Off-Job Involvement

(Hypothesis 6b) ................................................................................................... 197

Table 20b Relationship Between Gender and Subjective Off-Job Involvement

(Hypothesis 6b) ................................................................................................... 197

Table 21 Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Desired and Enacted Aspirations (Hypotheses 6d) .............................. 198

Table 22a Relationship Between Gender and Objective Advancement Prospects

(Hypothesis 6e) ................................................................................................... 199

Table 22b Relationship Between Gender and Subjective Advancement Prospects

(Hypothesis 6e) ................................................................................................... 199

Table 23a Relationship Between Gender and Career Support in the Work Domain
(Hypothesis 6g) ................................................................................................... 200

Table 23b Relationship Between Gender and Career Support in the Non-work Domain
(Hypothesis 6g) ................................................................................................... 200

Table 24 Summarized Hypothesis Results............................................................................ 201

Table B1 Simultaneous Effect of Senior Management Schema and

Senior Management Self Assessment on Desired Aspirations ………..…………..236

Table B2 Test of Constraints to Determine Realiability of Squared Difference Model.....…238

Table B3 Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Schema and Desired
Aspirations and Self-Assessment and Desired Aspirations (Hypothesis 6a)..……240
 xiv

List of Figures

Figure 1 General Model of Career Decision-Making ........................................................... 204

Figure 2 Senior Management Aspirations of Managers and Professionals .......................... 205

Figure 3 Moderating Effect of Objective Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations .................................................... 206

Figure 4 Moderating Effect of Subjective Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations .................................................... 207

Figure 5 Moderating Effect of Subjective Involvement Community Activities on the

Relationship Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations ............................... 208

Figure 6 Moderating Effect of Advancement Prospects in a Different Organization On the

Relationship between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations................... 209

Figure 7 Mediated Model of the Relationships Between Gender and

Senior Management Aspirations........................................................................... 210
 xv

Abstract
Senior Management Aspirations of Managers and Professionals:
A Career Decision-Making Perspective
Barrie Elise Litzky
Dr. Jeffrey H. Greenhaus

A number of demographic, technological, and economic shifts have redefined the

composition of today’s workforce and the concept of a career. Corporate downsizing and

the delayering of management have affected the career advancement prospects available

to individuals pursuing a managerial career path. The traditional means of rewarding

employees through promotion appears to be an infrequent option in the current business

environment. Subsequently, the level of competition among those individuals aspiring to

higher levels in organizations is expected to increase. Because the responsibilities

associated with positions in senior management are vast, and competition for entry into

those positions is arduous, an important question arises: what factors influence an

individual’s aspirations to advance to senior level management?

This dissertation examined the determinants of managers’ and professionals’

aspirations to achieve senior management positions within the context of a career

decision. Findings suggest that individuals whose career self-concepts “match” their

perception of the roles, responsibilities, and rewards of positions in senior management

aspire to senior management positions. Furthermore, advancement prospects, personal

life involvements, and gender play significant roles in aspirations to pursue a career in

senior management.

An examination of the precursors of senior management aspirations within the

context of career decision-making contributes to theory development in a number of

 xvi

ways. First, while a variety of theoretical approaches touch upon the issue, a review of

the existing literature reveals that to this point there has been very little empirical work

done in the area of senior management aspirations. Furthermore, much of the prior

research in the area of aspirations has neglected to distinguish between attitudes and

behaviors regarding aspirations. Having employed a conceptually rich and

methodologically sound measure of aspirations, this study was able to make the

distinction between the attitudes individuals possess regarding aspirations and the

behaviors they engage in which reflect those attitudes. Additionally, this study examined

both lifestyle and work-related factors that influence an individual’s aspirations to senior

management. Prior studies have tended to look at either work or non-work factors, very

few having included factors from both domains for investigation.

 1

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

This I believe, and this my whole life’s experience has taught me: the managerial life is
the broadest, the most demanding, by all odds the most comprehensive and the most
subtle of all human activities. And the most crucial.
From Management: A Humanist Art by David E. Lilienthal (Aguilar, 1992)

There are a number of characteristics inherent in today’s world that are redefining

the composition of the workforce and the concept of careers. Demographic,

technological, and business factors are all contributing to the changes that necessitate a

rethinking of the traditional models of career development (Arthur, 1994; Arthur &

Rousseau, 1996; Schein, 1996) and definitions of career success (Mirvis & Hall, 1994).

The evolving structure of organizations, from functionally divided, hierarchical

structures, to more flexible, modern structures like the network, will affect the sizes and

shapes of organizations, including the numbers of managers needed to operate

effectively. Twenty-first century businesses will be working with fewer numbers of

managers, as individuals are called upon to be self-managing professionals (Allred,

Snow, & Miles, 1996). Corporate downsizing and the delayering of management will

affect traditional advancement prospects, in the hierarchical sense (Greenhaus, Callanan,

& Godshalk, 2000).

Traditionally, hierarchical advancement has been used in organizations to

motivate and reward individuals. It has been suggested that quite possibly the most

positive event that can happen to an employee is to ascend into top management

(Feldman, 1988), as the succession to an executive position is often the fulfillment of

personal dreams and the culmination of years of hard work. For the greater part of the

20th century, the defining characteristic of most career paths was movement up a

pyramidal hierarchy, often within the same company (Allred et al., 1996). Most
 2

individuals were groomed at middle management levels to take on positions in senior

management, and most senior managers were career veterans at one, or at most two

organizations (Allred et al., 1996).

Evolving organizational structures have affected the managerial competencies

needed to compete successfully (Allred et al., 1996), as well as the nature of managerial

career paths and career management strategies. For example, senior managers in non-

traditional organizations must possess strong collaborative skills to work with their more

empowered subordinates. These changes in managerial competencies and careers are

reflected in the theoretical developments and empirical research in the careers literature.

Research in the careers area has positioned the notion of the “boundaryless

career” as a dominant concept in current thought. By definition, the boundaryless career

denotes an independence from traditional organizational career principles (Arthur, 1994),

such as formal hierarchical progression in one organization (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996).

Few companies can offer lifetime employment, and the conceptualization of career

success is no longer strictly defined by organization position or tenure (Arthur, 1994).

Aside from being solely responsible for managing their own careers, individuals are

redefining themselves in terms of how their careers fit into their total lives (Friedman &

Greenhaus, 2000).

The vast changes in organizations and the workforce have affected individuals in

managerial careers tremendously. For example, fewer positions exist in top management,

yet the numbers of well-educated people with high career expectations have increased

(Lashbrook, 1992). When these individuals enter organizational tournaments, or contests

for advancement, a large number of managers and professionals experience longer

 3

assignments in the same positions with lower prospects for future mobility within their

firm (Tremblay & Roger, 1993). Being forced to stay at the same level and in the same

job can lead to frustration and loss of motivation on the part of many of these managers

(Tremblay & Roger, 1993).

With a decrease in the number of senior management positions available, and an

increase in the numbers of individuals vying for promotion, the level of competition

among those individuals aspiring to higher levels in organizations will increase. This

seems to suggest that organizations will have a pipeline of interested candidates capable

of performing successfully in top management positions. For individuals interested in

gaining entrée to top management, the competition will be stiff since there is no longer a

guarantee of promotion in exchange for hard work or years of service (Mirvis & Hall,

1994). Intense competition for coveted senior positions may further be influenced by

changes in the priority that different roles play (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000) in the

lives of those who may be most qualified for senior management positions. For these

reasons, organizations, as well as organization scholars, must contemplate, “Who are the

individuals who will want these positions badly enough to pursue them?” This prompts

the larger question, who will be the future leaders of our organizations? The necessity to

answer these questions is couched in the assumption that organizations, as flat as they

become, will always rely on a team of senior managers to chart the course of their

operations.

Answers to these questions may be gained through an inquiry into the aspirations

of those individuals who are likely to enter the mobility tournaments, those who have

expressed an interest in managerial careers. Individuals with prior management

 4

experience (Kay, 1974) or those who have been in the workforce long enough to develop

an understanding of their likes and dislikes regarding work (Super, 1990) and have an

affinity toward management (Schein, 1975) are likely aspirants to positions in senior

management. Research in career development and decision-making provides the context

for the exploration of the senior management aspirations of managers and professionals.

The body of career development and decision-making literature has grown

tremendously in the past two decades. However, senior management aspirations, a very

specific topic housed within the domain of career development and decision-making, has

garnered relatively little theoretical and empirical attention. Many studies have identified

factors that have influenced the advancement of individuals in management. From this

plentiful research, we have a better understanding of the types of individual and

organizational variables that affect an individual’s advancement through an

organizational hierarchy. What remains unclear however, is the decision process an

individual may undertake to determine whether to enter a hierarchical tournament, or to

gain career success and satisfaction through other means.

From a broad perspective, this research sought to contribute to the careers

literature by gaining an understanding of the career decisions that confront individuals

and the factors that influence those decisions. More specifically, this research hoped to

answer the following question: What factors influence an individual’s aspirations to

advance to senior- level management?

The model tested in this study was built on the assumption that an individual’s

senior management aspirations must be considered in a career decision-making context.

Additionally, select individual, lifestyle and work-related factors were identified as those
 5

which help to shape one’s aspirations to senior management. In general terms, this study

examined the interaction between an individual’s occupational self-image, the image he

or she holds of a senior management job, and various lifestyle and work-related factors

posited to influence an individual’s aspirations to senior management.

In the following sections, the gaps in the careers literature regarding senior

management aspirations will be briefly described, with specific attention being paid to

how this study can contribute to the overall knowledge of senior management aspirations

within a career decision-making framework. The theoretical and practical contributions

that this research hoped to make are presented as well. Finally, a brief outline of the

chapters in this study is offered.

Research Opportunities and Scope of Study

Because a formal theory of senior management aspirations has not been offered to

date, the present study drew upon theories of career development and decision-making,

occupational and managerial aspirations, and the literature on the nature of managerial

work. Whereas a critical examination of the literature will be presented in Chapter 2, a

basic overview of the state of the scientific research on senior management aspirations is

presented below.

Senior Management Aspirations: What We Know - What We Need To Learn

Prominent gaps in the literature include the lack of theory development in the area

of senior management aspirations as well as the limited number of studies which have

examined managers poised to make a career decision. Research on the aspirations

construct is vast, with a majority of the work having been done in the area of the

occupational aspirations of adolescents. A distinction between occupational and

 6

management aspirations must be made, because whereas there is an abundance of

empirical research on the general subject of occupational aspirations (Rojewski & Yang,

1997), there is an almost negligible amount of research on the specific topic of

management aspirations. Occupational aspirations reflect the specific jobs or

occupations to which an individual aspires. A desire to become a physician, a teacher, or

a manager is an example of the occupational aspirations an individual may hold.

Individuals who aspire to particular levels in the management hierarchy of an

organization hold managerial aspirations, a specific type of occupational aspiration.

A dichotomy exists in the literature on aspirations. Studies of the occupational

aspirations of adolescents and young adults appear to include demographic and personal

determinants, such as gender or parental occupation (Haller & Miller, 1971). Studies of

the aspirations of managers have tended to focus on work-related determinants such as

career management strategies (Rynes, Tolbert, & Strausser, 1988) and managerial self-

efficacy (Van Vianen, 1999; Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996). One way in which this study

seeks to contribute to theory development in management aspirations is to include both

personal and work-related determinants of senior management aspirations.

The number of studies examining management aspirations in general and senior

management aspirations in particular, as a dependent variable, is scant in the careers

literature. Of those studies, inconsistencies in the conceptualization and measurement of

management aspirations are evident. Single item measures, and attitudinal

conceptualizations of aspirations to management are most commonly found in the

literature. There has been difficulty in the literature distinguishing between the various

functions and roles of managers, which may have also fueled inconsistencies in studies of
 7

senior management aspirations. Consequently, the images that respondents may hold of

senior management positions may be highly variable, and may potentially limit the

interpretability of the findings.

The present study applied the prior literature on the nature of managerial work in

the top levels of the management hierarchy to conceptualize and measure the senior

management position in terms of knowledge, skills, abilities and rewards. Furthermore,

studies on aspirations for advancement to management were reviewed to derive what is

believed to be a viable definition of senior management aspirations.

Senior management aspiration is defined here as an individual’s desire and

intention to move into a senior management position in an organization, and is

conceptualized as a dual-faceted construct with attitudinal and behavioral components.

The two related but distinct facets of aspirations include one’s feelings about becoming a

senior manager, as well as the behaviors exhibited by an individual which reflect his or

her intention to pursue a position in senior management.

From a theoretical standpoint, aspirations have been identified as developmental

in nature (Gottfredson, 1981). Given this, a theory of senior management aspirations

must be tested in a population whose aspirations to management have developed over

time. Prior studies often include a single item asking respondents, who are very often

undergraduate college students, to identify the level of the management hierarchy to

which they aspire. The appropriate candidates to answer this question are those who

have already had time either to experience the reality of management positions or at least,

the reality of the corporate world. Managers and professionals may be well suited to
 8

provide insight into their desire to attain and intention to pursue a position in senior

management.

Past research has framed aspirations as an independent variable, a potential

antecedent of managerial advancement (Goffee & Scase, 1992; Judge, Cable, Boudreau,

& Bretz, 1995; Tremblay & Roger, 1993). Managerial advancement scholars (Tharenou,

1997 a, 1997 b; Tharenou & Conroy, 1994; Tharenou, Latimer, & Conroy, 1994)

observed the need for studies in the area of management aspirations to help identify the

factors that constrain entry into or dropping out of the managerial hierarchy. There are

very few studies of the determinants of management aspirations, and none that examine

management aspirations within the context of career decision-making. The present study

hopes to shed light on the individual, lifestyle, and work-related factors that influence an

individual’s aspirations to senior management.

Individual, Lifestyle and Work Factors: An Interaction at Work

The conceptual rationale for the incorporation of the individual, lifestyle, and

work-related factors pertinent to a model of senior management aspirations will be

detailed in Chapter 3. At this point, a brief overview of the constructs will be introduced

in the following paragraphs.

Many career decision-making models suggest that individuals choose occupations

that “match” their own unique sets of talents, needs, motives, and values. This view

further suggests that when individuals are confronted with the need to choose an

occupation, they will consciously analyze their vocational assets and liabilities,

accumulate information about occupations, and arrive at a decision (Crites, 1969).

Consistent with this view, this study postulates that a cognitive process takes

place within an individual which allows an individual to conclude whether he or she

 9

possesses characteristics that match, or are congruent with, the characteristics vital to a

senior management position. In general, this cognitive process is the result of assessing

one’s occupational self-concept with the mental picture one holds of what it means to be

a senior manager. People assess the compatibility of occupations with their images of

who they would like to be and whether they are willing to exert efforts to enter those

occupations (Gottfredson, 1981). An occupation that is highly compatible with one’s

sense of self will be highly valued. In this research, the congruence between an

individual’s occupational self-concept and a senior management position is thought to

influence an individual’s aspirations to a position in senior management.

While congruence may be an influential factor in one’s occupational choice,

congruence alone may not determine whether an individual aspires to a career as a senior

manager. Past research has shown that environmental factors from both the work and

non-work domains influence a variety of career-related decisions (Callanan & Greenhaus,

1990; Greenhaus, Collins, Singh, & Parasuraman, 1997; Hicks & London, 1991;

Tharenou et al., 1994). In this study, both work and lifestyle factors are posited to affect

the relationship between an individual’s level of congruence with a senior management

position and his or her aspirations to senior management.

In terms of lifestyle, individuals’ involvement in activities other than work may

serve to hinder their aspirations to advancement, again, regardless of the perceived

compatibility between self-concept and positions in senior management. If, for example,

an individual is highly involved in a community service project that occupies numerous

evening and weekend hours, he or she may perceive his or her lifestyle as incompatible

with that of a senior manager. Since working long hours often characterizes individuals
 10

seeking and attaining positions in senior management (Markham, Harlan, & Hackett,

1987; Wentling, 1996), an individual with extensive off-job activities may alter his or her

aspirations for advancement to reflect a more realistic view of the number of hours an

individual must work to be selected for promotion, even in the presence of congruence

between occupational self-concept and a senior management position.

In the work domain, the environmental cues individuals receive regarding the

probability of advancement is one such factor. If individuals perceive limited

opportunities for advancement, their aspirations for advancement may be lowered,

regardless of the relationship between their desires to attain and intentions to pursue

senior management positions. For example, if an individual works in a declining

industry, where promotions to top positions are few and far between, he or she may feel

that no matter how much he or she works, or how successful he or she may be as a

manager, the possibilities of being promoted are extremely narrow. An individual in this

situation may alter his or her aspirations for advancement to reflect a more realistic view

of the current organizational policies on promotion (Markham et al., 1987), regardless of

occupational self-concept – senior management position fit.

Career support, a form of social support, both on and off the job, may serve to

enable or constrain the relationship between one’s desire to become a senior manager and

his or her intentions to pursue such a position. Social support from individuals at work

and at home has been shown to benefit career-focused individuals (Friedman &

Greenhaus, 2000). At work, career support by a superior may provide an individual the

necessary developmental opportunities or access to individuals who may be instrumental

in career progress and development. An individual who has been encouraged by a

 11

supervisor to engage in behaviors that will likely result in promotion may reveal strong

intentions to pursue a position in senior management. At home, a partner who offers

emotional or behavioral support may fuel an individual’s sense that aspiring to a position

in senior management is an attainable goal. In both the work and non-work domains, an

individual’s aspirations to senior management are posited to be influenced by the

presence (or absence) of career support.

Finally, women are underrepresented in senior management positions (Andrew,

Coderre, & Denis, 1990) and fewer women than men are promoted to positions in senior

management (Hede & Ralston, 1993). Evidence exists which suggests that women have

lower aspirations for advancement than men (Greenhaus et al., 1997) and women

managers aspire to lower managerial positions (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1993).

Because women and men hold similar values regarding advancement and promotion

(Rowe & Snizek, 1995), additional factors related to gender must account for differences

in aspirations. This research explored the relationships between gender and various

lifestyle and work factors such as advancement opportunities, off-job involvement and

career support as potentially influencing an individual’s aspirations to positions in senior

management.

To reiterate, the primary goal of this study was to test the relationships between

the individual, lifestyle, and work-related factors thought to influence an individual’s

aspirations to senior management. To this end, a model of senior management

aspirations is presented within a career decision-making framework, and the target

population is professional men and women, for whom such a decision is most salient.
 12

The following section highlights the research contributions that this study aimed to

accomplish.

Theoretical Contributions and Practical Significance

While knowledge expansion regarding senior-level managers is often found

within the realm of strategic management, the career decision-making perspective taken

in this study has far-reaching theoretical implications for the organizational behavior

(OB) and human resource management (HRM) disciplines, both of which envelop the

body of knowledge in the careers area.

An examination of the correlates and precursors of management aspirations

within the context of career decision-making will contribute to theory development in a

number of ways. First, while a variety of theoretical approaches touch upon the issue, a

review of the existing literature reveals that to this point there has been very little

empirical work done in the area of senior management aspirations. In her review of the

vocational decision-making literature, Fouad (1994) reports that various scholars have

studied the occupational aspirations of children, yet studies of the career aspirations of

adults are less prevalent. Aspirations represent a critical component of the decision-

making process because individuals must first dream about a choice before they can

make a decision. Positioning this line of inquiry under the career decision-making

umbrella will link any current and future findings on this subject to what we currently

know about how careers unfold, as well as the decisions that arise during the course of

one’s career.
 13

Second, many of the career decision-making theories have been criticized for lack

of applicability to women and minorities (Brown & Brooks, 1996; Greenhaus et al.,

2000; Osipow, 1990). The sample of managers and professionals used in this study hopes

to include women and minorities, since the glass-ceiling phenomenon has been used to

explain the disparity in representation of women and minorities in senior-level, as

opposed to mid-level management positions (Hede & Ralston, 1993; Powell, 1999). In

this manner, the opportunity to empirically test a theory of senior management

aspirations as an aspect of the career decision-making process, in a diverse, contemporary

sample would be capitalized upon.

Third, much of the prior research in the area of aspirations has neglected to

distinguish between attitudes and behaviors regarding aspirations. By employing a

conceptually rich and methodologically sound measure of aspirations, this study hopes to

make the distinction between the attitudes individuals possess regarding aspirations and

the behaviors they engage in which reflect those attitudes.

Fourth, this study examined both lifestyle and work-related factors that may

influence an individual’s aspirations to senior management. Prior studies have tended to

look at either work or non-work factors, very few having included factors from both

domains for investigation.

Methodologically, this study hopes to contribute a new measure based on the

notion of the importance of congruence in occupational choice. The development of a

theoretically grounded conceptualization of a senior management job would allow

individuals to assess their own capabilities against those required of senior managers.

Additionally, a measure designed to assess the attitudinal and behavioral components of

 14

management aspirations (Tharenou & Terry, 1998) was slightly modified for use in this

sample. The hope was to construct validate this relatively new measure.

An examination of the factors that influence senior management aspirations has

practical implications as well. First, it is necessary for organizations to identify the

individuals who are the most likely candidates for hierarchical progression. Staffing

initiatives and career development programs aimed at identifying the relevant

competencies for senior-level managers speaks to the strategic nature of the human

resource function. Early identification of the long-term leadership needs of organizations

can be addressed more readily when the in-house talent pool is assessed for potentially

capable candidates to fill those positions.

Second, taxonomies of senior-level management job characteristics can help to

identify the skills necessary for success in these positions, as well as to offer bases for

training and development programs. Identifying senior management aspirants and non-

senior management aspirants can aid in the development of meaningful reward systems.

Additionally, grooming the individuals who possess the necessary skills, or are interested

in and capable of learning them, can help to ease the burden of succession planning in

organizations.

Third, organizations concerned with recruitment and retention can benefit from

their employees’ perceptions of the advancement opportunities and career support offered

by the organization. Organizations may capitalize on a career development infrastructure

as a tool for recruiting. Furthermore, employees who perceive career opportunities with a

firm are less likely to leave (Stout, Slocum, & Cron, 1988).
 15

Finally, while not everyone can become a senior-level manager, research on the

management aspirations of managers and professionals will offer some insight into this

previously understudied segment of the corporate population. An understanding of the

competencies of managers and professionals, in terms of leadership potential and even

regarding technical and interpersonal skills, can only serve as an aid in strategic human

resource planning and initiatives.

Overview of Forthcoming Chapters

In an effort to investigate and understand the factors that influence an individual’s

aspirations to senior management, Chapter 2 reviews the research literature on

aspirations, senior management, and career development and decision-making.

Following that, Chapter 3 presents the model that was tested and the rationale for the

hypothesized relationships among the constructs. Chapter 4 discusses the methods used

in this study, which includes a description of the instrument, a description of the sample,

and the statistical techniques used to analyze the collected data. Chapter 5 presents the

results, and finally, Chapter 6 presents a discussion of the findings in relation to the broad

literature on career development and decision-making.

 16

Chapter 2: SENIOR MANAGEMENT ASPIRATIONS OF

MANAGERS AND PROFESSIONALS

Chapter 2 begins with a description of senior managers including the definition

adopted in this study. Next, the evolution of the aspirations construct is reviewed,

including the theoretical rationale behind the derivation of the definition of management

aspirations used in this study. A review of the empirical work in the area of managerial

aspirations helps to establish the research gap that this study addressed. Research on

career development is presented to lend support for the need to study the aspirations of

managers and professionals. The theoretical rationale for establishing senior

management aspirations within the context of career decision-making, as well as a brief

description of the constraints individuals may confront when faced with such a decision,

is followed by a summary of the opportunities for research to be addressed in this study.

Literature Review

Senior Managers
A proliferation of research exists on the topic of managers: who managers are,

what roles they fill, tasks associated with management, where they fall in the hierarchy of

organizations (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), as well as the relationships between

managers and various work-related outcomes (Bray, Campbell, & Grant, 1979; Goffee &

Scase, 1992; Krau, 1997; Rosenbaum, 1984; Wentling, 1996). According to a critical

review by Hales (1986), scientific evidence suggests that there are common elements of

managerial work identified in early research. Three primary weaknesses exist. The

weaknesses described by Hales (1986) include the diversity or inconsistency in research

findings, the problem of interpreting managers’ behavior and its relation to managerial
 17

tasks, responsibilities, or functions, and the problem of the extent to which exclusively

managerial work has been identified.

Loosely defined, a manager is an individual who oversees the work activities of

others (Robbins & DeCenzo, 2001). Typically, managers are classified as first-line,

middle, or senior. At each level of the hierarchy, the functions of a manager are to plan,

organize, lead, and control the activities within the organization. However, the scope and

scale of each function is different depending upon the manager’s rank.

In a recent study assessing the likes and dislikes of managers regarding the duties

associated with their roles, Konrad, Waryszak, and Hartmann (1997) reviewed past

studies of managerial activities. The common elements agreed upon by recent authors

can be broken into three main functions of managerial work: administration/maintenance

(i.e. maintain organizational processes), agenda setting/innovation (i.e. initiate

organizational change), and interpersonal relations (i.e. build interpersonal relationships)

(Konrad et al., 1997).

Katz (1974) proposed three general skill areas in which effective managers must

be proficient: conceptual skills, interpersonal skills, and technical skills. Conceptual

skills refer to the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations; they are

what managers draw upon to see how things fit together and to facilitate making good

decisions. Interpersonal skills encompass the ability to work with, understand, and

motivate other people, both individually and in groups. Finally, technical skills constitute

the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. According to Katz (1974),

managers at the top levels of the organization are more inclined to draw upon their

conceptual skills than middle or lower-level managers, due to the nature of the complex
 18

situations they face. Technical skills for senior managers tend to be related to knowledge

of the industry and a general understanding of the organization’s processes and products.

Conversely, the technical skills needed by mid-level managers are related to the

specialized knowledge required in the functional areas in which they work, such as

finance, accounting, human resources, manufacturing, information systems, and

marketing (Robbins & DeCenzo, 2001). Both senior and mid-level managers rely upon

interpersonal skills in similar manners and for similar purposes.

A common struggle among researchers is to distinguish between each level of

management, such that the roles and tasks associated with each level are clearly defined.

Senior manager is particularly difficult to define. Perhaps the most well known body of

work that exists in the area of senior management are the studies by Kotter (1986; 1988).

Kotter’s (1986) data, collected over a seven-year period beginning in the late 1970’s,

provides an in-depth look into a group of individuals in general management jobs. He

defines general managers as those individuals “who hold positions with some

multifunctional responsibility for a business or businesses” (p.2). Kotter (1986) notes

that there are multitudes of responsibilities associated with being a general manager and

that most jobs are defined by the responsibilities and challenges for which that position is

accountable. Additionally, an individual’s title is likely to be influenced by the type of

firm in which the individual works. Kotter (1986) identifies seven different kinds of

general management jobs that are associated with more complex organizational

structures: CEO in a functionally organized company, corporate CEO in a multidivisional

company, group GM, autonomous division GM, semi-autonomous division GM,

product/market GM, and operations GM. The most common types of general
 19

management jobs identified by Kotter (1986) include functional CEO, autonomous

division GM, and operations GM.

In a more recent work, Aguilar (1992) reviews prior definitions of general

management, offered by well-known management scholars, Kenneth Andrews and Peter

Drucker. Their respective definitions follow. “General management is in its simplest

form the management of a total enterprise or of an autonomous sub-unit. Its diverse

forms in all kinds of businesses always include the integration of the work of functional

managers or specialists” (Andrews, 1980). “There are a number of tasks which are top-

management tasks...because they are tasks that can be discharged only by people who are

capable of seeing the whole business and of making decisions with respect to the whole

business” (Drucker, 1974). Aguilar’s (1992) own definition of the general manager is

“the person in charge of an enterprise (a relatively autonomous operating organization),

with responsibility for the timely and correct execution of those actions promoting the

successful performance and well-being of the unit” (p. 4).

This research is focused upon individuals aspiring to positions at the top of the

management hierarchy. The definition of senior manager in this study is comprehensive,

and although it originates in the work of Kotter (1986), seems to encompass the

important elements identified by other scholars. In addition to the general managers

described by Kotter (1986) and Aguilar (1992), the top positions of reference in this

study may also include titles such as vice president, president, managing director, chief

operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board. In this manner,

senior managers as defined in this study meet the upper limit criterion set by Kay (1974).
 20

Therefore, a senior manager is defined in this research as an individual who is

partially responsible for setting the long-run priorities for the organization, for deciding

how to allocate resources effectively to achieve long-run goals, and for the efficient use

of the human, financial, and material resources employed in that business or business

segment, including some profit responsibility (Kotter, 1986). In terms of reporting

structure, the senior manager will generally be accountable to either a CEO or board of

directors, and will have authority over a very diverse set of subordinates (Kotter, 1986).

The purpose of this study is to gain an understanding of the factors that influence

an individual’s aspirations to senior management. An understanding of the concept of

aspirations as well as a review of relevant empirical knowledge of the aspirations

construct is pertinent to this research.

What are Aspirations?

According to the American Heritage Dictionary, aspiration is defined as 1.) a

strong desire for high achievement, or 2.) an object of this desire. Thus, according to this

definition, an aspiration is either the desire to achieve an end state or the end state itself

(goal). Scientific interpretations have encompassed elements of these two definitions of

aspiration. The concept of aspiration has been referred to as an expectation or goal

(Lewin, 1956), which may be comprised of intentions (Haller & Miller, 1971; Jacobs,

Karen, & McClelland, 1991) and attitudes (Haller & Miller, 1971). Intentions are a plan

of action one undertakes to achieve a particular goal (Locke & Latham, 1990 a; Pinder,

1998). Attitudes represent one’s personal orientation toward a goal (Haller & Miller,

1971). Thus, the intention to pursue the goal and the attitude toward the goal appear to

comprise an individual’s aspirations. The concept of aspiration as it relates to

occupations and more specifically to careers in management, has been conceptualized

 21

and operationalized in various manners in the empirical research that exists to date.

Research on occupational and management aspirations is reviewed briefly in the

following two sections.

Occupational Aspirations. Occupational aspirations, defined as the single

occupation named as one's best alternative at any given time (Gottfredson, 1981), are

considered developmental in nature (Gottfredson, 1981; Jacobs et al., 1991; Rojewski &

Yang, 1997; Trice & McClellan, 1993), suggesting that as young people grow, their

vocational preferences become more crystallized over time. Empirical studies provide

evidence that occupational aspirations are influenced by various individual characteristics

such as age (Harmon, 1989; Jacobs et al., 1991), race (Jacobs et al., 1991), sexual

orientation (Chung & Harmon, 1994), and social class (Jacobs et al., 1991; Rojewski &

Yang, 1997). Furthermore, cognitive variables such as extrinsic valence (valence of

rewards associated with getting a job) and ease-of-success self-efficacy (perceived ease

of achieving what one wants to achieve) consistently predicted career aspirations (Singer,

Stacey, & Lange, 1993).

Three prominent gaps exist in the literature on occupational aspirations, which

appear to parallel and perhaps amplify the lack of knowledge specific to the literature on

management aspirations. First, theoretical development in the area of occupational

aspirations is sparse, with Gottfredson’s (1981) developmental theory appearing as the

one exception in the literature. Second, while occupational aspirations have been

examined extensively regarding their role in career choice and attainment (Rojewski &

Yang, 1997), much remains to be learned about the possible antecedents of aspirations

and their role in career behavior (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996; Rojewski & Yang, 1997).
 22

Finally, the studies on aspirations focus primarily on children and adolescents, which

suggests that a need exists for future studies which include how occupational aspiration

patterns may change after adolescence (Rojewski & Yang, 1997).

There are relatively few studies of managerial aspirations in the literature. Within

the existing research, there has been little or no consistency in the definition of

management aspirations. Perhaps as a result of this, there is also no consistent definition

of senior management aspirations in the literature. The definition of senior management

aspirations used in this study was derived from prior research on aspirations,

occupational aspirations and management aspirations, and attempts to address some of

the conceptual and methodological issues that have surfaced in the research on

management aspirations. These conceptual and methodological issues are discussed next,

followed by the definition of senior management aspirations to be used in this study.

Managerial Aspirations. In their effort to understand the potential correlates of

management aspirations, researchers have conceptualized and measured management

aspirations differently (Goffee & Scase, 1992; Judge et al., 1995; Martin, Price, Bies, &

Powers, 1987; Rynes et al., 1988; Sloan, 1993; Steiner & Farr, 1986; Stout et al., 1988;

Tremblay & Roger, 1993; Van Vianen, 1999; Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996; Wentling,

1996). Conceptually, management aspirations have been labeled career aspirations of

managers (Goffee & Scase, 1992; Wentling, 1996), senior manager or CEO aspirations

(Sloan, 1993), ambition for a managerial position (Judge et al., 1995; Van Vianen, 1999),

advancement aspirations (Tremblay & Roger, 1993), managerial aspirations (Rynes et al.,

1988), promotion aspirations (Stout et al., 1988), career goals (Steiner & Farr, 1986),

sales manager aspirations (Martin et al., 1987) and intention to manage (Van Vianen &
 23

Keizer, 1996). While management aspirations in these studies have been conceived of as

either an end state (e.g. position) or the desire to achieve an end state (e.g. ambition), the

conceptualizations and definitions are as different as the studies in which they are

employed.

In terms of measurement, management aspirations has been measured primarily

as single items asking respondents to indicate a hierarchical level on a checklist to which

they ultimately aspire (Judge et al., 1995), to indicate whether they would like to move

into a management position (Martin et al., 1987; Rynes et al., 1988), to mark an

occupational category (Jacobs et al., 1991), or to answer a question such as “Have you

attained the highest position to which you aspire?”(Goffee & Scase, 1992; Wentling,

1996). Two-item measures of management aspirations include a combination of items

asking respondents (1) to indicate their preferences for moving into a position in

management and (2) to rate the importance of such a move (Sloan, 1993; Steiner & Farr,

1986; Stout et al., 1988; Tremblay & Roger, 1993). Finally, two studies used five and

six-item scales to measure ambition for a managerial position (Van Vianen, 1999) and

intention to assume a managerial job (Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996), respectively. These

studies used the same or similar items such as, “I want to fulfill a management position in

the near future”, “I have said to my relatives that I want to get a promotion”, and

“Management is a special challenge to me”.

Studies of management aspirations have primarily used cross-sectional surveys,

although some researchers have performed experiments (Martin et al., 1987) or employed

case study methodology including face-to-face interviews (Sloan, 1993; Wentling, 1996).

While the studies of management aspirations have used working adults as the sample
 24

population, only a handful have specifically used managers as the population of interest

(Goffee & Scase, 1992; Judge et al., 1995; Sloan, 1993; Tremblay & Roger, 1993;

Wentling, 1996).

The lack of uniformity in the conceptualization and measurement of management

aspirations limits any systematic study of potential antecedents of senior management

aspirations in three ways. First, aspirations have primarily been measured by single

items, which identify a management position by title (e.g. CEO) as a career goal.

Second, the notion of aspirations as a goal (Lewin, 1956), which includes both intention

(Haller & Miller, 1971; Jacobs et al., 1991) to pursue the goal and attitude towards the

goal, is clearly missing from prior research (Haller & Miller, 1971). A more thorough

investigation of aspirations, one that most clearly reflects its scientific roots, requires that

it encompass both an attitudinal and a behavioral component. Third, prior studies have

assessed the relationships between some combination of demographics, personal factors,

environmental variables, and management aspirations, but to date, a comprehensive

theoretical framework upon which the hypothesized relationships are based, appears to be

absent from the literature.

Finally, while prior studies do include adult populations in their samples, only a

few of them include managers in their populations of interest, and of those, the levels of

management have been defined differently. In this manner, the aspirations of managers

and professionals to positions in senior management have not been isolated from

management aspirations in general. By employing a specific definition and measure of

senior management aspirations, a sample consisting of managers and professionals, and a

theoretical framework to build upon, the present study hoped to address the prior
 25

conceptual and methodological limitations in the work on management aspirations. A

definition of senior management aspirations is offered next.

Senior Management Aspirations. Based upon the notions of goals, intentions, and

attitudes introduced above, in this study, senior management aspiration is conceptualized

as a dual-faceted construct and defined as an individual’s desire and intention to move

into a senior management position in an organization.

The measurement of senior management aspirations used in the present study

supports this conceptual definition. Based upon prior work of Tharenou and Terry

(1998), the measure includes an attitudinal and a behavioral component. The attitudinal

component represents an individual’s preferences, desires, and likes regarding a position

in senior management, and is called desired aspirations. Desired aspirations represent the

emotional component of one’s pursuit of a career goal. Tharenou and Terry (1998)

argued that “an individual’s desires are likely to be an important motivational force when

progression into or within the managerial hierarchy is difficult, enabling the high effort

and persistence needed to progress” (p. 6).

The behavioral component, enacted aspirations, includes behaviors that represent

one’s intention to gain a position in senior management and is influenced by one’s

desire. Behaviors include career planning, seeking developmental experiences, and

improving skills. The items identified were indicative of the strategies associated with

managerial aspirations (Tharenou & Terry, 1998). Since people engage in acts that are

consistent with their intentions and goals (Pinder, 1998 p. 369), we can conclude that

individuals who are engaged in the behaviors represented by the enacted aspirations

construct have the intention to pursue a position in senior management. Thus, enacted
 26

aspirations are elements in the plan of action (Locke & Latham, 1990 a; Pinder, 1998)

one undertakes to achieve the ultimate goal of attaining a position in senior management.

The proposed conceptualization and operationalization of senior management

aspirations will allow the aspirations of individuals who have the desire and intention to

pursue a position in senior management to be assessed. Individuals with managerial

experience, particularly middle managers, are the individuals for whom this desire and

intention are most salient, since they are the individuals who are promoted into the ranks

of senior management (Applebaum, 1977; Kay, 1974). Furthermore, research has shown

that as young people grow, the reality of the job market in terms of opportunities (Jacobs

et al., 1991) as well as their own self-perceived capabilities (Schein, 1978; Singer et al.,

1993) may affect their occupational aspirations. So individuals who have been in the

workforce for some time may have a more realistic view of their occupational self-

concepts. These factors, coupled with the developmental nature of aspirations, suggest

that it is imperative that we gain an understanding of the factors that influence the senior

management aspirations of individuals for whom these aspirations are most important.

The career-related issues of managers and professionals will be reviewed in a

forthcoming section. At this point, it is necessary to review existing research that has

examined the determinants of senior management aspirations.

Determinants of Senior Management Aspirations

Empirical research on the determinants of management aspirations is somewhat

sparse. Table 1 summarizes the empirical work that has been done to date.

Cognitive variables found as positively related to managerial aspirations include

managerial self-efficacy (Van Vianen, 1999), outcome expectancies and valence

regarding managerial tasks (Van Vianen, 1999; Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996), and
 27

subjective norms and their associated valence (Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996). Managerial

competence career anchors (Rynes et al., 1988) and sex-role ideology (Martin et al.,

1987) were also positively related to managerial aspirations.

Managerial self-efficacy refers to an individual’s degree of confidence that he or

she can successfully perform in a management position (Van Vianen, 1999). Outcome

expectancies and valence regarding managerial tasks refer to one’s beliefs about the

positive consequences of holding a managerial job as well as the evaluation one holds of

the outcomes or rewards of such a job (Van Vianen, 1999). Subjective norms and

valence represent the importance of beliefs about what others want the individual to do

regarding a career in management (Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996). Career anchors, based

on the work of Edgar Schein (1978), represent one’s self-perceived occupational image,

which is a natural outgrowth of his or her environmental experiences. These

environmental interactions create an occupational self-concept or paradigm regarding an

individual’s talents, abilities, motives, needs, attitudes, and values (Schein, 1978).

The above findings suggest that individuals who see their occupational self-

images in terms of management positions feel that they would be successful in

managerial jobs and value the rewards associated with management positions. These

individuals also hold aspirations to positions in management. Additionally, studies

suggest that individuals with management aspirations are those for whom work is a

salient aspect of their total life (Stout et al., 1988), who feel that a position in senior

management is attainable (Stout et al., 1988), and who participate in strategies to enhance

their career advancement potential (Rynes et al., 1988). Having worked in management

positions, or within the workforce long enough to have developed a true understanding of
 28

the nature of managerial work, managers and professionals may be the best candidates to

assess their managerial talents and abilities, as well as their affinity for positions in

management.

As Table 1 illustrates, the term management aspirations was defined differently in

each of the above studies. In one study, the type of aspirations investigated was senior

management or CEO aspirations (Sloan, 1993). The interpretability of the findings of the

other studies is limited because conclusions that one may draw about management

aspirations may not extend to senior management aspirations specifically. Furthermore,

the samples used in the preceding studies limit the generalizability of the findings.

Secretaries (Martin et al., 1987) and students (Rynes et al., 1988) may be managerial

aspirants, but it is unlikely that respondents within such samples can realistically assess

their occupational self-images in the context of senior management positions. The

present study will go beyond the existing research to focus specifically on aspirations to

senior-level management. Managers and professionals, having gained insight into the

characteristics of senior management positions, are in a position to scrutinize their own

capabilities in terms of these jobs.

Career Development of Managers and Professionals

A proliferation of research has been conducted in the area of the career

development of managers and professionals. Career development is defined as an

ongoing process by which individuals progress through a series of stages, each of which

is characterized by a relatively unique set of issues, themes, or tasks (Greenhaus et al.,

2000). The research on career development (Greenhaus et al., 2000; Schein, 1978; Super,

Savickas, & Super, 1996) is informed by the adult life development literature, which

theorizes that adults progress through a series of stages in a relatively systematic manner
 29

(Erikson, 1963; Levinson, 1986). These stages represent common phenomena in terms of

the issues that surface in the lives of most adults.

For example, Levinson (1977) suggests that a major task during early adulthood is

to form aspirations, to make commitments to people and to organizations and to strive

toward the achievement of one’s goals. He introduces the concept of the Dream, which

he defines as “an imagined possibility of self-in-world, a vision of the adult self living the

good life. It is a soil in which joyful hopes can flower, but it also nourishes illusive

beliefs: that I am capable of accomplishing everything the Dream envisages, that certain

others will unequivocally support my efforts, that fulfilling the Dream will bring me true

happiness” (p. 108).

Similarly, career stages represent common phenomena in terms of the issues that

surface in one’s work-life. Career advancement is an issue which surfaces in several of

the career stage models. For example, Super’s (1990) establishment phase, which he

connects loosely with ages 25-44, is suggestive of a time when individuals seek to secure

a permanent place at work, by committing more strongly to work and to advancement.

Greenhaus et al., (2000) suggest that during the achievement period of the early career

stage (approximate age late 30s), many individuals are concerned with moving upward

within the organization. Senior management aspirations are particularly relevant for

managers and professionals since very often industry conditions or corporate

restructuring limit hierarchical advancement opportunities (Goffee & Scase, 1992).

Thus, the issues reflected in the career stages described above are most likely relevant to

the population sampled.

 30

Given the career-related issues of managers and professionals in the establishment

stage (Super, 1990) or achievement stage of early career (Greenhaus et al., 2000),

aspirations to senior management seem indicative of one type of issue these individuals

may face when making career decisions. Career decisions, which are part of an

individual’s career development, are made within the context of one’s total life. The five

stage-career development model presented by Greenhaus et al., (2000) views an

individual’s total life, with work, family, and self-development concerns as interrelated.

As other career development scholars have suggested, while the focus of career

development research is obviously career-related, it cannot be separated from other

aspects of individuals’ lives (Krau, 1997).

Greenhaus et al., (2000) take the position that age and/or life experiences strongly

shape career aspirations, experiences, and concerns and therefore play a critical role in

the identification of career stages. While age ranges and career stages are not of primary

importance to this research, the work and life experiences of managers and professionals

do serve to highlight the factors that stand out as determinants of aspirations to a senior-

level management position for this group of individuals. In broad terms, the

identification of these factors is the research gap that this study hopes to address.

An integration of the findings from the empirical studies reviewed above and the

evidence of issues regarding managers and professionals provide support for the

following four major considerations. First, because aspirations develop over time, adults

are the most logical population to study when ascertaining factors that influence

aspirations to senior management. Second, individuals who are in management positions

or have been in the workforce for a number of years are best to judge whether they like
 31

management and whether or not they are good at it. Third, as individuals pass through

various life and career stages, it becomes important for them to know where their talents

lie, what their interests are, and to address or reassess their current situations. Finally,

career issues cannot be studied in a vacuum. It is necessary to understand the forces that

may serve to promote or constrain career decisions, in both the work and non-work

domains. Aspirations play a role in career decisions, as they are reflective of the goals

and intentions that influence individuals toward a particular course of action (Lewin,

1956). This study draws upon the career decision-making literature in an attempt to

provide a theoretical framework for the empirical investigation of the senior management

aspirations of managers and professionals.

Senior Management Aspirations as a Component of a Career Decision

The definition used in this study of career decision is based upon previous

research (Brown, 1990), which considers a career decision to be a psychological process

in which one organizes information, deliberates among alternatives, and makes a

commitment to a course of action. Thus, career decisions are the internal processes that

allow the individual to analyze various alternatives, and ultimately to accept or reject

each one. Aspirations are a component of many career decision models because they

represent the commitment one makes toward a course of action. Aspirations are also the

basis for Hall’s (1976) concept of psychological success, which he considers a facilitator

of career decisions.

Hall (1976) defines psychological success as the person’s feelings of success and

is based upon Lewin’s prior work on aspirations. According to Lewin (1956), a person’s

experience and the degree of success and failure depend upon whether the achievement is

above or below an expectation, which in this case is the momentary level of aspiration.
 32

In this manner, he inextricably links the concepts of level of aspiration and psychological

success, such that the level of aspiration is fundamental for the experience of success and

failure, and is ultimately changed by success and failure. Based upon Lewin’s prior

work, Hall (1976) posits that a sense of psychological success is likely to be achieved

under the following conditions:

1. When the person sets a challenging goal for him/herself (i.e. one representing a high
level of aspiration)
2. When the person determines his/her own means of attaining the goal
3. When the goal is important to his/her self-concept (i.e. he values the task)
4. When he/she actually attains the goal.

In terms of career decisions, the combined ideas of Lewin and Hall suggest that

individuals will continue to engage in career-related behaviors that result in feelings of

psychological success. Thus, when an individual aspires to a position and thinks it is

attainable, he or she is likely to pursue it, as long as the signals received along the way

are positively reinforcing.

Career decisions may be broad, like what type of occupation to enter, or narrow,

like whether to accept a promotion that will require relocation. The career decision-

making process seems to take place within the context of the overall career development

process, in the sense that the issues one confronts during the course of one’s career will

most likely involve choices and decisions.

Osipow (1990) and Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) note that there are important

differences among the theories of career decision-making with respect to the emphasis on

actual choices or decisions, as opposed to the process of deciding. For example, trait-

factor theories like Holland’s typology, and the self-concept aspects of Super emphasize

the choices and decisions themselves (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996). Information-oriented
 33

theories like expectancy or those based on subjective probabilities place emphasis on the

actual decision-making process. Senior management aspirations as a component of a

career decision encompass both perspectives. In this section, the process of decision-

making is addressed.

The career decision-making models grew out of more comprehensive

psychological theories of decision-making (Brown, 1990; Greenhaus et al., 2000; Osipow

& Fitzgerald, 1996). The two types of models that have evolved are prescriptive (how

decisions should be made) and descriptive (how people actually make decisions). The

descriptive models are more relevant to this research and the few that are particularly

fitting are reviewed briefly in the following paragraphs.

Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) review a variety of studies that attempt to address

career decision-making. Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) considered the essential variables

involved in decision-making as outcomes, valences of outcomes, expectancies of

outcomes, and possible alternatives. Other writers tried to apply the concept of

subjective probability estimates of success in vocational decision-making (Osipow &

Fitzgerald, 1996). Gelatt and Clarke (1967) observe that very possibly what takes place

in educational-vocational decision-making is a series of estimates of probability of

success combined with the personal value of the activities available. Osipow and

Fitzgerald (1996) and Gelatt (1962) report that career decision-making takes place as a

sequence of cognitive events. The sequence begins with collecting information,

assessing the information, and predicting outcomes of various courses of action in terms

of probability and desirability, identifying alternatives, evaluating and selecting, and

 34

finally implementing the decision. Depending upon the finality of the solution, the

process may be iterative.

Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) report on the work of Mitchell and Beach (1975)

who reviewed the research on expectancy in decision models in the context of career

choices. Mitchell and Beach (1975) concluded that empirical results substantially

support the use of models, such as decision models, in understanding career decision-

making. The models assume that individuals will choose careers believed to result in the

greatest personal benefit, provided the individuals believe that there is a good probability

they can actually obtain a position in that career. Of the descriptive models that use an

expectancy component in decision-making, Vroom’s expectancy model is touted as the

most influential (Brown & Brooks, 1996). The appeal of using expectancy theory as a

theoretical framework for a model of senior management aspirations is described in the

next section.

The Role of Expectancy Theory in Senior Management Aspirations. Expectancy

theory is a rational, goal directed model of decision-making in which people choose

courses of action that are expected to produce desirable consequences (Vroom, 1964).

Simply stated, the actions one takes, or the level of effort one expends, is a combined

function of what one can do and what one wants to do. A general model of career

decision-making based upon expectancy theory is presented in Figure 1.

In expectancy theory, a distinction is made between first and second-level

outcomes. A first-level outcome is the attainment of a particular position, which leads to

a number of second-level outcomes. Second-level outcomes are the intrinsic and

extrinsic rewards associated with a position. For example, becoming a college professor
 35

is a first level outcome. Some of the rewards and responsibilities associated with

becoming a college professor are autonomy, creativity, and teaching. These are the

second-level outcomes associated with the job. Individuals may hold positive, negative

or neutral feelings about first and second-level outcomes. The affective orientation one

holds about an outcome is called valence (Pinder, 1998).

Valence of first-level outcomes (V1) represents things that an individual wants or

values, or the “want” component in the decision-making process. Two elements,

instrumentality (I) and valence of second-level outcomes (V2) determine the valence of

first-level outcomes (V1).

Instrumentality (I) refers to the connection between first and second-level

outcomes. In the career decision-making process, instrumentality represents the

perceived likelihood that entering a particular position will result in certain rewards and

responsibilities. Decision-makers assess the likelihood that each of the career alternatives

will lead to the valued outcomes. In essence, the decision-maker perceives how

instrumental each career alternative will be in attaining the valued outcomes. A person

deciding to become a college professor will assess the likelihood that becoming a college

professor will lead, for example, to participation in scientific research.

Valence of second-level outcomes (V2) refers to one’s desire to acquire positive

outcomes and to avoid negative outcomes (Super, 1990). An outcome is positively valent

for an individual who prefers having it to not having it (Pinder, 1998). For example, a

promotion to department head is positively valent for a college professor who would

rather be promoted to department head than not be promoted. An outcome that has

negative valence is one that an individual prefers to avoid. Budget responsibilities

 36

associated with becoming a department head, for example, are negatively valent for a

college professor who would rather not have budgetary responsibilities.

As Figure 1 depicts, in addition to being a consequence of valence of first-level

outcomes (V1), the valence of second-level outcomes (V2) is also an input. Because V2

represents the way a person feels about the rewards and responsibilities associated with

entering a particular position, it influences a person’s overall feelings about attaining that

position. If an individual positively values autonomy, he or she will be attracted to

positions for which autonomy is an outcome. Expectancy theory assumes that people

will mentally multiply the value (V2) of each outcome by the instrumentality (I) for that

outcome to obtain a total attraction score (V1). A person is predicted to be most attracted

to the occupation with the highest score (Greenhaus et al., 2000).

Expectancy (E) represents the strength of a person’s belief about the degree to

which a particular first-level outcome is the result of his or her actions (Pinder, 1998).

These subjective beliefs defined as expectancies are the degree to which an individual

feels that the outcomes can be realized. The expectancy component represents the “can”

or cognitive element in the decision-making process. For an aspiring college professor,

an individual who has been accepted into a Ph.D. program is likely to have the

expectation that he or she can become a college professor by completing the Ph.D.

In sum, an individual is likely to decide upon a career if the career choice holds

valuable outcomes, the individual feels that entering into that career can attain the

outcomes, and finally, the individual believes that there is a high probability he or she

will be able to enter into that occupation. Expectancy theory is not about predicting

outcomes, but predicting behaviors. According to expectancy theory, if the valence of a

 37

particular career alternative is high, the instrumentality of that choice is high and the

expectancy for attainment of that choice is high, then it is predicted that an individual will

expend substantial effort in pursuing that career choice (Brown, 1996). Vroom’s

expectancy theory has been subjected to rigorous empirical tests and the findings of using

expectancy theory as a model of occupational decision-making have been generally

supportive (Brown, 1990; Greenhaus et al., 2000).

The model of senior management aspirations proposed in this study is

conceptually consistent with expectancy theory. It is important to note that expectancy

theory is not being tested in this study. Rather, it is used as the theoretical framework

upon which the relationships between the elements in the model of senior management

aspirations are built.

In a model of senior management aspirations, effort towards attaining a position

in senior management will be expended if an individual believes that his or her effort will

result in being promoted into a senior management position, and if the person desires

such a promotion. An explanation of the components of an expectancy model of career

decision-making as they relate to the components of a model of senior management

aspirations follows. The definitions of the constructs that comprise the model of senior

management aspirations of managers and professionals are offered in the next section,

while the hypothesized relationships among the constructs are forthcoming in Chapter 3.

See Table 2 for a summary of the components of expectancy theory and the

corresponding variables introduced in the present study. Please note that not all of the

variables proposed in the model of senior management aspirations have conceptual

equivalents in the expectancy model of career decision-making depicted in Figure 1.

 38

The Notion of Fit: Instrumentality and the Valence of Second-Level Outcomes.

Whether implicit or explicit, the ultimate goal of successful career choice is to achieve

high person-environment fit (Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991; Osipow, 1990). The

notion of career choice as a process of “matching” people and occupations is a

predominant theme in a number of highly regarded career decision-making approaches.

Whether referred to as person-environment fit, implementation of the

occupational self-concept, or congruence, the theories that emphasize this “matching”

phenomenon are characterized by the position that optimal career outcomes arise from

the fit between individual characteristics and the rewards and demands of the job. In

general, such theories traditionally emphasize the importance of abilities as the major

determinant of job success, and interests, needs, and values as the major factors affecting

job satisfaction (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996). Two widely cited theories that employ the

concept of fit are Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice (1985) and Super’s Life-Span

Life-Space Perspective (1990).

Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice (1985) views occupational choice as a

process of matching occupations and people. Holland (1985) believes that vocational

choice is an expression of an individual’s personality and his theory regarding vocational

personalities and work environments essentially attempts to match an individual’s

personality type with a work environment where that individual is likely to be a success.

Holland posits that individuals seek environments that are congruent with their

personality type. The congruence construct in Holland’s theory, taps the degree of fit

between an individual's personality and the type of work environment in which the

person currently resides or anticipates entering (Spokane, 1996).

 39

Super’s Life-Span Life-Space Perspective (1990) is based upon the notion of the

self-concept, the self-perceived image we hold of our abilities, personality traits, values,

needs, and interests. According to Super (1990), the self-concept develops over time, as

a function of the various life stages and life roles individuals confront.

Super holds that as individuals progress through the various stages and master the

associated tasks, they reach a level of vocational maturity (Osipow, 1990) which enables

them to more easily make choices and be satisfied with those choices. The ultimate goal

of an individual, according to Super, is to select the occupation that is most congruent

with his self-concept.

Invoking the matching approaches described above suggests that individuals who

are attracted to senior management positions are those for whom senior management

positions are congruent with their self-concepts. Additionally, these are individuals who

have had work-related experiences that have enabled them to gain a realistic picture of

what they like and what they are good at doing. The instrumentality and valence of

second-level outcomes components in expectancy theory are conceptually consistent with

the notion of fit. In this study, the notion of fit is derived as an assessment of one’s

senior management schema (instrumentality) relative to one’s self-concept (valence of

second-level outcomes).

Senior management schema (SMS) refers to the cognitive structure in which the

characteristics attributed to the position of senior manager are housed. These

characteristics include the requirements and rewards associated with a senior

management position. Senior management schema is really an individual’s mental

picture of a senior management position (first-level outcome) and its associated

 40

characteristics (second-level outcomes). Since instrumentality serves to link the first and

second-level outcomes in an expectancy model of career decision-making, becoming a

senior manager is seen as instrumental in attaining specific outcomes like high salary,

long work hours, power, profit and loss responsibility, and the sovereignty to make

strategic decisions.

The senior management self-assessment (SMSA), based upon Super’s (1990)

notion of an occupational self-concept and Schein’s (1978) managerial competence

career anchor, represents an individual’s perception of his or her abilities, skills, motives,

and talents in the context of a senior management position. A career anchor is defined as

one’s self-perceived talents, abilities, motives, needs, attitudes, and values (Schein,

1978). These self-perceptions are based on actual work experiences (Schein, 1978). The

managerial competence career anchor closely matches the abilities, skills, motives, and

talents identified in various studies on senior managers. The characteristics of the

managerial competence career anchor reveal an individual who appears to thrive on the

challenges presented by a career in general management.

The valence of second-level outcomes suggests that individuals view the outcomes

associated with a position in senior management as having positive, negative, or neutral

value. The senior management self-assessment is essentially asking an individual to

make a value judgment regarding his or her abilities, skills, and motives in the context of

a senior management position. Consider the following example. A second-level

outcome associated with being a senior-level manager may be to make decisions under

conditions of extreme uncertainty. For an individual who has a low tolerance for

uncertainty, this job requirement will have negative valence (or not be valued). The
 41

second-level outcomes associated with becoming a senior manager must be positively

valent to an individual for that individual to think about attaining such a position.

The combination of positively valent second-level outcomes along with the belief

that entering a particular position will be instrumental in attaining those outcomes,

predicts the overall level of valence that obtaining a position in senior management

(valence of first-level outcome) has for an individual. It is essentially the fit or

congruence between an individual’s senior management schema and senior management

self-assessment that will influence the overall level of valence an individual holds

towards a position in senior management.

As suggested in the theories of career decision-making discussed above, to

determine a level of congruence, one must possess substantial knowledge of his or her

capabilities and interests as well as the environmental requirements. While some

scholars indicate that the occupational self-concept may include lifestyle characteristics

(Gottfredson, 1981), both the SMS and the SMSA focus only on the work-related

characteristics associated with positions in senior management. The primary reason for

this is that the literature which views career decision-making as a process of “matching”

is characterized by the position that optimal career outcomes arise from the fit between

individual characteristics and the rewards and demands of the job. In general, such

theories traditionally emphasize the importance of abilities and needs as the major

determinant of career interests and job success (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996). The

matching process involved in a career decision-making task involves only work-related

characteristics and not non-work or lifestyle characteristics.

 42

In this research, congruence is conceptualized as the degree of compatibility

between one’s senior management schema (SMS) and one’s senior management self-

assessment (SMSA). Thus, the product of instrumentality and the valence of second

level outcomes (I x V2) is consistent with the notion of fit. In a model of senior

management aspirations, an individual with high congruence sees a senior management

position as instrumental in the attainment of positively valued outcomes. These

individuals aspire to positions in senior management.

Desired and Enacted Aspirations: Valence of First-Level Outcomes and Behavior.

Expectancy theory is consistent with the distinction between desired and enacted

aspirations, the two facets of the dependent variable in the present study. As mentioned

previously, senior management aspirations are considered an aspect of a very specific

career decision and defined as an individual’s desire and intention to move into a senior

management position within an organization. Senior management aspirations encompass

both attitudinal (desire) and behavioral (intention) components of an individual’s

aspirations to a senior management position. Conceptually, the attitudinal and behavioral

components of senior management aspirations are consistent with the valence of first-

level outcomes and behavior components in an expectancy model of career decision-

making.

Desired aspirations refers to the internalized feelings an individual possesses

regarding a senior management position. Desired aspirations is conceptually consistent

with the valence of first-level outcomes or the “want” component in the expectancy

model of career decision-making. In a model of senior management aspirations of

managers and professionals, valence of a first-level outcome is represented by an

 43

individual’s desire to attain a position in senior management. As mentioned in the prior

section, valence of a first-level outcome is influenced by the combination of positively

valent second-level outcomes and the belief that becoming a senior manager will be

instrumental in attaining those outcomes, which in the present study is consistent with

congruence. Therefore, an individual’s congruence will predict his or her desire to attain

a position in senior management or (I x V2 ➔ V1)1.

Consistent with expectancy theory, the current study suggests that an individual’s

desire to attain a position in senior management will influence his or her behaviors. The

behavioral component of senior management aspirations is referred to as enacted

aspirations and defined as those behaviors exhibited by an individual which reflect his or

her desire to attain a position in senior management. Behaviors might include

participating in career development opportunities, networking, and working long hours.

The enacted aspirations facet of senior management aspirations provides tangible

evidence of an individual’s intention to pursue a position in senior management. As

expectancy theory suggests, an individual’s enacted aspirations (behavior) will be

predicted in part, by his or her desires. Thus, while attitudes and behaviors are both part

of the senior management aspirations construct, expectancy theory supports the notion

that they are conceptually distinct.

Given the conceptual distinction between desired and enacted aspirations, it is

possible that they will be influenced differentially. An expectancy model of career

decision-making suggests that valence of first level outcomes, or what an individual

wants, in combination with what an individual believes is possible or expects (E) will

________________________________________________________________________
1
In the model in the present study, ∑IV2 connotes congruence, which influences V1. In most expectancy
models ∑IV2=V1.
 44

predict a level of effort or behavior. Thus, in combination with desired aspirations or

“wants,” enacted aspirations will be predicted by a “can” component or expectancy

variable(s). The variables in the present study, which are conceptually similar to the

expectancy (E) component in a model of career decision-making, will be introduced

shortly. First, it is necessary to recognize that in addition to congruence, other factors

may affect an individual’s desired aspirations. These factors are discussed in the next

section.

Factors thatIinfluence Desired Aspirations. Greenhaus et al., (2000) suggest that

lifestyle encompasses the balance between work, family and leisure activities. All

individuals, single or in committed relationships, with or without children, have aspects

of their personal lives that could potentially affect the relationship between their

compatibility with the requirements of a senior management position and their desire to

pursue such a position. Krau (1997) posits that an individual’s vocational aspirations

must be realized to attain one’s overarching life aspirations, since career as an element of

life is expected to fulfill certain needs. In this manner, career aspirations cannot be

extricated from one’s overall life aspirations or lifestyle. Levinson’s (1986) concept of

the Dream suggests that individuals possess an idealized picture of themselves in the

world. The Dream reinforces one’s beliefs that he or she is capable of accomplishing all

that he or she wants, that significant others will be supportive of his or her efforts toward

accomplishment and that the fulfillment of the dream is a means to attain overall

happiness.

The views of Krau (1997) and Levinson (1986) seem to suggest that aspects of

one’s total life must be considered when any career decisions are made. Specifically,
 45

career decisions must be made within the context of one’s non-work involvement and

commitments. One factor which individuals may contemplate when considering the

fulfillment of career aspirations is off-job involvement.

Off-job involvement represents the commitments one has with family and other

non-work activities such as leisure, social, community, and self-preservation (Godshalk,

1997). Primarily used in the work-family literature, measures of off-job involvement are

thought to capture more of the non-work demands placed on the individual than

traditional family involvement measures were capable of (Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991;

O'Driscoll, Ilgen, & Hildreth, 1992). Off-job involvement can be behavioral or

psychological.

Behavioral involvement refers to time commitments or actual hours spent on an

off-job activity, such as household chores, community activities, or self-preservation.

Psychological involvement refers to the thoughts and feelings generated by the activity,

such as thinking about obligations to serve in a political group, or worrying about a sick

child. Off-job involvement (as off-job interference with job activities) has been found to

be related to psychological strain (O'Driscoll et al., 1992). Other findings suggest that

off-job involvement is related to non-work attitudes such as off-job satisfaction

(Godshalk, 1997). To date, off-job involvement has been studied as a mediating variable

(Godshalk, 1997; O'Driscoll et al., 1992), where this study treated it as a moderating

variable because of the impact it is expected to have on the relationship between

congruence and desired aspirations.

Recent research suggests that priorities regarding career versus family and other

aspects of life may influence an individual’s aspirations to positions in senior level

 46

management (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000; Schwartz, 1992). Career focused

individuals tend to aspire to senior-level management positions, compared to family

focused individuals who are less likely to aspire (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000;

Schwartz, 1992). These findings indicate that heavy involvement in some off-job

activities affect an individual’s aspirations to positions in senior management.

Individual’s who see their occupational selves in terms that are congruent with senior

management positions may still not want to pursue such a position, given the priorities

they have placed on activities outside of their careers.

Individuals may not be willing to sacrifice the physical time and psychic energy

they spend in off-job activities to meet the demands of a senior management position,

even if a senior management position is appealing to them. Individuals who are highly

involved in off-job activities may see their lifestyles as incompatible with the lifestyle

requirements of senior management positions. For these people, the desire to become a

senior manager is lowered by their involvement in, and maybe even preference for,

activities outside of work.

Prior research suggests that in addition to off-job involvement, gender may

influence the relationship between an individual’s schema-self congruence and desired

aspirations. In fact, gender may affect multiple relationships in a model of senior

management aspirations. Because of the multiple effects of gender in this research, it

will be discussed in detail in a forthcoming section. At this point however, it is important

to note that regardless of how desirous an individual is of becoming a senior manager,

there may be conditions in the environment that will constrain the relationship between
 47

the desire to become a senior manager and the actual intention to pursue such a position.

These constraints are the subject of the next section.

Expectancy Variables: Advancement Prospects and Career Support. In a model

of senior management aspirations, expectancy is translated as the perception that an

individual holds that his or her actions will result in a position in senior management.

Congruence simply suggests that individuals are attracted to jobs that they like and that

they think they will be good at performing. Expectancy theory supports these ideas but

also suggests that it is the valence of a first-level outcome multiplied by the expectation

that the outcome is attainable by engaging in certain behaviors, that ultimately predicts

those behaviors (V1 x E). An individual’s perception about whether his or her actions

will result in a senior management position may be influenced by extraneous factors. For

example, Schein (1993) notes that a person’s career anchor may not always match what

he or she is doing occupationally because of external constraints over which the person

has no control. Thus, valence of a first-level outcome and instrumentality do not

automatically result in behavior. Expectancy also plays a critical role (V1 x I x E).

In their career management model, Greenhaus et al., (2000) suggest that the

feedback one obtains from work or non-work sources can reinforce or lead to

modification of a goal. As such, work and non-work factors may serve to enable or

constrain the relationship between one’s self-appraisal and environmental-appraisal (i.e.

congruence) and one’s aspirations to senior management. Since expectancy theory

suggests that an individual will pursue outcomes that are valuable as long as he or she has

the expectation that his or her efforts will result in those outcomes, it is imperative to

understand the factors that may influence an individual’s level of expectancy and its
 48

effect on the relationship between the valence of first-level outcomes and behaviors. In

an effort to understand the factors that influence an individual’s aspirations to senior

management, this research focused on factors that could serve to constrain the

relationship between one’s desired aspirations and one’s enacted aspirations.

A distinction must be made between the factors that influence the relationship

between one’s congruence and desired aspirations, and those that affect the relationship

between one’s desires and his or her intentions to act. As described in the previous

section, lifestyle factors are expected to influence one’s desire to become a senior

manager, regardless of his or her congruence, because of the potential incompatibility

between one’s lifestyle involvements and the lifestyle of a senior manager. Alternatively,

even if an individual has a desire to become a senior manager, that is, a high degree of fit

and a compatible lifestyle, one’s perceptions of the attainability of a position in senior

management may impact his or her decision to pursue such a position. Consistent with

the notion of expectancy, an individual must believe that a position in senior management

is attainable before engaging in behaviors that may to lead to such a position.

Two elements that are consistent with the notion of expectancy, or the “can”

component in a model of senior management aspirations, that may affect an individual’s

perception of the attainability of a position in senior management are advancement

prospects and career support.

These factors reflect “current” experiences and may seem to have no potential

influence on aspirations, which are “future” oriented. The argument here is that current

incompatibilities between environmental demands and personal career desires do have

the potential to impact future outcomes. This is so because of the intensity of effort
 49

needed to progress hierarchically in a career, such that any deviation from specific career

enhancing behaviors may diminish an individual’s chances of success.

The ecological approach to decision making helps to further explain the relevance

of current constraining forces on future aspirations. This approach to career decision-

making views decisions as links in a chain, where each decision can be made only

immediately prior to action, yet preparing for the act of deciding and planning the

implementation of the decision itself are necessary (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996).

Although decisions in the present have immediate implications, their long-range effects

and estimates of their effects on future decisions are to be considered at the time of

deciding (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996). An individual who decides to move

geographically for a promotion now may be doing so with the expectation that the

geographic move will increase his or her chances of advancement. Similarly, if an

individual who is constrained geographically refuses a transfer, he or she may see this as

self-selecting out of future advancement opportunities (Stroh, Brett, & Reilly, 1992), a

factor which could diminish any future intention to pursue advancement.

Advancement prospects are the beliefs an individual holds regarding his or her

probability of achieving a senior management position in an organization. These beliefs

arise as a result of cues from the environment. Cues may be real or perceived,

organization specific or non-organization specific, and include the number of positions or

opportunities available, the number of past promotions or the type of past work

assignments.

Conceptually, advancement prospects are based upon Gottfredson’s (1981) notion

of perceived accessibility which refers to opportunities in the environment that affect

 50

one’s chances of getting into a particular occupation or position. Gottfredson (1981)

suggests that individuals judge the accessibility of an occupation or position by a number

of factors: availability of the job within the surrounding geographic area, perceptions of

discrimination or favoritism, ease of obtaining training for the job, or lack of knowledge

of how to enter the job.

Gottfredson (1981) suggests further that an individual’s judgments about the

accessibility of a position reflects his or her opinion about how probable it is that one

could enter a particular job, and therefore influence how seriously the person will

consider that job as a viable career alternative. Empirical findings indicate that an

individual’s perceived mobility opportunities are positively related to career exploration

(Sugalski & Greenhaus, 1986), suggesting that a person must see a potential payoff

before he or she engages in the process of career decision-making. In the context of

senior management aspirations, even an individual who sees him or herself in terms that

are congruent with a position in senior management must perceive advancement as likely

before he or she engages in behaviors associated with attaining such a position.

This decision process is reflective of components of expectancy theory, which

suggests that career decisions are partially based on one’s expectations for attainment of

the desired career alternative. Essentially, advancement prospects which result from an

individual’s assessment of environmental cues will interact with an individual’s desire to

attain a position in senior management (which has already been influenced by

congruence), and may alternately encourage or discourage an individual from actively

pursuing a particular position.

 51

Based on a comprehensive review of the literature, Markham et al. (1987) suggest

that employees base their mobility expectations on organizational opportunity structures

including how fast they’ve been promoted to date, rates of promotion for peers with

similar qualifications, how their education, training, and performance compare to

competitors, the number of vacancies in positions to which people in their job often

advance, and how long they have been in the present job (Alvarez, 1979; Anderson,

Milkovich & Tsui, 1981, p. 258; cf. Kipnis, 1964; Kanter, 1977). Additional reasons for

low promotion expectations include low accessibility, unfairness in the promotion

system, holding an unfavorable position in the opportunity structure (Markham et al.,

1987), a perception that positions outside of one’s area of expertise are inaccessible

(Kotter, 1986; Sloan, 1993), that a large number of individuals are competing for a small

number of high level positions (Wentling, 1996) and finally, that individuals who have

reached a plateau within their own organization perceive themselves as having low

marketability in other organizations (Stout et al., 1988).

The above studies indicate that individuals rely on environmental cues that

suggest that advancement is not only feasible, but also likely. For these reasons, it is

expected that regardless of congruence and desire, the intensity of one’s intentions to

pursue a senior management position may be affected by one’s perceived advancement

prospects.

Career support is a type of social support which indicates to an individual that the

provider of the support has taken an active interest in his or her career aspirations. Based

upon the social support construct, career support allows an individual to translate his or

her desire to attain a position in senior management into an enacted behavior. Career
 52

support may come from providers in either the work or the non-work domain. In the

work domain, one’s supervisor may provide support (Jiang & Klein, 2000). In the non-

work domain, social support may be provided by a spouse or partner, the family unit, and

others who comprise an individual’s social network (Carlson & Perrewe, 1999).

Social support has been defined as an exchange of resources between two

individuals perceived as the intention to enhance the well-being of the recipient

(Shumaker & Brownell, 1984) and as an interpersonal transaction that involves emotional

concern, instrumental aid, information, or appraisal (Carlson & Perrewe, 1999). Thus in

broad terms, social support may be either emotional or instrumental (Granrose,

Parasuraman, & Greenhaus, 1992). Emotional support represents the affective aspects of

support and includes such things as trust, empathy, love, and encouragement (Granrose et

al., 1992). Friedman and Greenhaus (2000) suggest that two types of emotional support

exist, personal and career support. Personal support helps with personal and family

problems, while career support helps with work-related problems (Friedman &

Greenhaus, 2000).

Instrumental support, also referred to as tangible support (Purohit, 1999) or

behavioral support (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), refers to the non-affective aspects of

support and includes providing time, resources, and skills used for both physical help, as

well as cognitive help such as feedback, problem solving, and factual information

(Granrose et al., 1992).

Individuals can benefit from personal and career-related support (Friedman &

Greenhaus, 2000) from a variety of sources within their social networks, or within the

non-work domain. While a majority of studies focus on support provided by a partner,

 53

individuals who are not in long-term, committed relationships may also benefit from

support from significant members of their social networks. Parents, siblings, and friends

may provide emotional and behavioral support to individuals, which may enable them to

face career-related challenges and decisions.

As Friedman and Greenhaus (2000) suggest, individuals who benefit from social

support may experience enhanced well-being, which may bolster feelings of confidence

and self-esteem, and potentially aid in solving career related problems, or influence

occupational success. Additionally, behavioral support can provide time and flexibility at

home that better enables individuals to meet demands at work (Friedman & Greenhaus,

2000). Individuals who desire positions in senior management will benefit from social

support provided in the non-work domain.

Empirical research has shown that social support has an influence on a variety of

work-related outcomes such as career satisfaction (Carlson & Perrewe, 1999), job

satisfaction (Purohit, 1999), job commitment (Purohit, 1999), time commitment to work

(Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996), absenteeism (Purohit, 1999), and job

performance (Purohit, 1999).

Social support from one’s supervisor has been shown to act as a buffer in stressful

situations, giving individuals the strength to tackle difficult issues (Spreitzer & Quinn,

1996). Three important mechanisms for support include sharing information, sharing

resources, and providing access to essential sociopolitical networks (Spreitzer & Quinn,

1996). Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990) suggest that supervisory support

may take the form of career guidance and information, performance feedback, and

challenging work assignments that promote development. Supervisory social support is

 54

particularly important for enhancing middle managers’ motivation to take risks and make

changes (Spreitzer & Quinn, 1996).

Career support may take the form of presenting opportunities for career

development and training, both viewed as facilitators of advancement (Gould & Penley,

1984; Kotter, 1986; Lyness & Thompson, 2000; Wentling, 1996). Career support from

one’s supervisor has been found to be positively related to training and development

(Tharenou et al., 1994) as well as to promotions and managerial level (Tharenou &

Conroy, 1994). Mentoring, a type of career support has also been found to be positively

related to career development (Wentling, 1996). Career support may provide signals to

individuals that they can attain positions in senior management. Since a lack of career

support from superiors (Wentling, 1996) and prevention of training opportunities

(Tharenou & Conroy, 1994) were negatively related to career development, they may

also have a negative impact on an individual’s career aspirations. Specifically, regardless

of congruence, career support is posited to attenuate the relationship between an

individual’s desire to become a senior-level manager and his or her enacted behaviors.

From a career decision-making perspective, expectancy theory holds that an

individual mentally multiplies the attractiveness, or valence, of an occupation by his or

her beliefs that he or she will be able to enter that particular occupation. The product of

one’s belief that he or she could attain a particular position and the attractiveness or

valence of the position, will lead to certain behaviors.

In a model of senior management aspirations, if an individual believes that he or

she is capable of attaining a position in senior management, and desires a position in

senior management (based on the fact that he or she desires the rewards associated with
 55

the position and feels that once in the position those rewards are likely to come), then that

person will expend the effort, or participate in certain behaviors that will most likely lead

to a position in senior management. In this manner, a model of senior management

aspirations is framed within the context of a career decision. It is not enough for an

individual to merely hold desired aspirations; one must believe that those aspirations have

the potential to be realized before any decisions regarding their attainment will be made.

The prior sections reveal that individuals account for lifestyle and environmental

variables when making career-related decisions. Evidence suggests that these lifestyle

and environmental factors may affect women and men differently, ultimately leading

them to make different career decisions. This suggests that gender may play a role in

affecting an individual’s senior management aspirations. In the next section, the role of

gender as it relates to an individual’s aspirations to senior management will be explored.

The Role of Gender and Senior Management Aspirations. Between 1983 and

1996, the percentage of women managers increased from 34 to 44 (Greenhaus et al.,

2000). However, recent empirical findings indicate that less than 1 percent of top

executive positions in Fortune 500 companies are held by women (Schneer & Reitman,

1995). In their longitudinal study of 676 men and women MBA’s (49% men, 51%

women), Schneer and Reitman (1995) found that only 9 percent of the women compared

to 23 percent of the men held top management positions. In general, women appear to

reach upper-middle management but go no further, a concept generally referred to as the

“glass ceiling” (Powell, 1999; Schneer & Reitman, 1995).

Studies that explore the discrepancies in the numbers of women versus men

senior-level managers are plentiful. Personal, organizational, and societal factors have all
 56

been cited as contributing to the low numbers of women who reach the top of the

corporate hierarchy (Powell & Mainiero, 1992). For example, career interruptions, dual-

career demands, and parenting demands have affected the rate at which women advance

up the corporate hierarchy (Bailyn, 1980) as well as impact the decisions they make

about the directions their careers should take (Powell & Mainiero, 1992).

In terms of individual differences, the gender discrepancies at the top of corporate

hierarchies are apparently not accounted for by differences in work values (Rowe &

Snizek, 1995; Sagie, Elizur, & Koslowsky, 1996). For the most part, men and women

hold very similar work values. The small differences that do exist tend to be reduced as

women become more firmly entrenched in the workplace (Rowe & Snizek, 1995). In

general, since gender differences do not remain stable over time (Sagie et al., 1996),

gender by itself is thought to be a poor predictor of preference for particular work values

(Rowe & Snizek, 1995).

Data suggest that while employment rates for women are lower than those for

men until mid-life, this trend is reversed for workers at mid-life and beyond (Greller &

Stroh, 1995). It has been suggested that this trend can be attributed to the importance

women place on work as they age and their child-rearing responsibilities decrease. How

might this be related to the discrepancies between men and women in management

positions?

If, as the research suggests, there are no gender differences in work values, and

that once women reach mid-life, they appear in the workforce in numbers very close, if

not equal, to those of men, there must be some explanation for why there are so few

women who are senior-level managers as compared with men.

 57

Organizational practices regarding alternative work arrangements and family

friendly supports, staffing and promotion decisions, and career path planning have also

been associated with the low numbers of women in senior management positions (Powell

& Mainiero, 1992). Astin (1984) suggests that women make career decisions based upon

the expectation that their work choices will satisfy their needs. Distribution of jobs, sex

typing of jobs, discrimination within career paths, and family structure all affect women’s

career decisions (Powell & Mainiero, 1992).

Research has shown that in terms of advancement, the individuals who have

benefited the most in the workplace are men with children whose spouses are not

employed outside the home (Brett, 1997). Most men do not see career as a constraint on

decisions to marry and have children, whereas women, who carry the bulk of the family

responsibilities, often accommodate their careers for their family lives (Powell &

Mainiero, 1992).

This suggests that men have not had to choose between having children and

having a career, yet women have. If more women than men have had to choose between

having children and having careers, then it seems plausible that fewer women would be

in the viable labor pool being groomed for promotions. This is consistent with findings

that reveal that by mid-career, there is a lower percentage of women managers, as

compared with men managers, who have a post-traditional family structure (Parasuraman

& Greenhaus, 1993; Schneer & Reitman, 1995). This indicates that of the small minority

of senior-level managers who are women, the majority of them are either single or

married without children.

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Some studies suggest that gender-based discrimination and differential demands

of family life individually fail to account for the magnitude of the differences in the

advancement of female and male managers (Ohlott, Ruderman, & McCauley, 1994).

Perhaps some of the variability in the advancement of men and women in management

can be accounted for by differences in aspirations.

There is some evidence that women’s aspirations for advancement are lower than

men’s aspirations (Greenhaus et al., 1997) and that women managers aspire to lower

managerial positions (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1993). The notion of lower aspirations

may seem contradictory to the findings that suggest that there are no significant gender

differences in work values. One could argue that while advancement has been defined

and studied as a work value, aspirations has not been specifically measured in these

studies.

In correspondence with past research, the expectation in the present study is that

gender will account for differences in an individual’s desire to become a senior manager,

regardless of schema-self congruence. Furthermore, it is expected that gender will

attenuate the relationship between desired and enacted aspirations. This study hopes to

extend existing research by providing additional explanations as to why women hold

lower aspirations toward senior management positions than men.

Gender and Off-Job Involvement. More often than not, women assume primary

responsibility for the care of the household and the children (Friedman & Greenhaus,

2000), spend more time involved in family activities (Gutek et al., 1991), and are more

likely to be family focused than career focused (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000; Schwartz,

1992). Powell and Mainiero (1992) suggest that the balance women seek to achieve
 59

between work and non-work relationships affects their career decisions and choices. Jobs

in senior management have enormous responsibilities, time demands and pressures, and

require a tremendous amount of sacrifice in one’s personal life (Powell, 1999). For these

reasons it appears that senior management jobs hold less interest for women than for men

(Powell & Mainiero, 1992).

Women may seem less likely to aspire to positions in senior management, when in

reality the differences in aspirations may be accounted for by the fact that women are

more likely than men to be deeply involved in off-job activities (O'Driscoll et al., 1992).

That is, women may see their lifestyles as less compatible with senior management

positions than men do. When accounting for off-job activities, the expectation in this

study is for the gender difference in aspirations to disappear.

As mentioned previously, even if individuals see themselves as fitting into

positions in senior management, have low off-job activities and a strong desire to attain

such positions, advancement prospects and career support are still necessary to allow

individuals to translate their desires into actions and behaviors. In other words, the

expectation for attainment of senior management positions must be present for

individuals to actively pursue such positions. The literature suggests that women may

view lower advancement prospects and less career support than men, perhaps accounting

for differences in aspirations.

Gender and Advancement Prospects. Since women appear to encounter a glass

ceiling when trying to move from middle to senior management positions (Powell, 1999),

it is likely that they perceive fewer opportunities for advancement than men. While

Igbaria and Greenhaus (1992) found a weak relationship between gender and
 60

advancement prospects, many studies suggest that the opportunity structures necessary

for advancement are more limited for women than for men (Gould & Penley, 1984;

Powell, 1999; Powell & Mainiero, 1992). For example, line experience is necessary for

advancement into the ranks of senior management (Kanter, 1977), and women have

found it difficult to move from the staff positions into which they were initially hired to

line positions (Powell & Mainiero, 1992). Since the challenge associated with line

positions may result in more challenging managerial assignments (Rosenbaum, 1984) and

women are less likely to work in line positions (Powell & Mainiero, 1992), it follows that

they would view fewer opportunities for challenge and advancement than men would.

Baron, Davis-Blake, and Bielby (1986) found that women were significantly less

likely to be in jobs that lead to hierarchical success, whereas men were less likely to be in

dead-end jobs and more likely to be promoted. When women who desire positions in

senior management encounter the glass ceiling they become frustrated and consider other

options (Powell, 1999). Stroh, Brett, and Reilly (1996) report than women are more

likely to leave their organizations when they are frustrated by a lack of career

opportunities than men who experience the same amount of frustration. While it may

appear that women have lower aspirations to positions in senior management than men,

the reality may be that women refrain from engaging in behaviors that are indicative of

their aspirations, seeing those behaviors as futile. When accounting for advancement

prospects, the expectation in this study is for the gender difference in aspirations to

disappear.

Gender and Career Support. Research suggests that in both the work and non-

work domains, the outcomes of the types of support received are different for women and
 61

men. For example, Friedman and Greenhaus (2000) found that behavioral support at

home leads to higher organizational levels for men. Personal support at home for women

leads to higher job performance but not to promotions. Konrad and Cannings (1997)

found that men who were offering tangible support by participating more fully in family

labor were penalized in terms of promotability, suggesting that men may be sacrificing

their careers by offering support for their wives careers.

King, Mattimore, King, and Adams (1995) found that high levels of emotional

support from one’s family positively influenced job satisfaction but that for women, the

support was contingent on whether or not their husbands worked. Men received the same

amount of emotional support and reported the same levels of job satisfaction whether

their wives worked or not. These findings seem to suggest that women provide

emotional support for their spouses regardless of their own employment status but men

are less emotionally supportive to their spouses when they are employed full-time.

Support from one’s supervisor can provide access to the appropriate

developmental assignments, work experiences, and networking opportunities needed to

make it to the top of an organization (Tharenou, 1997 a). There is some evidence that

suggests that the support received by men and women from their supervisors may have

differential outcomes.

For example, while mentoring has been determined to be crucial to an employee’s

personal development (Powell & Mainiero, 1992) and career success (Kanter, 1977),

evidence suggests that access to mentors and the quality of the mentoring relationships

are different for women and men (Powell & Mainiero, 1992). The type and quality of

feedback women receive from their supervisors may be different than the feedback that
 62

men receive (Kanter, 1977), which could make it more difficult for women to prepare for

promotional opportunities (Powell & Mainiero, 1992). In terms of networking, women

encounter problems developing effective networks because the relationships they form

are often outside of the organization’s dominant male hierarchy (Powell & Mainiero,

1992).

As the research suggests, women may perceive less support for their career

aspirations to positions in senior management than men, lowering their intentions to

pursue such positions. Thus, the expectation is, when accounting for career support,

there are no differences in the aspirations of men and women to positions in senior

management.

Research Opportunities

Empirical evidence suggests that research on the aspirations of managers and

professionals is needed in order to better our understanding of the special career

development needs of this group (Goffee & Scase, 1992; Tharenou, 1997 a, 1997 b;

Tharenou & Conroy, 1994; Tharenou et al., 1994; Tharenou & Terry, 1998).

Furthermore, an exploration of the determinants of senior management aspirations is

most relevant in this population, as they are the individuals for whom such as career

decision is most salient (Applebaum, 1977; Kay, 1974; Wentling, 1996).

The literature review presented in this chapter has shown that our understanding

of senior management aspirations is somewhat limited. Limitations of prior research are

in part due to the use of unidimensional measures, as well as the lack of uniformity in the

conceptualization of management aspirations. Existing research has failed to identify

 63

antecedents of aspirations and perhaps more importantly, has been limited by the absence

of a theoretical underpinning upon which strong empirical research can be built. This

study hopes to address each of these concerns in order to further our understanding of the

factors that influence an individual’s aspirations to senior management.

The model proposed in this research, and detailed in Chapter 3, is grounded in the

career development and decision-making literature, and poses management aspirations as

a very important element in the career decision-making process. The literature reviewed

above has led to two major assumptions upon which the model of senior management

aspirations of managers and professionals is based. First, an individual who desires to

move into a senior management position will undergo various cognitive and behavioral

processes in an attempt to satisfy that desire. Second, specific lifestyle and work-related

factors may affect an individual’s aspirations to senior management.

In keeping with the logic provided by the theories of career development and

decision-making, the model of senior management aspirations of managers and

professionals requires that an individual possess self-knowledge and environmental

knowledge. The cognitive nature of senior management aspirations is based upon the

notion that individuals seek occupational environments that are congruent with their self-

concepts. Furthermore, while congruence may drive an individual toward a particular

career decision, one’s gender, as well as conditions such as off-job involvement,

advancement prospects, and career support may influence the outcome of the decision.
 64

Chapter 3: RESEARCH FOCUS

The aim of this chapter is to describe in detail a model of senior management

aspirations. The factors that influence an individual’s aspirations to senior management

are introduced, and the hypothesized relationships among them are analyzed. The

following sections include the research questions that this study addresses and the

theoretical rationale upon which each hypothesized relationship is based. The chapter

concludes by explaining the potential contributions of this study to the literature.

Research Purpose and Questions

The broad purpose of this research is to enhance our understanding of the factors

that influence an individual’s aspirations to a position in senior management within an

organization. First, this study offers a conceptualization of senior management

aspirations that takes into account prior empirical research, and incorporates the use of a

multi-dimensional measure of aspirations. Second, this research identifies potential

antecedents of senior management aspirations, in the context of a career decision-making

framework, in an effort to provide a theoretical basis for understanding the phenomenon.

Third, the population of interest in this research includes managers and professionals.

While prior studies have examined the aspirations of young people, primarily students,

this study hopes to address the needs of a population for whom aspirations to senior

management are most relevant.

The specific question that this research hopes to answer is: What factors

influence an individual’s aspirations to senior- level management?

 65

In keeping with common frameworks set forth by theories of career decision-

making, the hypothesized relationships in the model of senior management aspirations

are consistent with an expectancy theory approach. Matching, as an approach to career

decision-making, is also employed to delineate and justify relationships among the

constructs. Holland (1985) proposed that career development and associated career

decisions take place as a process of “matching” where individuals strive to find

occupations that are congruent with their self-concepts.

The “matching” process required for career decisions takes place on two levels in

this model. First, an individual assesses the compatibility between his or her senior

management schema and senior management self-assessment. Next, an individual who

feels that a senior management position is highly congruent with his or her self-concept

assesses salient aspects of the environment to determine whether circumstantial factors

will constrain his or her aspirations to senior management. Both work and lifestyle

variables that may ultimately serve to constrain an individual’s aspirations to senior

management are included for examination.

Hypothesized Relationships

This section discusses the hypothesized effects of specific variables on the desired

and enacted aspirations of managers and professionals to senior management positions.

The fit between senior management schema and senior management self-assessment,

indicated by congruence was expected to positively influence desired aspirations. Off-

job involvement and gender were expected to moderate the relationship between

congruence and desired aspirations, although when controlling for off-job involvement,
 66

the gender effect was expected to disappear. Advancement prospects, career support, and

gender were expected to moderate the relationship between desired aspirations and

enacted aspirations. It was further expected, that when controlling for advancement

prospects and career support, the moderating effect of gender would disappear. Figure 2

graphically depicts the hypothesized relationships in this study.

The Impact of Congruence on Desired Aspirations

A commonly accepted theme among career decision-making scholars is that

occupational choice exists as a process of “matching” one’s self-perceived skills,

abilities, talents, and preferences with an occupation in which these skills, abilities,

talents, and preferences can best be utilized. For example, a person who feels he or she

possesses strong interpersonal skills may look for an occupation that necessitates use of

those skills. In the context of senior management aspirations, the notion of matching or

congruence suggests that individuals perceive the functions, tasks, and roles associated

with a senior management position as consistent with their own capabilities and

occupational preferences. A match between senior management schema (SMS) and

senior management self-assessment (SMSA) is referred to as congruence and reflects a

case in which an individual perceives a senior management position in terms that are

highly consistent with his or her senior management self-assessment. The conceptual and

empirical evidence that supports the notion of congruence as a means of understanding

senior management aspirations is reviewed below and a hypothesis is offered.

A number of scholars have conceptualized the concept of matching an individual

to an occupation as part of the occupational choice process. Whether it has been referred

to as congruence or person-environment fit, this matching notion suggests that

individuals seek occupational environments to which they are attracted both intrinsically
 67

regarding the nature of the work itself, and extrinsically as in the rewards of the

occupation. According to Holland (1985), congruence is a construct which taps the

degree of fit between an individual’s personality and the type of work environment in

which the person currently resides or anticipates entering. Other scholars refer to the

individual’s personality as the occupational self-concept (Gottfredson, 1981; Schein,

1975; Super, 1990).

An individual’s occupational self-concept develops over a period of time as a

result of various experiences which allow the individual to succeed at certain types of

tasks (Super, 1990; Super et al., 1996). As the individual grows older, he integrates the

various pictures he has of himself into a consistent self-concept, which he strives to

preserve and enhance through all his activities, but particularly through his occupational

activities (Crites, 1969). Individuals attempt to select occupations which are compatible

with their self-concepts (Crites, 1969; Gottfredson, 1981; Holland, 1985). A large

amount of empirical evidence supports the notion that people prefer and/or choose

occupations that are compatible with their self-concepts (Greenhaus et al., 2000).

Researchers contend that a high degree of congruence between one’s occupational

self-concept and occupational environment leads to preferences for occupational

membership, occupational tenure, and occupational change (Chartrand & Walsk, 1999),

suggesting that occupations that are highly compatible with one’s sense of self will be

highly valued; those that are highly incompatible will be strongly disliked (Gottfredson,

1981). Furthermore, these preferences tend to be stable over time, because individuals

tend to choose environments based upon their motives and goals (Chartrand & Walsk,

1999).
 68

There is an element of expectancy theory in the congruence concept. Where

congruence helps to establish that individuals aspire to positions that are compatible with

their self-concepts, expectancy theory helps to explain that it is the outcomes associated

with the positions that motivate individuals to choose them. Expectancy theory would

suggest that individuals whose congruence is high, will desire a position in senior

management because holding such a position will be instrumental (SMS) for them to

receive the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards they value (SMSA).

Reviews of empirical studies regarding managerial career advancement and

vocational behavior in the 1990’s provide evidence of support for the idea that

individuals who choose managerial positions do so because they are ambitious and

motivated to manage (Tharenou, 1997 b) and value the opportunities for promotion

associated with management positions (Meier, 1991). Person-environment congruence

was found to correlate with job satisfaction, as well as with income and fringe benefits

(Meier, 1991). The results of these studies suggest that individuals who see themselves

as capable of fulfilling managerial roles and who value the outcomes associated with

those roles aspire to and even attain those positions.

Sloan’s (1993) research further confirms the idea that individuals seek

environments that are congruent with their self-concepts, as well as the notion that

individuals hold a type of mental image or schema regarding occupations. Sloan’s (1993)

respondents indicated that certain characteristics associated with senior management,

such as working extremely long hours, possessing a particular leadership style, having to

relocate, neglecting their families, and knowing how to play golf, had a negative

influence on their aspirations to senior management. These characteristics, which are

 69

reflective of the senior management schema held by the respondents, when assessed

against their own occupational self-images, were shown to be incongruent with images of

themselves as senior managers. Thus, their aspirations and intentions to pursue

advancement were low. This study empirically tested the fit between an individual’s

schema of senior management characteristics and his or her own occupational self-

concept.

Sloan’s (1993) findings are in line with Holland’s (1985) view that incongruence

between one’s personality and occupational choice could be a reason for an individual to

pursue a career change. The present study attempted to provide corollary evidence; that

an individual who possesses positive self-beliefs in terms of a senior management

position would aspire to such a position.

More evidence of the positive influence congruence has on career decisions

comes from a number of studies on career anchors. The metaphor career anchor is based

on the notion of psychological success. According to Schein (1978), a career anchor

operates inside of the person, functioning as a set of driving and constraining forces on

career decisions. If one is in a setting where one is likely to fail, or which fails to meet

one’s needs or compromises one’s values, one will be “pulled back” into something more

congruent. It is important to note that in a more recent writing on the subject, Schein

(1993) states that the label, career anchor, indicates an area of such paramount

importance to a person that he or she would not give it up. Furthermore, the person

comes to define his or her basic self-image in terms of that concern, and it becomes an

overriding issue at every stage of the career.

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Of central importance to Schein’s (1978; 1993) theory is the critical role of actual

work experiences, which he emphasizes in contrast to educational experiences,

internships, or other trial employment arrangements. Schein believes that although

education usually precedes entry into the workforce, it is only after individuals have

actually worked that they know whether their interests and abilities are well-suited for

their chosen professions. As an individual’s career unfolds and the career anchor

becomes more crystallized, he or she will be able to make career decisions that are more

congruent with his or her career anchor, putting career desires into action. Empirical

research lends support to the idea that one’s career anchor influences one’s career

aspirations (Rynes et al., 1988) and job type (Crook, Crepeau, & McMurtrey, 1991).

The idea that an individual’s actual work experiences influence the development

of the occupational self-concept is further supported by the findings of a longitudinal

study by Bray et al. (1979) and Bray and Howard’s (1983) qualitative study of general

managers by Kotter (1986). These researchers found that individuals who were

advancing in management were those who demonstrated strength in an area and kept

refining those skills to the point of mastery. The positive reinforcement and

psychological success associated with skill mastery served to reinforce the individuals’

managerial self-confidence and influenced their advancement within the ranks of

management. Congruence accounts for an individual’s beliefs in his or her capabilities in

the context of a senior management position.

The above studies lead to a number of conclusions. First, individuals develop an

occupational self-concept over time because of interactions in their work environments.

Second, individuals hold mental pictures or schema about various jobs or occupations
 71

(Anderson, 1995; Perry, Davis-Blake, & Kulik, 1994). Third, individuals seek to work in

environments that are congruent with their occupational self-concepts. Fourth,

individuals draw upon the knowledge that they hold about occupations (schema) as well

as the knowledge they hold about themselves in light of particular occupations

(assessment of self-concept) to determine whether they wish to pursue a particular

position or occupation.

Since managers and professionals have had the opportunities to experience or see

management challenges in an organizational environment first hand, they are likely to

possess senior management schema, as well as the ability to assess their own skills

relative to the requirements and benefits of a senior management position. These

individuals are expected to be able to assess whether they are desirous of a position in

senior management. The individuals who see their own capacities to perform well in a

senior management position, based upon the schema they hold regarding positions in

senior management, are expected to aspire to those positions. According to expectancy

theory, an individual’s desire for a valent outcome is what attracts the individual toward a

particular goal. It was therefore predicted that:

H1. There is a positive relationship between an individual’s congruence

and desired aspirations.

As Hypothesis 1 predicts, individuals with high congruence are most likely to

aspire to positions in senior management. Congruence is based only on job-related

information. While it is true that individuals making career decisions assess their abilities

and skills in terms of occupational requirements (Schein, 1978), it is also true that they do
 72

this within the context of their total lives (Super et al., 1996). One must recognize that

lifestyle factors may serve to weaken the relationship between an individual’s congruence

and his or her desire to pursue a position in senior management. When individuals see

their lifestyles as incompatible with positions in senior management, regardless of

congruence, they are not likely to desire such positions. One such lifestyle factor, off-job

involvement, which has the potential to weaken the relationship between an individual’s

congruence and desired aspirations, is examined in the following section. A hypothesis

regarding this moderated relationship is offered.

The Impact of Lifestyle Factors on Desired Aspirations

Because work and life outside of work are inseparable entities (Crites, 1969;

Krau, 1997), it is imperative to understand any factors in the non-work domain which

could potentially constrain the relationship between an individual’s congruence and

desired aspirations to senior management. The job dedication required by individuals

who are pursuing careers in senior management is great, and an individual’s off-job

involvement may alter the amount of time or energy one has to expend on career-related

tasks. For example, Godshalk (1997) found that individuals who had reached a career

plateau were more involved in off-job activities than those who had not reached a career

plateau. It is unclear from these findings whether individuals who become plateaued

choose to spend more time on off-job activities, or if individuals who spend more time on

off-job activities are more likely to reach a career plateau. Whether individuals

consciously elect to spend more time on off-job activities and/or consciously choose to

become plateaued, it is apparent that individuals who spend more time on off-job

activities have less time to spend at work, and may therefore be limiting their chances for

advancement.
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It is possible that individuals limit their chances for advancement consciously by

refusing to give up the activities outside of work that are important to them. Individuals

who are committed to a geographic area, for example, by need or by choice, may alter

their desire to advance to positions in senior management because of the number of

relocations traditionally associated with this type of career pursuit (Judge et al., 1995;

Lyness & Thompson, 2000; Stroh et al., 1992). Evidence of this is provided in a study

examining managers’ career progression (Stroh et al., 1992) in which the assumption was

made that since geographic transfers involve significant personal upheaval, less

ambitious employees would be less willing to move. Findings indicate that those who

were willing to move and had attitudes that were more positive toward moving were

making the most progress with their salaries (Stroh et al., 1992).

Behavioral (time) and psychological (mental energy) involvements in the non-

work domain may affect an individual’s career priorities (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000)

such that career comes second to family and other non-work activities. For individuals

whose life-role priorities are characterized by heavy involvement in off-job activities,

positions in senior management may appear unattractive regardless of the degree of fit

they perceive between their capabilities and the requirements of a senior management

role.

Research supports the idea that extensive involvement in activities outside of

work, particularly regarding family, may limit an individual’s chances for advancement.

For example, Greenhaus et al. (1997) suggest that it is possible that family

responsibilities may affect an individual such that the amount of time and energy one has

to dedicate to the demands of a senior level position is minimal. The same can be said
 74

about the amount of time and energy one has to dedicate to the processes associated with

attaining a position in senior management. Since strong psychological involvement in

the family role can make it difficult to maintain a high level of involvement in work

(Greenhaus et al., 1997), it is also possible that strong psychological involvement in other

aspects of the non-work domain will have a similar effect. Family responsibilities, as one

indicator of off-job involvement, may be so great that an individual’s aspirations to senior

management may wane, despite the internal pull one may feel towards such a position.

The above studies offer support for the notion that individuals who are highly

involved in off-job activities may see positions in senior management as incompatible

within the context of their total lives. It may be that individuals have decided to dedicate

more time to off-job activities by choice rather than by necessity. Whether by preference

or not, it is likely that an individual with extensive off-job involvement may perceive his

or her life as incompatible with the demands associated with climbing the corporate

ladder, and may alter his or her desire to pursue a position regardless of the degree of

perceived congruence. It was expected that off-job involvement would constrain the

relationship between congruence and desired aspirations. Specifically:

H2: The positive relationship between congruence and desired

aspirations is stronger for individuals with limited off-job
involvement than for individuals with extensive off-job
involvement.

The Impact of Desired Aspirations on Enacted Aspirations

Expectancy theory proposes that a person’s attitude toward performing a behavior

is based upon his or her beliefs about the outcomes of performing that behavior, and the

evaluations of those outcomes (Pinder, 1998). Furthermore, attitudes may affect

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behavior, but only to the extent that they influence a person’s intentions to act (Pinder,

1998). Desired aspirations represent an individual’s attitude about a senior management

position, and enacted aspirations represent the behaviors associated with the pursuit of a

position in senior management. Prior research on attitudes, intentions, and behavior

stipulates that every intention, once formed, is associated with specific behaviors (Pinder,

1998). Therefore, the enacted aspirations component of management aspirations is a

measurement of behaviors, in which one’s intentions to become a senior manager are

assumed.

The tripartite definition of attitudes, has traditionally conceptualized them as

having three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Current thinking

however, is that these three components can also be antecedents of attitudes (Pinder,

1998). Therefore, the attitudinal component can lead to the behavioral component. It

follows that desired and enacted aspirations, two facets of the same construct, can be both

the attitude toward a senior management position and the behaviors associated with

becoming a senior manager.

Desired aspirations represent the emotional component of senior management

aspirations. Enacted aspirations are the behavioral manifestations of these emotions.

Enacted aspirations represent the career strategies associated with managerial aspirations

(Rynes et al., 1988) and advancement (Gould & Penley, 1984) and include but are

certainly not limited to networking, politicking, participating in developmental

opportunities, and extended work involvement.

Career strategies by definition are behaviors which may be utilized by an

individual to decrease the time required for and uncertainty surrounding the attainment of
 76

important career objectives (Gould & Penley, 1984), in this case a position in senior

management. It is reasonable to expect that individuals who desire a position in senior

management and intend to pursue one can be recognized by the behaviors in which they

engage at the workplace. Therefore, it was predicted that,

H3: There is a positive relationship between desired aspirations and

enacted aspirations.

Environmental factors from both the work and non-work domains have been

shown to influence career related behaviors including aspirations (Holland, 1985),

advancement (Greenhaus, et al. 1990; Konrad & Cannings, 1997; Lyness & Thompson,

2000; Tharenou, 1997a; Tharenou, 1997b; Tharenou & Conroy, 1994; Tharenou, et al.

1994; Wentling, 1996), ambition (Judge et al., 1995; Van Vianen, 1999), career decisions

(Callanan & Greenhaus, 1990; Callanan & Greenhaus, 1992; Sugalski & Greenhaus,

1986), career plateauing (Godshalk, 1997; Tremblay & Roger, 1993), departure decisions

(Greenhaus et al., 1997), and executive success (Feldman, 1988; Judge et al., 1995).

Since environmental factors can impact career outcomes, it is possible to conclude

that they may also alter an individual’s expectation that his or her behaviors (despite

sufficient effort) will result in a position in senior management. Vroom (1964) provides

empirical evidence that occupational choices are affected by conceptions of the

likelihood that they can be attained. As expectancy theory stipulates, individuals must

believe that a position in senior management is attainable before engaging in behaviors

that may lead to such a position. More specifically, cues from the environment may
 77

constrain the relationship between an individual’s desired aspirations and his or her

enacted aspirations.

The Role of Expectancy in a Model of Senior Management Aspirations

Desired Aspirations and Advancement Prospects. Advancement prospects refer

to the beliefs an individual holds about the likelihood and availability of attaining a

promotion into the senior ranks of an organization. Self-perceived advancement

opportunities or expectations have been found to be positively related to advancement

aspirations (Greenhaus et al., 1997). Among those individuals who desire to attain a

position in senior management, the intention to pursue such a position may be affected by

perceived advancement prospects within a particular organization or industry.

Citing cognitive dissonance as a theoretical explanation, Markham et al., (1987)

concluded that individuals who perceive minimal promotion opportunities tend to lower

their aspirations for advancement in order to avoid the frustration of seeking an

unattainable goal (cf. Hahn, 1977; Baker, Markham, Bonjean & Corder, 1984).

Correlational studies have shown an association between perceived promotion

opportunities and promotion aspirations (Markham et al., 1987). Workers who expect

promotions and who experience career success are likely to raise their aspirations for

advancement (Markham et al., 1987), whereas lack of opportunity was cited as the

second most frequently mentioned reason for not wanting a promotion (Markham et al.,

1987).

The concept of career plateau, an indicator of advancement prospects, has been

studied empirically. A career plateau is defined as the low likelihood of future increases

in responsibility in either the current job or future job opportunities (Feldman & Weitz,

1988). Structural plateauing is defined as the end of promotions, while content

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plateauing is defined as the end of expected increases in responsibility associated with the

current job (Bardwick, 1986; Feldman & Weitz, 1988; Ference, Stoner, & Warren, 1977).

Career plateaued employees have been found to perceive limited advancement

opportunities (Bray & Howard, 1983; Igbaria & Greenhaus, 1992) and chances of

promotion (Stout et al., 1988). Furthermore, plateaued employees have expressed low

likelihood of staying in the organization (Godshalk, 1997).

Advancement prospects are not necessarily limited to an individual’s current

organization. Greenhaus et al. (1997) found that accountants with low expectations to

advance to partner had stronger intentions to depart the firm than those with high

advancement expectations. Stout et al. (1988) found that individuals who were plateaued

were more likely to leave their organizations even though they still very much wanted to

be promoted. Goffee and Scase (1992) reported that plateaued individuals made frequent

moves between organizations in order to pursue career goals. It appears from these

studies that individuals who desire positions in senior management may leave their

current organizations to pursue the possibilities of advancement elsewhere.

Since developmental assignments are perceived as a facilitator to advancement

(Gould & Penley, 1984; Kotter, 1986; Lyness & Thompson, 2000; Wentling, 1996),

individuals who are no longer gaining responsibilities or opportunities for growth are

seen as having limited advancement opportunities. Tremblay and Roger (1993) found

that objective plateau (number of years in current position) was positively related to

subjective plateau (been on level for too long, reached a dead end). It appears that

individuals who have remained for too long in a position feel that they have reached the

end of their promotability, and may indicate limited advancement prospects.

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Furthermore, non-plateaued employees seemed to use career strategies like networking,

seeking-guidance, and self-nomination significantly more than plateaued employees did

(Gould & Penley, 1984), perhaps indicating that non-plateaued employees still perceived

opportunities for advancement.

The prior research indicates that individuals who are career plateaued are less

likely to perceive hierarchical advancement as a possibility. These individuals,

regardless of their desire to become senior managers, may believe that engaging in

behaviors thought to lead to promotions will be futile. Therefore, it is unlikely that

individuals who perceive limited opportunities for advancement will engage in such

behaviors. In sum, a lack of advancement prospects, possibly represented by having

reached a career plateau, may be viewed as constraining an individual’s aspirations to

senior management. More specifically, even for individuals with a strong desire to attain

a position in senior management, lack of advancement prospects may serve to inhibit

their intentions to pursue such a position. Therefore, it was predicted that:

H4: The positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted

aspirations is stronger for individuals who perceive extensive
advancement prospects than for individuals who perceive limited
advancement prospects.

Desired Aspirations and Career Support. In the present study, career support was

defined as a type of social support which exhibits to an individual that the provider of the

support has taken an active interest in his or her career aspirations. The receipt of support

regarding senior management aspirations may affect the relationship between one’s

desire to become a senior manager and one’s actual intention to pursue such a position.
 80

In the work domain, career support is the social support a supervisor provides to a

subordinate which the subordinate perceives as reflecting an interest in his or her career

aspirations and making a positive contribution to his or her overall career development.

Specifically, career support in the form of supervisory support has been identified as an

important factor in influencing hierarchical advancement (Greenhaus et al., 1990). Jiang

and Klein (2000) found strong evidence that employees who received support from their

supervisors perceived increased career opportunities.

In the non-work domain, career support in the form of spousal support has been

shown to influence a variety of career-related outcomes. For example, Granrose et al.

(1992) report that receiving spousal support has a positive influence on occupational

success (cf. Bird & Bird, 1986) and a positive influence on career commitment,

especially among parents (cf. Burke, Weir, & Duwors, 1980; Holahan & Gilbert, 1979;

Orthner & Pittman, 1986). Tharenou and Conroy (1994) found that a compatible home

situation, through less inter-role conflict and greater spouse support, was important for

advancement to management. Friedman and Greenhaus (2000) found that behavioral

support as well as personal and career-related support within the family, is positively

related to higher income levels, higher job performance, more coaching opportunities and

developmental assignments, more authority at work, and higher levels of career

satisfaction.

Aside from tangible benefits of behavioral support, such as more time and energy,

these studies indicate that career support, as emotional or tangible support (or both), may

serve as indicators that significant others are supportive of one’s career aspirations and

believe that the individual is capable of attaining a position in senior management. For
 81

example, individuals who have help with household duties may feel that they have

substantial time to devote to their careers. On the job, supervisors may help individuals

to prioritize such that certain assignments may favorably affect skill development.

Similarly, individuals who receive encouragement to face career-related challenges, or

caring advice regarding career decisions (either on or off the job), may feel more inclined

to strive for challenging career goals.

Individuals whose senior management schema and senior management self-

assessment are congruent have the capacity to realize the behavioral and psychological

investments required in senior management positions. For those who aspire to positions

in senior management, career support may be a necessary ingredient for them to enact

intentions and pursue such positions. Career support is so crucial to the advancement

process that individuals may feel that without support, the chances of advancing

hierarchically are extremely slim. It is therefore possible, that without career support,

even individuals who are desirous of a position in senior management exhibit little

intention to pursue such a position. The following hypothesis was offered:

H5: The positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted

aspirations is stronger for individuals who perceive extensive
career support than for individuals who perceive limited career
support.

The Moderating Effect of Gender. Women hold fewer than five percent of the

senior executive positions at Fortune 500 corporations. Individual and organizational

variables have been associated with the differences in the numbers of female versus male

senior managers. Individual factors such as gender (Kirchmeyer, 1999), presence of

children (Kirchmeyer, 1999), career interruptions (Bailyn, 1980) and career versus life
 82

role priorities (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000) seem to have contributed to the low

numbers of women in senior management positions.

The variability in the numbers of women in senior management positions has also

been explained by differences in aspirations for advancement (Greenhaus et al., 1997)

within the management hierarchy (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1992). While there appear

to be few differences in the work values of men and women (Rowe & Snizek, 1995;

Sagie et al., 1996), evidence suggests that overall, women aspire to lower levels in

organization hierarchies than their male counterparts (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000).

Individual differences such as life role priorities may reflect an incompatibility for

women between their roles and responsibilities at home and those required of a position

in senior management. Since women are primarily responsible for the care of the

household and the children (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), even if they possess

aspirations to senior management, it is unlikely that they will feel that their lifestyles are

compatible with the lifestyles of individuals in senior management positions.

Consequently, a woman may adjust her aspirations to more realistically reflect her

life role priorities, and in turn, lower her desire to attain a position in senior management.

This suggests that regardless of congruence, women have less of a desire to become

senior managers than men. Evidence of women’s lower aspirations coupled with their

absence in senior management positions led to the following hypothesis:

H6a: The positive relationship between congruence and desired

aspirations is stronger for men than for women.
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The fact that there are no gender differences in work values (Rowe & Snizek,

1995; Sagie et al., 1996), suggests that men and women both value promotion and

progression up the corporate hierarchy. Why then, are women’s aspirations to senior

management lower than men’s aspirations?

Although gender role stereotypes are diminishing (Gutek et al., 1991), evidence

suggests that men and women may experience substantially different demands on their

time in the off-job domain (O'Driscoll et al., 1992). In addition to family involvement,

interference with work may come from time spent on household activities, time spent on

childcare, or time spent on aging parents (Swanson, 1992), and has the potential to affect

work-related outcomes for men and women differently.

For example, women still bear most of the responsibility for rearing children and

assuring the well-being of the family (Greenhaus et al., 1997). Evidence suggests that

women have always spent more hours than men in household work, and have spent more

hours than men in combined work and family activities (Gutek et al., 1991), yet on

average, women tend to work only 2 fewer hours per week (Schneer & Reitman, 1995).

Swanson (1992) notes that mothers retained primary responsibility for childcare and

remained less involved and rewarded in the labor market, even in families where fathers

participated in parental leave (cf. Haas, 1990).

Furthermore, family responsibilities produce work-family conflict, to which

women respond by reducing their work involvement, which, in turn, restricts career

opportunities and advancement (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1993). For example, a

spouse and children at home limited managerial advancement for women, indirectly

through work experiences, while a spouse and children at home was positively related to
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the work experiences and subsequent managerial advancement for men (Tharenou et al.,

1994). These findings suggest that:

H6b: Women experience more extensive off-job involvement than men.

Although Tharenou and Conroy (1994) report that a spouse and children at home

was not directly related to advancement for men or women, women who had advanced in

the managerial ranks were more likely to be single and childless. Coupling the evidence

that women experience more extensive off-job involvement than men, that women’s

advancement aspirations are lower than men’s aspirations (Greenhaus et al., 1997) to

higher managerial positions (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1993) regardless of similar work

values (Rowe & Snizek, 1995; Sagie et al., 1996), it may be that women are not willing

to sacrifice the time they spend in off-job activities to pursue senior level positions.

Therefore, the following hypothesis was offered:

H6c: The moderating effect of gender between congruence and desired

aspirations disappears when controlling for off-job involvement.

At the organizational level, statistical discrimination (Konrad & Cannings, 1997),

the glass ceiling effect (Hede & Ralston, 1993), fewer developmental job opportunities

(Ohlott et al., 1994), lack of interpersonal encouragement (Tharenou & Conroy, 1994),

differences in career progression rates (Kirchmeyer, 1999), organizational bias (McKeen,

1992), and prevalence of male hierarchies (Tharenou & Conroy, 1994) have been cited as

contributing factors in the barriers to women’s advancement to positions in senior

management.
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In terms of career decisions, expectancy theory suggests that in addition to

valuing the first and second-level outcomes associated with a position, individuals must

believe that positions are attainable before they decide to pursue them. As Hypotheses 4

and 5 predict, advancement prospects and career support can potentially constrain the

relationship between one’s desire and one’s intentions to pursue a position in senior

management. The literature suggests that organizational opportunity structures are

different for men and women (Gould & Penley, 1984; Powell, 1999; Powell & Mainiero,

1992). Differential opportunities may signal to women that despite high congruence and

strong desires to attain positions in senior management, the reality is that these positions

remain unattainable. Given this, the following hypothesis was offered.

H6d: The positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted

aspirations is stronger for men than for women.

Women who encounter a glass ceiling when trying to move from middle to senior

management positions (Powell, 1999) are likely to perceive fewer opportunities for

advancement than men. Explanations for the existence of a glass-ceiling barrier have

been the subject of numerous empirical studies. Access to top management positions

may be influenced by bias in the promotional decision-making process, which is often

unstructured and ad hoc (Powell, 1999). Since individuals seek to hire similar

individuals to positions to help reduce uncertainty (Kanter, 1977), gender-based schemas

may serve to perpetuate the higher numbers of men in top management positions, unless

there are already a number of women in these positions (Powell, 1999).

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Whatever the reasons women are overlooked for promotions, the fact is that fewer

women than men reach the upper echelons of management. It was therefore expected

that,

H6e: Women perceive less extensive advancement prospects than men.

Stroh et al. (1996) found that women experience frustration when they reach the

glass ceiling and consider other options. This supports the notion that women managers

have a lower tolerance for lack of career opportunities than men managers (Powell, 1999)

and are likely to leave the organization. If women perceive barriers to advancement, they

are unlikely to engage in behaviors thought to lead to positions in senior management. It

appears that women may not desire senior management positions less than men, but that

in the face of limited advancement prospects, they choose not to engage in behaviors

associated with attainment of positions in senior management, feeling that efforts to do so

will be futile. Therefore, the following hypothesis was offered.

H6f: The moderating effect of gender between desired aspirations and

enacted aspirations disappears when controlling for advancement
prospects.

Documented research has shown that women and men receive different types and

amounts of career support. For example, Friedman and Greenhaus (2000) found that

behavioral support at home leads to higher organizational levels for men. Personal

support at home for women leads to higher job performance but not to promotions.

Particularly in families with children, it appears as though men are more likely to receive

the amount and type of support needed to attain positions in senior management

(Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Additionally, women are less likely than men to attain
 87

promotions for reasons associated with spouse’s careers (Hede & Ralston, 1993) and are

more likely to report family obligations as a barrier to advancement (Hede & Ralston,

1993).

The outcomes of mentoring, a form of career support that can be arranged through

one’s supervisor, are different for women and men. Powell and Mainiero (1992) report

that women may not benefit from mentoring in terms of promotion because they are

generally not mentored by key individuals in top-management positions who are most

often men. In addition to differential occurrences of mentoring by key individuals,

women also report insufficient experience, favoritism, discrimination, and being excluded

from informal networks as barriers to advancement (Hede & Ralston, 1993; Lyness &

Thompson, 2000). Women report lower levels of organizational encouragement

(Tharenou & Conroy, 1994) and face greater challenges in gaining appropriate

developmental assignments due to a lack of personal support and insufficient access to

important networks (Ohlott et al., 1994). Additionally, women and men have received

different types of feedback from their supervisors about their performance (Kanter,

1977). Given the lack of career support for women’s career aspirations, the following

hypothesis was offered.

H6g: Women perceive less extensive career support than men.

Gender differences in career aspirations may be accounted for, in part, by

differences in the types and amount of career support received. Since women do not

seem receive as much career support as men, it is likely that in spite of their desires to

rise to positions in senior management, they will feel that these positions are unattainable.
 88

Since individuals must believe that effort expended will result in a desired outcome

(Vroom, 1964), women who perceive a paucity of career support will not exhibit

behaviors indicative of the pursuit of positions in senior management regardless of their

desires to enter senior management. Therefore, it was expected that,

H6h: The moderating effect of gender between desired aspirations and

enacted aspirations disappears when controlling for career support.

Table 3 provides a summary of all of the hypotheses tested in this study.

Potential Contributions to the Literature

The present research can make several contributions to the career decision-

making literature regarding management aspirations. First, this study builds on the work

of Tharenou and Terry (1998) in an attempt to refine the conceptualization and

measurement of management aspirations. Senior management aspirations as

conceptualized in this study includes both an attitudinal and a behavioral component,

thereby illustrating the richness of the construct. Employing the present study’s

definition of senior management aspirations within a career decision-making framework

allows for theory development in the area of senior management aspirations as a

component of a career decision. Testing a model of senior management aspirations in a

population of managers and professionals seeks answers to the research questions from

individuals for whom the phenomenon is most relevant.

Most prior studies of the antecedents of management aspirations have examined

cognitive personality variables and work factors. In addition to employing a cognitive

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component associated with career decision-making, this study draws potential

determinants of senior management aspirations from both the work and non-work

domains. Inclusion of lifestyle factors as potential antecedents highlights the

multifaceted nature of individuals’ lives and acknowledges the importance that

individuals place on factors outside of the work domain that have the potential to

influence their career decisions.

Two new measures, one that assesses individuals’ senior management schema and

one that assesses individuals’ senior management self-assessment, were offered in this

study. Both build upon prior work that has characterized the knowledge, skills, abilities,

and rewards associated with senior management positions (Aguilar, 1992; Dulewicz &

Herbert, 1999; Kotter, 1986; Miner, 1993; Mintzberg, 1973; Schein, 1978). The analysis

employing these measures assesses congruence, a crucial component of the career

decision-making process (Greenhaus et al., 2000; Holland, 1985; Schein, 1978; Super,

1990).

In summary, this study systematically tested the factors that influence the senior

management aspirations of managers and professionals and applied a theory of career

decision-making to a sample of individuals.

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Chapter 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Overview

Chapter 4 describes the research design and methodology used in this study. To

this end, the following sections provide a detailed description of the research design,

sample, and data collection procedures. Summary statistics of the sample are presented.

Finally, the measurement of variables and the data analysis techniques used in this

research are described.

Research Design

A research design refers to the plan or strategy of investigation devised to enable

a researcher to answer the research questions as validly and reliably as possible.

Kerlinger (1986) argues that the primary function of the research design is to control

variance by maximizing systematic variance, regulating extraneous variance, and

minimizing error variance. A key objective is to assure the generalizability of the results

found to a wider population. According to Scandura and Williams (2000), various

research designs result in more (or less) generalizability, precision in measurement,

control of the behavioral variables, and realism of context (p. 1250). Scholars of research

methodology concur that there are a series of “trade-offs” (Scandura & Williams, 2000)

associated with all research designs, no one design being free of limitations. This

research uses a cross-sectional, correlational design. Although acknowledged to have

inherent limitations, there are also a number of strengths associated with this design that

are discussed below.

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Cross-sectional research collects data on all relevant variables at one time and is

appropriate for studies that involve data on many variables from a large group of

respondents (Judd, Smith, & Kidder, 1991). Correlational designs include those in which

the independent variables are observed in their naturally occurring state as opposed to

being manipulated in an experiment. Compared to experiments, the potential strengths

associated with correlational research designs are that they enable the researcher (a) to

examine independent variables that cannot be experimentally manipulated, (b) to

examine multivariate models, and (c) to generalize to a larger population due to strong

external validity (Kerlinger, 1986). Summarily, correlational research designs are well

suited to the multivariate nature of behavioral research (Kerlinger, 1986).

The limitations associated with cross-sectional, correlational research designs are

the inability to assess causal relationships among the variables of interest, the potential

presence of confounding or unmeasured variables, and the possibility of common method

variance. Because this study is the first to assess the effects of multiple factors on senior

management aspirations, of central concern is the need to establish the presence of

relationships before any investigation of causality among those relationships is pursued.

Data Collection Procedure

The survey instrument for this research was posted as a web page and completed

by the respondents online. This is a relatively new way to collect data that offers the

potential of much higher response rates than those associated with traditional postal

surveys (Dillman, 2000). In addition to higher response rates, electronic surveys offer

efficiencies to the design and implementation of self-administered questionnaires such as

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elimination of paper, postage, data entry errors and costs (Dillman, 2000). In addition,

time required for survey administration can be reduced from weeks to days (Dillman,

2000).

Pilot Study
The purpose of the pilot study was to test the questionnaire for readability and

clarity, and to identify any potential technical problems regarding the use of the World

Wide Web as the means for data collection. The pilot study took place in two phases.

Phase one consisted of a pretest, which included the administration of a paper copy of the

questionnaire to four individuals who closely resembled the potential respondents. As a

group, the pretest respondents were timed while completing the questionnaire, and were

asked for feedback regarding clarity and readability. Minor wording changes resulted

from the pretest session were implemented prior to phase two, the online collection of

pilot data.

Phase two consisted of collecting data from a pilot sample via the worldwide web.

The questionnaire was loaded onto a server connected to the web and an email with the

appropriate web address was sent to a convenience sample of 14 managers at a national

healthcare organization located in the Greater Philadelphia metropolitan area. In addition

to being asked to complete the online survey, the respondents were asked to comment on

the readability, clarity, and ease of use of the online survey via a return email to the

researcher. The pilot study respondents also participated in a conference call with the

researcher to provide detailed feedback regarding the clarity, readability, and overall

appropriateness of the survey instrument. Minor wording changes were made to the

online survey as a result of the pilot test.

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Main Study
To legitimize the study and encourage participation, an introductory email was

sent to the study participants. The contents of the introductory email explained the

significance of the study, who was being asked to participate in the study, and

emphasized voluntary participation and anonymity. Additionally, an incentive to be

entered into a drawing to win a gift certificate was included for those who completed a

survey. Instructions for completing the online survey, along with a hyperlink that took the

participants directly to the questionnaire website, were outlined.

Respondents
The introductory emails were sent randomly to 2000 individuals from a list

generated by the registrar’s office at the participating university. All potential

respondents were currently enrolled in either Master’s degree or continuing education

programs at the university. Over the course of three weeks after the email was sent, the

researcher made visits to Master’s degree classes at the university personally asking

students to participate. When the online surveys were completed, an email containing

each response was sent immediately to the researcher and then loaded directly into SPSS

for statistical analysis. After six weeks, 368 usable surveys had been received, reflecting

a response rate of 18%.

Sample

Due to the need to study individuals for whom aspirations to senior-level

management are salient, working professionals were the target population for this

research. A non-probability convenience sample of Master’s degree program in business,

engineering, and education, and continuing education students in business and

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management areas, from a university in the greater Philadelphia region participated in

this research. Non-probability sampling is appropriate for surveys of specific groups,

such as a group of working professionals (Fink, 1995). A practical sampling method,

convenience sampling relies on a group of individuals that is readily available (Fink,

1995). One risk of using a convenience sample is the bias associated with individuals

who voluntarily participate in the study (Fink, 1995). The concern is the lack of

generalizability to populations whose characteristics do not exactly match the

characteristics of the individuals sampled. The participants in this study represent a

variety of industries, functional areas, and firm sizes, three factors that strengthen the

generalizability of the findings from this research.

Desired Sample Size

Statistical power is a function of the relationships among sample size (N),

significance criteria (α), and population effect size (ES) (Cohen, 1992). Following

Cohen (1992), the sample size (N) necessary to have a specified power for a given α and

ES was calculated through the use of a power analysis. For a medium1 effect size (.15),

with a desired power of .80 and a significance level of .05, 109 usable surveys must be

collected. If the desired power is raised to .95, and the effect size and significance level

remain the same, the total number of usable surveys required is 160. The calculations2

for the sample size needed for this research were conducted according to the procedures

outlined by Cohen (1988) and calculated using G*Power for the Macintosh, Version

2.1.2 (Buchner, Faul, & Erdfelder, 1997).

________________________________________________________________________
1
(Cohen, 1992) suggests that a standard convention for effect size be followed.
2
Calculations based upon 8 predictor variables.
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Demographics of Respondents
The demographic summary statistics for this study’s respondents are reported in

Table 4. The average age of the respondents was 38 years. These individuals were

typically in their current job for 3 years, and their current organization for 7 years. The

size of the organizations represented in the sample varied broadly with 18% working for

organizations with fewer than 100 employees, 45% working in organizations with

between 100-9,999 employees and 22% working in organizations with more than 10,000

employees. As a result of numerous changes to the survey that took place after an

organization, chosen as the original sample site withdrew its support, an item asking

respondents to indicate their job-level was inadvertently left off of the survey. A follow-

up email was sent to study participants who had voluntarily included their email

addresses, asking them to indicate the level of the organization to which they belonged (1

= Supervisor, 2 = First Line Manager, 3 = Middle Manager, 4 = Senior Manager, 5 = Top

Manager). Responses to this email came from 67% of the sample. Of the 67% of the

individuals who responded to this email, 14% reported their job level as first line

manager and 36% identified themselves as middle managers.

The respondents came from diverse functional backgrounds, including

Information Systems (23%), Marketing (10%), Research and Development (7%), and

Sales (7%). Industries most frequently represented by the respondents were

Financial/Insurance (11%), Manufacturing (11%), Pharmaceutical (11%), Consulting

(7%) and Services, such as health or legal (5%).

Slightly more than half of the sample (51%) was male and most of the

respondents were Caucasian (86%). The majority of the respondents were married or

living with a partner (72%) and 46% had children. The highest level of education
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completed for a majority of the sample was Bachelor’s degree (52%), while 27% had

completed a Master’s program. The majority of the respondents reported annual

salaries between $50,000 and $74,999 (31%) with 24% of the respondents earning

between $75,000 and $99,999 annually.

Measurement of Variables

In this section, the measuring instruments used in this research along with the

results of validity and reliability analyses are described. The study measures are shown

in Appendix A. A copy of the survey in its entirety is shown in Appendix C.

Many of the items for measuring the independent and dependent variables were

adapted from previous studies, although there are several measures that were developed

specifically for this research. Model variables included were senior management schema,

senior management self-assessment, global congruence, off-job involvement,

advancement prospects, career support, gender, desired aspirations and enacted

aspirations. Aside from these variables, several demographic variables were also

assessed.

Tests of Reliability and Validity

The validity and reliability of the constructs of interest were tested using factor

analysis and Cronbach’s alpha, respectively. Factor analysis can help to achieve

scientific parsimony in a study, and is widely used to analyze the construct validity and

reliability of the measures in a study (Kerlinger, 1986). Factor analysis identifies the

latent constructs underlying measures (Kerlinger, 1986) and is used to determine the

dimensionality of a construct (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995). The factor

analysis produces an eigenvalue, which is examined to determine how many factors, or

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dimensions exist. Eigenvalues equal to or greater than one are considered significant

(Hair et al., 1995). Assessing an item’s relationship to its underlying construct identifies

the reliability of a measure. This relationship is determined by the item’s factor loading,

which is essentially measuring the amount of shared variance between the construct and

the item. While there is no general principle regarding acceptable factor loadings, most

researchers ignore loadings less than .40 (Kerlinger, 1986). Inter-item correlations,

which ascertain the pattern of relationships among items, may also be used to group items

in a meaningful way. Acceptable factor loadings and inter-item correlations were used to

determine which items needed to be eliminated to establish a composite scale that is most

representative of the construct of interest.

The internal consistency reliability for each multi-item scale was computed using

Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. Acceptable alpha coefficients of .70 (Nunnally, 1978;

Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994) indicate that the items in the scale are internally consistent

with one another and that the scale is a sufficiently reliable measure of a construct. The

nine scales used in this research produced alphas ranging from .77 to .95, showing

adequate levels of internal consistency.

Factor analysis can also be used to establish the convergent and discriminant

validity of the measures. A valid measure should correlate with other measures related to

the construct (converge) and should fail to correlate with other measures that are

supposed to tap basically different constructs (diverge). Convergent and discriminant

validity are the “strongest empirical support of a measure’s validity” (Judd et al., 1991,

p.56).
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Independent Variables
Traditionally, organization scholars measure congruence by assessing the

difference between two constructs, one that measures job characteristics, and one that

measures the respondents’ assessment of their capabilities regarding the job

characteristics. Congruence measures can assess fit with multiple aspects or facets of a

job, known as facet fit, or as an overall assessment of the job, referred to as global fit

(Singh, 2001). In this study, two measures of congruence, one facet measure and one

global measure, were employed.

The facet measure of congruence was assessed through the senior management

schema and senior management self-assessment measures. The senior management

schema represents the perceived characteristics of a senior management job and the

senior management self-assessment represents the respondents’ assessment of their

capabilities in terms of a senior management position. Because of the methodological

difficulties associated with the use of difference scores as reliable and valid measures of

congruence (Edwards, 1994 a, 1994 b; Edwards & Parry, 1993), the congruence or

degree of fit between these two dimensions (schema and self-assessment) was assessed

using a polynomial regression analysis technique that is described in detail in the Tests of

Hypothesis section of this chapter.

To assess global fit, and as an additional precaution against the inherent problems

associated with the use of difference scores, a measure of global congruence was

included in this study.

Senior Management Schema. Senior management schema (SMS) refers to the

cognitive structure in which the characteristics attributed to the position of senior

manager are housed. These characteristics include the competencies and extrinsic
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rewards associated with a senior management position. A scale developed specifically

for this study assessed senior management schema.

Research shows that the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) necessary for

positions in senior management generally fall into one of three categories: analytical

competence, interpersonal and inter-group competence, and emotional competence

(Kotter, 1986; Schein, 1978, 1993). The Prospector Instrument, a measure of

international executive potential (Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997), assessed these

three dimensions and was used as a basis for the SMS measure. While this research is

not focused on international potential per se, it is imperative that international scope be

included in an assessment of senior management KSAs, since the current global business

environment is becoming more international in orientation (Spreitzer et al., 1997).

The fourteen-dimension Prospector Instrument measures both end-state

competencies and the ability to learn from experience. The fourteen dimensions include:

uses feedback, sensitivity to cultural differences, is culturally adventurous, seeks broad

business knowledge, has the courage to take a stand, brings out the best in people, seeks

opportunities to learn, is open to criticism, acts with integrity, is insightful, is committed

to success, takes risks, seeks feedback, and is flexible. Spreitzer et al. (1997) asked

respondents to indicate on a 7-point Likert-type scale the extent of their agreement that

the items described a particular individual. Sample items are “Can turn a group into a

high performing team” and “Has a strong drive for results.” Reliabilities between .70

and .92 for each of the 14 factors were reported (Spreitzer et al., 1997).

Eight relevant items from the Prospector Instrument were tailored for the SMS

measure by collapsing the response categories into 5 from 7 points and by asking
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respondents to indicate the extent to which each statement describes a position in senior

management. The SMS measure employed a 5-point scale. Two items meant to tap the

analytical competence dimension were adapted from the Prospector Instrument and two

more were developed. A sample item reads, “Senior managers have knowledge of the

various parts of an organization and how they fit together” (1 =Not at all, 5 =A great

deal). Three items meant to tap the interpersonal and inter-group competence dimension

were adapted and three more were developed. Interpersonal and inter-group competence

items include “Senior managers work with and understand the perspectives of individuals

from other cultures.” Finally, three items that tap emotional competence were adapted

from the Prospector Instrument, and three more were developed for this study. Emotional

competence items include “Senior managers persevere in the face of obstacles or

criticism when they believe in what they are doing.”

Since the Prospector Instrument does not include any items that describe the

rewards associated with senior management positions, the SMS scale was supplemented

with items derived from Schein’s (1993; 1996) research on career anchors and Kotter’s

(1986) work on general managers. Reward systems for senior managers focus on key

intrinsic and extrinsic motivators such as merit-based promotions, ample opportunities

for leadership, contributions to the success of the organization, high income, high levels

of challenge and responsibility, status, and power (Schein, 1993).

Seven items that reflect the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards associated with senior

management positions were constructed. A sample item meant to tap intrinsic rewards

reads, “Senior managers work on highly visible and challenging projects.” An item
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meant to assess extrinsic rewards is “Senior managers equate status and prestige with

rank and job title.” The senior management schema items are shown in Appendix A.

Table 5 displays the factor analysis of the senior management schema items. All

23 of the original items were entered into the analysis; two factors emerged and were

rotated to a varimax solution. Nineteen of the 23 items fell into one or the other

dimension; therefore, four ambiguous items were dropped from the calculation of the

composite variable. The four ambiguous items are: make unpopular decisions such as

laying people off or cutting programs, measure their achievements through the attainment

of critical results, work on highly visible and challenging projects, and have high levels

of responsibility.

Factor 1 was comprised of 15 items with an eigenvalue equal to 6.74. The

variance explained by this factor was .35. This factor was referred to as Competencies.

Factor 2 was comprised of four items, with an eigenvalue equal to 2.82. Factor 2,

deemed Extrinsic Rewards, explained .15 of the variance. These findings confirm the

existence of the two constructs, which the senior management schema variable was

designed in this study to address. In the current study, the reliability of the scale in its

entirety was acceptable (α = .84), as were the alpha levels of each dimension (Factor

1, α = .91; Factor 2 α = .79).

Senior Management Self-Assessment. The senior management self-assessment

(SMSA) represents an individual’s perception of his or her knowledge, skills, abilities

and valued rewards in the context of a senior management position. All items from the

senior management schema measure, which characterize a position in senior

management, were converted for this measure to reflect the characteristics of the
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individual with regard to a position in senior management. The respondents were asked

to indicate how well each statement describes them. Sample items read, “I am able to

identify the most important part of a complex problem or issue” and “I am able to

exercise power without guilt or shame.” A 5 point scale indicates responses (1 =Not at

all, 5 =A great deal). The senior management self-assessment measure is shown in

Appendix A.

Table 6 displays the factor analysis of the senior management self-assessment

items. Again, 23 of the original items were entered into the analysis and two factors

emerged and were rotated to a varimax solution. The same four items that were

ambiguous in the senior management schema analysis were ambiguous within the self-

assessment context and were not included in the calculation of the composite variable.

Factor 1 was comprised of 15 items with an eigenvalue equal to 5.94. The

variance explained by this factor was .31. Because the senior management self-

assessment was designed as a mirror image of the senior management schema items, this

factor was also labeled Competencies. Factor 2 was comprised of four items, with an

eigenvalue equal to 2.35. Factor 2, labeled Extrinsic Rewards, explained .12 of the

variance. These findings confirm the existence of the same two constructs, with the same

19 items that emerged from the senior management schema factor analysis. In the

current study, the reliability of the scale was acceptable (α = .86), as were the alpha

levels of each dimension (Factor 1, α = .89; Factor 2 α = .72).

Global Congruence. The global indicator of congruence, designed to assess self-

perceived person-job fit (Singh, 2001), was adapted to fit the needs of the present study.

The global congruence measure is shown in Appendix A. Respondents were asked to

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indicate the extent of their agreement (1 =Disagree strongly, 5 =Agree strongly) with six

statements including, “A position in senior management would be a good fit for me” and

“My personality fits in well with the requirements of a senior management position.” The

results of the factor analysis are displayed in Table 7.

Six items were entered into the factor analysis and a one-factor solution emerged.

The eigenvalue was 4.60 and the variance explained by this factor was .76. An

acceptable reliability was found (α = .95).

Moderator Variables
Off-Job Involvement. Off-job involvement represents the commitments one has to

family and other non-work activities such as leisure, social, community, and self-

preservation (Godshalk, 1997). The measure used in the present study was adapted from

a scale developed by Godshalk (1997) which assessed both objective and subjective off-

job involvement. The off-job involvement items are shown in Appendix A. Objective

off-job involvement represents the number of hours individuals spend on activities in the

non-work domain. The measure of subjective off-job involvement asked respondents to

indicate the importance of specific non-work activities in their lives, using a 5-point scale

(1 = Unimportant, 5 = Very Important). Activities in the non-work domain assessed in

both the objective and subjective off-job involvement measures included: household

chores, household maintenance, shopping, basic child-care, sports activities, social

activities, community activities, religious activities, civic and/or political activities,

leisure and hobby pursuits, and education. The results of the factor analysis for

subjective off-job involvement are shown in Table 8.

Twelve of the thirteen items were entered into the analysis; four factors emerged

and were rotated to a varimax solution. Item number thirteen, labeled “other” was not
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expected to relate to any of the other items since by nature, the “other” item is open

ended and ambiguous. Factor 1 comprised of 4 items with an eigenvalue of 2.30 and

labeled Community Activities, explained .19 of the variance. Factor 2, labeled Child

Care, consisted of 2 items, had an eigenvalue of 1.90, and explained .16 of the variance.

Factor 3 consisted of 3 items and was labeled House Chores. The eigenvalue of this

factor was 1.80 and the variance explained was .15. Factor 4 was comprised of 3 items

and labeled Recreational Activities. The eigenvalue of this factor was 1.60 and it

explained .13 of the variance.

Coefficient alpha for the total subjective off-job involvement scale was acceptable

(α = .77). The internal consistency reliability of each of the four factors was: Factor 1, α

= .70; Factor 2, α = .90; Factor 3, α = .64; Factor 4, α = .50). Note that the reliability

of factors 3 and 4 did not make the cutoff suggested by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994).

Due to the fact that these items were believed to be conceptually representative of the

constructs being measured, and that the hypothesized relationships were not dependent

upon these separate factors, but on the subjective off-job involvement measure as a

whole, it was deemed desirable to retain all of the items. This continuous scale was

converted into a categorical variable for hypothesis testing using percentile splits (Ragins,

Cotton, & Miller, 2000). Specifically, the upper third, middle third, and lower third were

coded extensive off-job involvement (2), moderate off-job involvement (1), and limited

off-job involvement (0).

Gender. Gender was assessed using a one-item measure that asked the

respondent to indicate whether they are (0) male or (1) female.

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Advancement Prospects. Advancement prospects are the beliefs an individual

holds regarding his or her probability of achieving a senior management position in an

organization. The measures of advancement prospects included in this study are based

upon measures of objective and subjective career plateau adapted from prior research.

An objective measure used by Igbaria and Greenhaus (1992), which equates career

plateau status with tenure in current job, was adopted for use in this study. Igbaria and

Greenhaus (1992) considered employees plateaued if their tenure in their current job was

seven years or more and were considered non-plateaued, if their tenure in their current

job was less than seven years. Igbaria and Greenhaus (1992) note that extensive length of

tenure in one position reflects limited advancement prospects and the seven-year cut-off

was close to twice the average length of job tenure observed in their sample. Using the

conventions established by Igbaria and Greenhaus (1992), twice the average number of

years in the current job was 2.85. Therefore, in this study, six years was used as a cutoff.

Therefore, individuals who were in their positions six years or less were considered not to

be plateaued and were coded (1). Those individuals in their positions seven or more

years were considered plateaued and coded (0). Approximately 90% of the respondents

in this sample were not plateaued.

Two three-item measures of subjective career plateau were adapted from

Godshalk’s (1997) structural career plateau measure to include non-organization specific

items. These items are shown in Appendix A. In the first measure, respondents were

asked to indicate on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = Disagree Strongly, 5 = Agree

Strongly) the likelihood that they would be promoted to a position in senior management

in their present organization. The second measure asked respondents to indicate on a 5-

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point Likert-type scale (1 = Disagree Strongly, 5 = Agree Strongly) the likelihood that

they would be promoted to a position in senior management in a different organization.

Sample items include: “My opportunities for upward movement into a senior

management position are limited” and “I expect to obtain a senior management position.”

The results of the factor analysis are reported in Table 9. Because the measures

were tapping the same construct (advancement prospects), with the only difference being

the question stem (present organization versus different organization) all six items were

entered into the analysis. Two-factors emerged and were rotated to a varimax solution.

Factor 1 was comprised of the three items that addressed the present organization

and was labeled Present Organization. The eigenvalue for this factor was 2.50 and the

explained variance was .41. Factor 2 consisted of the three items meant to tap the

respondents’ perceptions of advancement prospects in a different organization and was

labeled Different Organization. The eigenvalue for this factor was 2.40 and the variance

explained was .41. The coefficient alpha for the six items, which comprised the

subjective advancement prospects scale, was deemed acceptable (α = .91). The internal

consistency reliability of each factor was also acceptable (Factor 1, α = .88; Factor 2, α

= .89). These continuous scales were converted into categorical variables for hypothesis

testing using percentile splits (Ragins et al., 2000). Specifically, the upper third, middle

third, and lower third were coded extensive advancement prospects (2), moderate

advancement prospects (1), and limited advancement prospects (0).

Career Support. In the present study, career support was defined as a type of

social support which exhibits to an individual that the provider of the support has taken

an active interest in his or her career aspirations. In the work domain, a supervisor may
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provide career support whereas in the non-work domain, a significant other (e.g. partner,

parent, other family member, or friend) may provide career support. Career support in

either domain can be emotional (e.g. trust, empathy, love, encouragement) or

instrumental (e.g. physical help such as providing time, resources and skills; cognitive

help such as providing feedback, problem solving and factual information). Two scales

used in prior research were modified for the present study and are shown in Appendix A.

Both scales included items meant to tap emotional and instrumental support. To the

extent possible, parallel items were constructed for both the work and non-work domain

scales.

Items from a supervisor support scale developed by Greenhaus, Parasuraman and

Wormley (1990) measured career support in the work domain. The only modification to

the scale developed by Greenhaus et al., (1990) was the substitution of the words “my

supervisor” to “my manager,” which was more appropriate for the sample in this study.

Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement (1 = Disagree Strongly, 5 =

Agree Strongly) with nine items including “My manager takes the time to learn about my

career goals and aspirations” and “My manager keeps me informed about different career

opportunities for me in the organization.” Table 10 displays the factor analysis for career

support in the work domain.

All nine items were entered into the analysis and a one-factor solution emerged.

The eigenvalue was 5.60 and the variance explained by this factor was .62. An

acceptable reliability was found (α = .92).

The 44-item Family Support Inventory for Workers (FSIW) developed by King,

Mattimore, King, and Adams (1995) was used as a model for the development of the
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measure of career support in the off-job domain. Past research indicates that two factors,

emotional sustenance and instrumental assistance, emerged from the scale items with

reliabilities exceeding .70 (King et al., 1995).

Since the FSIW was developed to assess family support, many of the original 44-

items were not relevant to this study, which assessed career support from a significant

other. For example, in the FSIW, there were an abundance of detailed questions about

family and home responsibilities that were not general enough to apply to the significant

others thought to provide support in the non-work domain in this study. Six of the

original 44 items from the FSIW were adapted for the present study and two additional

items were developed. The measure of career support in the non-work domain is shown

in Appendix A.

To assess career support in the non-work domain, respondents were asked to

indicate their level of agreement (1 = Disagree Strongly, 5 = Agree Strongly) with eight

items regarding a significant other. Significant other was defined in this study as anyone

who is particularly important in your life such as a spouse or partner, a parent, sibling,

child or other family member, or a friend. Sample items are “My significant other takes

the time to learn about my career goals and aspirations” and “My significant other enjoys

hearing about my achievements at work.”

Table 11 displays the factor analysis for career support in the non-work domain.

Eight items were entered into the analysis and a one-factor solution emerged. The

eigenvalue was 4.40 and the variance explained by this factor was .55. The coefficient

alpha for this measure was acceptable (α = .88). As with the off-job involvement and

advancement prospects scales, these continuous scales were converted into categorical
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variables for hypothesis testing using percentile splits (Ragins et al., 2000). Specifically,

the upper third, middle third, and lower third were coded extensive career support (2),

moderate career support (1), and limited career support (0).

Dependent Variables
The dependent variables in this study, desired and enacted aspirations, are

essentially two dimensions of the senior management aspirations construct described in

detail in Chapter 2. Senior management aspirations is defined as an individual’s desire

and intention to move into a senior management position in an organization. Desired

aspirations represent the emotional component of one’s pursuit of a career goal, whereas

enacted aspirations are elements in the plan of action one undertakes to achieve the

ultimate goal of attaining a position in senior management. The measures of desired and

enacted aspirations adopted for this research are based upon two scales developed and

validated by Tharenou and Terry (1998).

In two studies testing the validity and reliability of the desired and enacted

aspirations measures, construct validity was established through factor analyses that met

the authors’ a priori expectations, with the desired aspirations items loading cleanly on

one factor (time 1 and time 2 factor loadings ≥ .55) and the enacted aspirations items

loading cleanly on a second factor (time 1 and time 2 factor loadings ≥ .49) (Tharenou &

Terry, 1998). Internal consistency reliability was established through acceptable

coefficient alpha levels (desired aspirations time 1 α = .94 and time 2 α = .95) and

(enacted aspirations time 1 α = .80 and time 2 α = .81).

Desired Aspirations. The desired aspirations scale asked respondents to indicate

the extent of their agreement with six items on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 =Disagree

Strongly, 5 =Agree Strongly). Sample items, the first of which was reverse coded, are “I
 110

have no desire to advance to a position in senior management” and “I would like to

advance to a position where I can have a greater influence on policy decisions.” The

desired aspirations scale is shown in Appendix A. Whereas Tharenou and Terry (1998)

were eliciting responses for aspirations to management positions in general, the items

have been reworded for this study to be specifically geared toward senior management

aspirations.

The six items were entered into the factor analysis and the results are displayed in

Table 12. A one-factor solution, with an eigenvalue of 3.40 emerged. The variance

explained was .57, and an acceptable reliability was found (α = .85).

Enacted Aspirations. The six-item enacted aspirations scale was expanded to

twelve items and asked respondents to indicate how often they had engaged in the

behaviors in the past 12 months on a 5-point scale (1 = Never, 5 = Frequently). Items in

the enacted aspirations scale were reworded to include behaviors that are specifically

relevant to obtaining a senior management position. A sample item is “I have updated

my skills in order to be more competitive for a promotion.”

Additional items were added to the enacted aspirations scale following the

recommendation of Tharenou and Terry (1998) to include other career strategies related

to managerial advancement. The added items were expected to increase the validity and

reliability of the scale. Research has shown that career strategies are positively linked to

salary progression (Gould & Penley, 1984), attainment of a senior management position

(Wentling, 1996) and managerial success (Konrad et al., 1997). Some of the common

strategies identified in these studies are other enhancement (expressing a favorable

evaluation of the superior), creating opportunities (seeking out opportunities to develop

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and enhance skills), extended involvement (extending work involvement beyond

traditional working hours), opinion conformity (sharing certain key opinions with a

superior) and networking (socializing, politicking and interacting with others outsiders)

(Gould & Penley, 1984; Konrad et al., 1997; Wentling, 1996).

Six items thought to represent the career strategies used by managers who aspired

to higher organizational positions were garnered from these studies and added to the

enacted aspirations scale. Sample items include ”I have expressed my opinions when I

know that they are aligned with an individual in a key senior position” and “I have

demonstrated to a senior person in my organization my willingness to take risks.” The

enacted aspirations scale is shown in Appendix A.

The results of the factor analysis for enacted aspirations are shown in Table 13.

The twelve items were entered into the analysis and a one-factor solution

emerged. The eigenvalue was 5.00 and the variance explained was .41. The coefficient

alpha was acceptable (α = .87).

A summary of the factor analyses and reliability estimates of all study variables

are displayed in Table 14.

Additional Variables of Interest

Demographic and Background Variables. Demographic and background

characteristics were collected to provide a descriptive profile of the composition of the

respondents. Furthermore, demographic and background characteristics also helped to

identify potential confounding variables that were controlled during hypothesis testing.

Demographic and background characteristics that were collected in this study include

age, gender (also posited to be a moderating variable), race, marital status, partner’s
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employment status, presence/number of children, education level, number of years with

current employer, number of years until retirement, job function, organizational level,

number of subordinates, industry, and salary. The demographic and background

variables included in this study are referenced in Appendix A.

Variables Included for Use in Future Analysis. Additional variables were

included in the study for use in future analysis. They include demographic data of the

respondent’s workgroup, and five attitudinal variables: job attribute preferences, career

satisfaction, willingness to relocate, job involvement and work-home conflict. All of

these measures were adapted from prior research. All additional variables and scales are

shown in Appendix A.

Data Analysis

As indicated in Chapter 1, the main purpose of this study was to identify the

factors that influence individuals’ aspirations to senior management. To facilitate the

achievement of this research goal, a number of statistical techniques were used.

Descriptive statistics and correlational analysis were employed to describe the sample

characteristics and the relationships among the study variables. Next, as outlined in the

prior section, the reliability and validity of all study measures was assessed. Finally, the

hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis. All data analysis were

conducted using SPSSX for the Macintosh or PC. A detailed description of the statistical

techniques employed is presented below.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlational Analysis

Descriptive statistics of the study variables were calculated. For categorical

variables such as gender, percentages were computed. Measures of central tendency such
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as means and standard deviations were computed for ordinal and interval scales (Fink,

1995). The demographic characteristics of the sample were discussed earlier in this

chapter and a summary presented in Table 4.

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed to assess the

general patterns of relationships among the study variables and to identify the presence of

multicollinearity. The correlational analysis was helpful in determining whether

multicollinearity was a problem and in identifying potential confounding variables, which

were controlled during hypothesis testing.

Studies have found age, race, and socioeconomic status (Jacobs et al., 1991) to be

related to occupational aspirations. However, there is little indication in the literature

that demographic characteristics have consistently been related to management

aspirations. For this reason, there were no a priori predictions about which demographic

characteristics must be controlled in the analyses of the hypotheses. Instead, empirical

evidence was used to determine which variables to control, as discussed in Chapter 5.

Tests of Hypotheses
Four of the hypotheses (1, 2, 6a and 6c) in this study use congruence as an

independent variable. To test these hypotheses, both facet and global measures of

congruence were employed. To test the two component facet congruence measure, the

conventions suggested by Edwards (1994 a; 1994 b) and Edwards and Parry (1993) for

assessing congruence were adopted. To this end, the two components of congruence,

senior management schema and senior management self-assessment, were tested using

polynomial regression analysis. Polynomial regression analysis is used to avoid

problems with difference scores, while still testing the relationships difference scores are

intended to represent (Edwards, 1994 a, 1994 b; Edwards & Parry, 1993). Using
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polynomial regression analysis to test the assumptions implicit in the analysis of

difference scores can help to establish the reliability and validity of such scores

(Edwards, 1994 b).

Two regression equations, one constrained (1) and one unconstrained (2), were

suggested by Edwards and Parry (1993) to assess the squared difference between two

component measures:

Z = b0 + b1 (X -Y) + e (1)

Z = b0 + b1X + b2Y + b3X2 + b4XY + b5Y2 + e (2)

Where Z = desired aspirations (DA)

X = senior management schema (SMS)
Y = senior management self assessment (SMSA)
X2 = senior management schema * senior management schema
XY = senior management schema * senior management self assessment
Y2 = senior management self assessment * senior management self assessment

In equation (1) above, the algebraic difference between X and Y represents a

single predictor of Z and e represents a random error term (Veiga, Lubatkin, Calori, &

Very, 2000). Equation (1) constrains the coefficients on X and Y to be equal in

magnitude but not opposite in sign (Edwards, 1994 a).

In equation (2), the following implied constraints are imposed by the squared

difference equation: (1) the coefficients on X2 and Y2 are equal; (2) the coefficient on

XY is twice as large as the coefficient on either X2 or Y2 and opposite in sign; and (3) the

coefficients on X and Y are zero (Edwards, 1994 a, p.65).

The results were examined to assess whether the squared difference index was an

acceptable assessment of the two components of congruence (schema and self-

assessment) on desired aspirations. An acceptable assessment is indicated by the

following: (1) the coefficients of X2, XY and Y2 (both individually and as a set) but not X
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or Y will be significant; (2) coefficients of X2 and Y2 will not be significantly different;

and (3) a coefficient of XY that will not be significantly different from twice the negative

of the coefficient of either X2 or Y2 (Edwards, 1994 a, p. 65). Following Edwards (1994

a), the difference between the coefficients were tested directly using a test of the

difference between partial regression coefficients outlined by Cohen and Cohen (1983).

All polynomial regression analyses and subsequent tests of coefficients were conducted

using SYSTAT 10.0 for the PC.

To test hypotheses 1, 2, 6a and 6c using the polynomial regression analysis

described above, desired aspirations was regressed on the control variables in step 1.

Equation (2) above describes the set of independent variables that were entered into the

regression equation in step 2. All other independent variables were entered in subsequent

steps in relevant order depending upon which hypothesis was being tested. The results

indicated that the squared difference index was not an acceptable assessment of the two

components of congruence (schema and self-assessment) on desired aspirations. The

results of the polynomial regression analyses are discussed in Chapter 5 and detailed in

Appendix B.

The measure of global congruence was also used to test hypotheses 1, 2, 6a and

6c. The details of each regression analysis employed are described below using global

congruence as the measure of congruence. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to

examine the effects of each independent variable on the dependent variable, while

controlling for the effects of variables already in the equation (Cohen & Cohen, 1983).

Prior to hypothesis testing, the study variables were standardized. The first step in testing

each individual hypothesis was to include any relevant control variables.

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For the hypotheses that predict interactions, interaction terms were entered into

the regression model together. The dependent variable was regressed on each

independent variable (including control variables) as well as the interaction term. The

regression analysis results included a standardized beta coefficient, an R2, and a change

in R2 for the addition of each independent variable. The change in R2 indicated the

proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that was accounted for by the

addition of each new variable or set of variables. The beta coefficients were used to

assess the relative strength of the relationship of each independent variable with the

dependent variable. A significant beta for the interaction term indicated the presence of

an interaction effect. Interaction plots were analyzed to determine whether the

hypothesized direction of the interaction was supported.

Hypotheses 1 and 2. Hypothesis 1 predicted a positive relationship between

congruence and desired aspirations. To test this relationship, the control variables were

entered into the regression model in Step 1. Congruence was then entered in Step 2. The

regression coefficient for congruence was examined to test Hypothesis 1.

Hypothesis 2 predicted that off-job involvement would moderate the positive

relationship between congruence and desired aspirations, such that the relationship would

be stronger for individuals with limited off-job involvement. Off-job involvement was

entered in Step 3, followed by the interaction between congruence and off-job

involvement in Step 4. A significant beta coefficient for the interaction term was

followed up with a plot of the interaction to test Hypothesis 2.

Hypotheses 3 and 4. Hypothesis 3 predicted a positive relationship between

desired aspirations and enacted aspirations. To test this relationship, the control
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variable(s) were entered into the regression model in Step 1. Next, desired aspirations

was entered in Step 2. The regression coefficient for desired aspirations was examined to

test Hypothesis 3.

Hypothesis 4 predicted that desired aspirations would interact with advancement

prospects in predicting enacted aspirations. Advancement Prospects was entered in Step

3 followed by the interaction of advancement prospects and desired aspirations in Step 4.

A significant beta coefficient for the interaction term was followed up with a plot of the

interaction to test Hypothesis 4.

Hypothesis 5. Hypothesis 5 predicted that desired aspirations would interact with

career support in predicting enacted aspirations. The control variables were entered into

the regression equation in Step 1 followed by desired aspirations in Step 2. Career

support was entered in Step 3 and the interaction between desired aspirations and career

support was entered in Step 4. A significant regression coefficient for the interaction

term was followed up with a plot of the interaction to test Hypothesis 5.

Hypotheses 6a and 6c. Hypothesis 6a predicted that congruence would interact

with gender in predicting desired aspirations. The control variables were entered into

Step 1 of the regression model. Congruence was entered in Step 2 followed by Gender in

Step 3. The congruence-gender interaction term was entered into the regression model in

Step 4. A significant beta coefficient for the interaction term was followed up with a plot

of the interaction to test Hypothesis 6a. If the beta coefficient for the interaction term

were not significant, Hypothesis 6c would not be tested.

Hypothesis 6c predicted that the moderating effect of gender and congruence on

desired aspirations would no longer be significant when controlling for off-job

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involvement. If Hypothesis 6a were supported, off-job involvement would be entered

into the regression equation in Step 5. Support for Hypothesis 6c required that the

interaction term would no longer be significant in the presence of off-job involvement.

Hypotheses 6d, 6h and 6f. Hypothesis 6d predicted that the positive relationship

between desired and enacted aspirations would be stronger for men than for women. The

control variables were entered into Step 1 of the regression analysis, followed by gender

in Step 2. Desired aspirations was entered in Step 3 and the interaction between gender

and desired aspirations was entered in Step 4. A significant beta coefficient for the

interaction term was followed up with a plot of the interaction to test Hypothesis 6d. If

the beta coefficient for the interaction term were not significant, neither Hypotheses 6f

nor 6h would be tested.

Hypothesis 6f predicted that the interaction between gender and desired

aspirations on enacted aspirations would no longer be significant when controlling for

advancement prospects. If Hypothesis 6d were supported, advancement prospects would

be entered into the regression equation in Step 5. Support for Hypothesis 6f required that

the interaction term would no longer be significant in the presence of advancement

prospects.

Hypothesis 6h predicted that the interaction between gender and desired

aspirations on enacted aspirations would no longer be significant when controlling for

career support. If Hypothesis 6d were supported, career support would be entered into

the regression equation in Step 5. Support for Hypothesis 6h required that the interaction

term would no longer be significant in the presence of career support.

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Hypothesis 6b, 6e and6g. Hypothesis 6b predicted that women experience more

extensive off-job involvement than men. The control variables were entered into Step 1

followed by gender in Step 2. The regression coefficient for gender was examined to test

Hypothesis 6b.

Hypothesis 6e predicted that women perceived less extensive advancement

prospects than men. The same regression steps described in Hypothesis 6b were

employed, the difference was that advancement prospects was the dependent variable.

Hypothesis 6g, which predicted that women perceived less extensive career support than

men, was analyzed the same way, although the dependent variable for Hypothesis 6g was

career support. Similar to Hypothesis 6b, an examination of the regression coefficient for

gender tested both Hypotheses 6e and 6g respectively.

Summary

This chapter has described the research design and methodology, measurement of

the constructs, sample characteristics, and statistical techniques that were employed to

test the research hypotheses offered in this study. Chapter 5 provides the detailed results

of the data analyses outlined in this chapter.

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Chapter 5: RESULTS

This chapter presents the results of the data analyses beginning with the

correlational analysis of the demographic and model variables. This is followed by a

description of statistical results for each research hypothesis. The chapter concludes with

a summary of the post hoc analysis findings.

Correlational Analysis

Table 15 presents the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among all

variables in the study. As noted in the preceding chapter, correlational analyses help to

determine which demographic variables must be controlled during hypothesis testing, as

well as help to identify whether multicollinearity is a problem. The intercorrelations

among the study’s variables ranged from -.31 to .66, which suggests that severe

multicollinearity did not exist among the variables (i.e., r’s ≥ .80)(Hair et al., 1995).

What the correlational analysis did reveal however is that some demographic variables

were significantly correlated with the independent, moderating, and dependent variables

in the model.

Intercorrelations Among Demographic and Model Variables

The demographic variables that were consistently related to the model variables

were age, marital status, education, and functional area. Age was positively correlated

with subjective off-job involvement (r = .130, p < .05) and negatively correlated with

objective advancement prospects (r = -.167, p < .01), subjective advancement prospects

(r = -.213, p < .001), desired aspirations (r = -.225, p < .001), and enacted aspirations (r
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= -.151, p < .01). Consequently, respondents’ age was included as a control variable in

all regression analyses.

Marital status was also controlled in all regression analyses because it was

positively correlated with self-assessment (r = .141, p < .01), global congruence (r =

.127, p < .05), objective off-job involvement (r = .146, p < .01), subjective off-job

involvement (r = .123, p < .05), subjective advancement prospects (r = .134, p < .05),

and career support in the non-work domain (r = .222, p < .001).

Education was positively correlated with global congruence (r = .163, p < .01),

subjective advancement prospects (r = .127, p < .05), desired aspirations (r = .119, p <

.05) and enacted aspirations (r = .119, p < .05). Since education was correlated to both

an independent variable (global congruence) and both dependent variables, it was

controlled in subsequent regression analyses. Various demographic characteristics such

as spouse employment status, number of children, organization tenure, organization size,

number of subordinates, salary, and spouse salary were correlated with model variables,

but were not included as controls because they were significantly related to other

demographic variables that were already controlled in the analysis.

An additional control variable was determined through the use of analysis of

variance (ANOVA), which was employed to assess whether categorical variables such as

race, functional area, and industry were related to model variables. Results of the

ANOVA revealed that functional area was significantly related to global congruence (F8,

334 = 2.54, p < .01) and enacted aspirations (F8, 335 = 2.01, p < .05). Because functional

area was related to key independent (global congruence) and dependent (enacted

aspirations) variables, it was controlled during all subsequent regression analyses. A

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Bonferroni pairwise multiple comparison was used to test the difference between each

pair of means at the alpha level of .05.

The results of the Bonferroni tests reveal the largest mean differences were

present between the human resources, the legal functional areas, and all other functional

areas. The legal area means were significantly lower than the means for the human

resources area, and both legal and human resources had significantly lower means than

the sales, information systems, and research and development areas. Therefore, two

control variables, human resources functional area (All others =0, HR = 1) and legal

functional area (All Others = 0, Legal = 1), were created for use in the regression

analyses for hypothesis testing.

Intercorrelations Among Model Variables

Gender was negatively related to self-assessment (r = -.119, p < .05), global

congruence (r = -.170, p < .001), subjective advancement prospects (r = -.152, p < .01),

and desired aspirations (r = -.226, p < .001). This means that women had lower self-

assessment scores, lower congruence scores, lower desired aspirations, and perceived

fewer prospects for advancement than men.

Senior management schema was positively correlated with self-assessment (r =

.210, p < .001), global congruence (r = .148, p < .01), subjective advancement prospects

(r = .104, p < .05), career support in the work domain (r = .323, p < .001), desired

aspirations (r = .106, p < .05) and enacted aspirations (r = .164, p < .01).

Senior management self-assessment was positively related to global congruence (r

= .502, p < .001), subjective advancement prospects (r = .348, p < .001), desired

aspirations (r = .432, p < .001), and enacted aspirations (r = .493, p < .001).
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Global congruence was positively correlated with subjective advancement

prospects (r = .561, p < .001), career support in the non-work domain (r = .145, p < .01),

desired aspirations (r = .659, p < .001), and enacted aspirations (r = .439, p < .001).

Objective off-job involvement (actual number of hours spent on activities outside

of work) was positively related to subjective off-job involvement (r = .390, p < .001).

Objective advancement prospects was positively related to subjective

advancement prospects (r = .116, p < .01) and enacted aspirations (r = .151, p < .05).

These results indicate that individuals who are not plateaued perceive more extensive

prospects for advancement and have higher enacted aspirations than their plateaued

counterparts. Subjective advancement prospects was positively related to career support

in the work domain (r = .169, p < .001), career support in the non-work domain (r =

.144, p < .01), desired aspirations (r = .448, p < .001), and enacted aspirations (r = .326,

p < .001).

Career support in the work domain was positively related to career support in the

non-work domain (r = .110, p < .05) and enacted aspirations (r = .171, p < .001). Career

support in the non-work domain was positively correlated with desired aspirations (r =

.188, p < .001) and enacted aspirations (r = .182, p < .001).

Desired aspirations was positively related to enacted aspirations (r = .462, p <

.001). In conclusion, the above discussion points out that all correlations were in the

predicted direction and the data did not indicate the presence of any substantial

multicollinearity among the variables in the research model.

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Tests of Hypotheses

As discussed in Chapter 4, this study included two measures of congruence. The

first measure was comprised of two components (senior management schema and senior

management self-assessment) and was a facet measure of congruence, and the second

measured global congruence. All hypotheses were tested using both congruence

measures. Following Edwards (1994 a; 1994 b), Edwards and Parry (1993), and Edwards

and Rothbard (1999) polynomial regression analysis was employed to test the hypotheses

using the schema and self-assessment measures.

The results of the polynomial regression analyses indicated that the two

component measures of congruence (schema and self-assessment) did not meet the

criterion specified by Edwards (1994 a; 1994 b), Edwards and Parry (1993), and Edwards

and Rothbard (1999) that both components of a measure of fit account for variation in the

dependent variable equally. In this study, the self-assessment measure accounted for

most if not all of the variation in desired aspirations. Therefore, the two components of

facet fit (schema and self-assessment) were deemed inappropriate to use as indicators of

congruence and the global congruence measure was employed. Detailed results of the

polynomial regression analyses are presented in Appendix B. The hypotheses presented

below are those that employed the global congruence measure. The use of self-

assessment as a standalone measure of congruence was explored in some of the post-hoc

analyses.

Hypothesis 1: Relationship Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations.

This hypothesis predicted that individuals who perceive themselves as fitting into

a position in senior management would desire such a position. Hierarchical multiple

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regression analysis was used to test this hypothesis and the results are presented in Table

16.

Five control variables (age, marital status, education, human resources functional

area and legal functional area) were entered into Step 1 of the regression analysis

followed by global congruence in Step 2. The hypothesized positive relationship

between global congruence and desired aspirations was significant (β = .68, p < .001).

Global congruence accounted for 43% of the variation in desired aspirations (∆R2 = .43, p

< .001). These results indicate that Hypothesis 1 was supported.

Hypothesis 2: Moderating Effect of Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship Between

Congruence and Desired Aspirations.
This hypothesis predicted that the relationship between congruence and desired

aspirations would be stronger for individuals with limited off-job involvement than for

individuals with extensive off-job involvement. Objective and subjective off-job

involvement were entered into the regression model in Step 3 (see Table 16) and the

interaction terms (global congruence and objective off-job involvement; global

congruence and subjective off-job involvement) were entered in Step 4. The four-step

regression resulted in a model in which 52% of the variance was explained by the

included variables (R2 = .52, p < .001). The addition of the interaction terms in Step 4

accounted for a 1% (∆R2 = .01, p < .05) change in the variance in desired aspirations, and

each interaction was statistically significant. The significant interactions were plotted to

determine whether the hypothesized direction of the interactions were supported. The

interaction plots are seen in Figures 3 and 4 below.

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Figure 3 shows, as predicted, that the relationship between congruence and

desired aspirations was slightly stronger for individuals with limited objective off-job

involvement than for individuals with extensive objective off-job involvement.

Contrary to predictions, Figure 4 indicates that the relationship between

congruence and desired aspirations was stronger for individuals with extensive subjective

off-job involvement than for individuals with limited subjective off-job involvement.

These results indicate that Hypothesis 2 was partially supported.

Post Hoc Analysis

In light of the fact that the moderator relationships were only partially supported,

Hypothesis 2 was reexamined using components of subjective off-job involvement. As

revealed in Chapter 4, when the subjective off-job involvement items were factor

analyzed, they resulted in a four-factor solution (Table 8). The first factor consisted of

four items that dealt with community activities, the second factor consisted of two items

regarding child care, the third factor dealt with household chores, and factor four

consisted of recreational activities.

The data were reexamined using hierarchical multiple regression analysis to

determine whether the results changed when the four subjective off-job involvement

factors were entered into the analyses as moderators of the relationship between global

congruence and desired aspirations. The regression analysis (not shown) revealed that

the interaction between global congruence and community activities had a marginally

significant effect on desired aspirations (β = , p < .10). The interaction between global

congruence and community activities was plotted and is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 shows that community activities moderated the relationship between

congruence and desired aspirations. The relationship between congruence and desired
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aspirations was stronger for individuals with extensive community involvement than for

individuals with limited involvement in community activities. This was contrary to the

predictions in Hypothesis 2, which expected that the relationship between congruence

and desired aspirations would be stronger for individuals with limited off-job

involvement than for those with extensive off-job involvement. The interactions between

congruence and the component factors of subjective off-job involvement that were not

statistically significant were congruence and childcare, congruence and house chores, and

congruence and recreational activities.

A second set of post-hoc regression analyses regarding Hypothesis 2 were

executed using self-assessment as a standalone measure of congruence. When self-

assessment was substituted for global congruence, the regression analyses produced no

significant interactions between self-assessment and objective off-job involvement or

between self-assessment and subjective off-job involvement. Furthermore, self-

assessment did not interact with any of the four factors of subjective off-job involvement.

Hypothesis 3: Relationship Between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations.

This hypothesis predicted a positive relationship between desired and enacted

aspirations and was tested using hierarchical regression analysis. Five control variables

(age, marital status, education, human resources functional area and legal functional area)

were entered into Step 1 of the regression analysis followed by global congruence,

objective, and subjective off-job involvement in Step 2 and desired aspirations in Step 3.

The beta coefficient for desired aspirations was positive (β=.24, p < . 001). Furthermore,

desired aspirations accounted for a significant change in model variance (∆R2 = .03, p < .

001). These results, shown in Table 17, provided support for Hypothesis 3.
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Hypothesis 4: Moderating Effect of Advancement Prospects on the Relationship Between

Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that the relationship between desired and enacted

aspirations would be stronger for individuals who perceived extensive advancement

prospects than for individuals who perceived limited advancement prospects. Objective

advancement prospects and subjective advancement prospects were entered into the

regression model in Step 4, and the interactions between desired aspirations and objective

advancement prospects and between desired aspirations and subjective advancement

prospects were entered in Step 5.

As seen in Table 17, the variance accounted for by all variables in the model is

32% (R2 = .32, p < . 001), with the addition of the interaction terms in Step 5 accounting

for no change in variance (∆R2 = .00, n.s.). The non-significant beta coefficients for the

interaction terms indicate that neither objective nor subjective advancement prospects

moderated the relationship between desired and enacted aspirations. Therefore,

Hypothesis 4 was not supported.

It should be noted however, that there was an effect of global congruence on

enacted aspirations (β=.29, p < . 001) and an effect of objective advancement prospects

(β=.10, p < . 10) on enacted aspirations. These results suggest that individuals with high

congruence also had high enacted aspirations regardless of their desired aspirations.

Furthermore, individuals who were not plateaued held higher enacted aspirations than

individuals who were career plateaued regardless of their desired aspirations.

Post Hoc Analysis

Because advancement prospects did not moderate the relationship between

desired and enacted aspirations, the hypothesized relationship was reexamined using the

two components of subjective advancement prospects revealed by a factor analysis in

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Chapter 4 and reported in Table 9. The first factor was comprised of three items and

described advancement prospects in the present organization and the second factor, also

comprised of three items, dealt with advancement prospects in a different organization.

The data were reanalyzed using hierarchical regression analysis to determine

whether the results would change when the component factors of subjective advancement

prospects were entered into the model. The regression analysis (not shown) revealed that

the interaction between desired aspirations and advancement prospects in a different

organization had a marginally significant effect on enacted aspirations (β = -.10, p < .10).

The modest interaction was plotted and the results can be seen in Figure 6.

Contrary to the original prediction in Hypothesis 4, these results suggest that the

relationship between desired and enacted aspirations was stronger for individuals who

perceived limited advancement prospects in a different organization than for individuals

who perceived extensive advancement prospects in a different organization.

Hypothesis 5: Moderating Effect of Career Support on the Relationship Between Desired

Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations.
This hypothesis predicted that career support in the work and non-work domains

would moderate the relationship between desired and enacted aspirations. In a five-Step

hierarchical regression, five control variables (age, marital status, education, human

resources functional area and legal functional area) were entered in Step 1, followed by

global congruence and objective and subjective off-job involvement in Step 2. Desired

aspirations was entered in Step 3, followed by career support in the work domain and

career support in the non-work domain in Step 4. The interaction terms (desired

aspirations by career support at work and desired aspirations by career support from non-

work) were entered in Step 5. The results of this regression are shown in Table 18.
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The variance accounted for by all variables in the model was 33% (R2 = .33, p <

.001), with the addition of the interaction terms in Step 5 accounting for no change in

variance (∆R2 = .00, n.s.). The non-significant beta coefficients for the interactions

between desired aspirations and career support in the work domain (β=-.03) and between

desired aspirations and career support in the non-work domain (β=-.03) indicate that

career support did not moderate the relationship between desired and enacted aspirations.

Therefore, Hypothesis 5 was not supported. There was an effect of career support in the

non-work domain (β=.12, p < .05) on enacted aspirations suggesting that individuals who

had career support in the non-work domain were also likely to have high enacted

aspirations.

Hypothesis 6a: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Congruence

and Desired Aspirations.
This hypothesis predicted that the relationship between congruence and desired

aspirations would be stronger for men than for women. Hypothesis 6a was tested by

entering five control variables (age, marital status, education, human resources functional

area and legal functional area) into Step 1 of a hierarchical regression. Global

congruence was entered in Step 2 and gender was entered in Step 3. The interaction of

global congruence by gender was entered in Step 4. The results of the regression analysis

are presented in Table 19.

The model explained 51% of the variation in desired aspirations (R2 = .52, p < .

001), with the addition of the interaction term accounting for no change in the variance

(∆R2 = .00, n.s.). The beta coefficient for the interaction term (β=.06, n.s.) indicates that

gender did not moderate the relationship between global congruence and desired

aspirations: therefore Hypothesis 6a was not supported. There was however, a

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significant, negative effect of gender on desired aspirations (β=−.11, p < . 05; R2 = .51, p

< . 05; ∆R2 = .10, p < . 05), indicating that women held lower desired aspirations than

men.

Post Hoc Analysis

Hypothesis 6a, which predicted that gender would moderate the relationship

between global congruence and desired aspirations, was reanalyzed using self-assessment

as the measure of congruence and the results did not change. The findings suggest that

congruence did not affect desired aspirations differently for men and women.

Hypothesis 6b: Relationship Between Gender and Off-Job Involvement.

Hypothesis 6b predicted that women experienced more extensive off-job

involvement than men. Two hierarchical regression analyses were employed to test this

hypothesis, first using objective off-job involvement as the dependent variable, and then

using subjective off-job involvement as the dependent variable. The results of these

regressions are shown in Table 20.

For both regressions, five control variables (age, marital status, education, human

resources functional area and legal functional area) were entered into Step 1 of the

analysis. Gender was entered in Step 2.

As the results of the first regression indicate, the beta coefficient for gender was

negative (β= -.12, p < .10) and the addition of gender accounted for a 1% change in the

variance in objective off-job involvement (∆R2 = .01, p < .10). These results are contrary

to the prediction that women experience more extensive objective off-job involvement

than men because they suggest that men experience more extensive objective off-job

involvement than women.

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In the second regression, the influence of gender on subjective off-job

involvement was not statistically significant (β= -.10, n.s.). Taken together, these

regressions support the notion that women spent more hours on off-job activities, but that

they were not significantly more psychologically involved in off-job activities than men.

Thus, Hypothesis 6b was marginally supported.

Hypothesis 6c: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Congruence

and Desired Aspirations Disappears when Controlling for Off-Job Involvement.
This hypothesis was predicted on the assumption that gender would moderate the

relationship between congruence and desired aspirations (Hypothesis 6a). Because

Hypothesis 6a was not supported, it was not meaningful to test Hypothesis 6c.

Hypothesis 6d: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Desired

Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations.
The results of Hypothesis 6d are shown in Table 21. Hypothesis 6d predicted that

the relationship between desired aspirations and enacted aspirations would be stronger for

men than for women. Five control variables (age, marital status, education, human

resources functional area and legal functional area) were entered in Step 1 followed by

gender in Step 2 and desired aspirations in Step 3. The interaction between desired

aspirations and gender was entered in Step 4.

The results indicate that 29% of the variance in enacted aspirations was accounted

for by the variables in Model 4 (R2 = .29, p < . 001), and that the change in R2 attributed

to the interaction term was less than 1% (∆R2 = .00, n.s.). The beta coefficient for the

interaction term (β=.01, n.s.) indicates that the relationship between desired and enacted

aspirations was not significantly stronger for men than for women. Thus, Hypothesis 6d

was not supported.

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Hypothesis 6e: Relationship Between Gender and Advancement Prospects.

Hypothesis 6e predicted that women would perceive less extensive advancement

prospects than men. Two hierarchical regression analyses were employed to test this

hypothesis, first using objective advancement prospects as the dependent variable, and

then using subjective advancement prospects as the dependent variable. The results of

these regressions are shown in Table 22.

For both regressions, five control variables (age, marital status, education, human

resources functional area and legal functional area) were entered into Step 1 of the

analysis. Gender was entered in Step 2.

Inconsistent with the prediction, the beta coefficient for gender was not

statistically significant (β=-.02, n.s.) in the first regression. The addition of gender

accounted for no change in the variance in objective advancement prospects (∆R2 = .00,

n.s.). These results do not support the prediction that women were more likely to be

plateaued in their careers than men.

In the second regression, gender accounted for 1% of the variation in subjective

advancement prospects (∆R2 = .01, p < .05.) and the beta coefficient was negative (β=-

.12, p < .05) suggesting that women perceived less extensive subjective advancement

prospects than men. Taken together, these regressions indicate that although there were

no significant differences in the career plateaus of women and men, women perceived

significantly less extensive advancement prospects than men, providing partial support

for Hypothesis 6e.

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Hypothesis 6f: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Desired

Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations Disappears when Controlling for Advancement
Prospects.
This hypothesis was predicted on the assumption that gender would moderate the

relationship between desired aspirations and enacted aspirations (Hypothesis 6d).

Because Hypothesis 6d was not supported, it was not meaningful to test Hypothesis 6f.

Hypothesis 6g: Relationship Between Gender and Career Support.

Hypothesis 6g predicted that women would perceive less extensive career support

than men. Two hierarchical regression analyses were employed to test this hypothesis,

first using career support in the work domain as the dependent variable, and then using

career support in the non-work domain as the dependent variable. The results of these

regressions are shown in Table 23.

For both regressions, five control variables (age, marital status, education, human

resources functional area and legal functional area) were entered into Step 1 of the

analysis. Gender was entered in Step 2.

As the results of the first regression indicate, the beta coefficient for gender was

not significant (β=.00, n.s.) and the addition of gender to the model accounted for no

change in the variation in career support in the work domain (∆R2 = .00, n.s.). These

results indicate that women did not perceive less extensive career support in the work

domain than men.

In the second regression, the addition of gender to the model did not significantly

change the variation in career support in the non-work domain (∆R2 = .01, n.s.). Contrary

to the prediction, the beta coefficient was not statistically significant (β=.10, n.s.)

suggesting that women did not perceive less extensive career support in the non-work

domain than men. These results indicate that there were no differences in the perception
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of career support between women and men, in either the work or non-work domains.

Thus, Hypothesis 6g was not supported.

Hypothesis 6h: Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Desired

Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations Disappears when Controlling for Career Support.
This hypothesis was predicted on the assumption that gender would moderate the

relationship between desired aspirations and enacted aspirations (Hypothesis 6d).

Because Hypothesis 6d was not supported, it was not meaningful to test Hypothesis 6h.

Post Hoc Analysis: Model of Senior Management Aspirations

Prior research suggests that there are gender differences in advancement

aspirations (Greenhaus et al., 1997). Contrary to expectations, there was no evidence for

gender as a moderator, yet gender was related to enacted aspirations. This finding

presented an opportunity to test a mediated model that would help to explain the gender

difference in enacted aspirations. Therefore, the role of gender was further explored

using structural equation modeling. Specifically, multiple versions of the model of senior

management aspirations were explored using AMOS 4.01 (Arbuckle, 1999). Figure 7

shows the results of a model, which examined both congruence and off-job involvement

as mediating the relationship between gender and desired aspirations. The relationship

between gender and enacted aspirations was examined with congruence, desired

aspirations, advancement prospects, and career support as potential mediators. Finally,

all direct effects of gender on desired and enacted aspirations were explored.

The analysis reveals that gender was negatively related to congruence (β = -.18, p

< .001), desired aspirations (β = -.10, p < .05), and subjective advancement prospects (β

= -.09, p < .10) indicating that women perceive lower levels of fit with senior

management positions, have less of a desire to attain such positions, and perceive fewer

advancement prospects than men. Gender was also positively related to enacted
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aspirations (β = .17, p < .001) revealing that women held higher enacted aspirations than

men. The relationship between congruence and desired aspirations was positive (β =

.69, p < .001), as was the relationship between desired and enacted aspirations (β = .33, p

< .001). Congruence was positively related to career support in the non-work domain (β

= .16, p < .01) and to enacted aspirations (β = .21, p < .01). Both objective advancement

prospects (β = .10, p < .05) and career support in the work domain (β = .09, p < .10)

were positively related to enacted aspirations.

Overall, the hypothesized model did not fit the data well (χ2 = 226.56, df = 27, p

< .001; GFI = .87; AGFI = .737; RMSEA = .16). The model may offer additional insight

into the factors that influence senior management aspirations. The significant

relationships indicated by the beta coefficients however, do indicate that gender had an

indirect effect on desired aspirations through congruence, and an indirect effect on

enacted aspirations through congruence and desired aspirations. Additionally, gender had

a direct effect on both desired and enacted aspirations. These findings provide additional

insights into the relationships among various model constructs and will be discussed

further in the forthcoming chapter.

Summary

In summary, Chapter 5 described the results of the correlation and regression

analyses conducted in this study. The hierarchical regression analyses employed to test

the hypotheses revealed some interesting results. A summary of the results is shown in

Table 24. While several of the hypotheses were not supported or only partially

supported, the results offer interesting insights into the senior management aspirations of
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the respondents. Forthcoming in Chapter 6 is a detailed discussion of the results of this

study, the study’s contributions and limitations and suggested directions for future

research in this area.

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Chapter 6: DISCUSSION

Chapter 6 begins with a brief summary of the gaps in the career development and

decision-making literature that this study has addressed. Next, the results of this study

are presented in light of the career development and decision-making literature, followed

by a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the research. The

methodological limitations of this study are reviewed and finally, as the findings and

limitations inform them, directions for future research are introduced.

Research Gaps in the Career Development and Decision-Making Literature

The study of senior management aspirations has garnered relatively little

theoretical and empirical attention. While there are a number of theoretical and

conceptual challenges associated with studying senior management aspirations, the lack

of research may be associated with the past assumption that everyone, or at least men,

wanted to climb the corporate ladder. Whatever the reasons for the research gaps

associated with senior management aspirations, the fact that the number of senior

management positions available has declined, yet the numbers of individuals with high

career expectations has increased (Lashbrook, 1992), makes it evident that this is an

important area in the career development and decision-making literature in need of

empirical attention.

This research presents a descriptive model of career decision-making through

which a theory of senior management aspirations has begun to crystallize. The model of

senior management aspirations posited in this study included cognitive, lifestyle, and

work-related variables that were predicted to influence individuals’ aspirations to

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positions in senior management. While the specific research question this study hoped to

answer was what factors influence an individual’s aspirations to advance to a position in

senior management, from a theoretical perspective, this study hoped to contribute to the

overall knowledge of senior management aspirations within a career decision-making

framework.

Congruence as a Determinant of Senior Management Aspirations

A number of hypotheses were generated to address the relationships posited in the

model of senior management aspirations. In general, the model predicted that the

congruence between one’s occupational self-image and the image one holds of a senior

management job, would interact with various lifestyle factors to influence an individual’s

desire to attain a position in senior management. Research suggests that individuals in

pursuit of their career dreams are mindful of all aspects of their lives (Krau, 1997;

Levinson, 1986; Levinson & Levinson, 1996) including non-work commitments.

This study provided support for the idea that an individual’s desire to move into a

senior management position in an organization represents a critical component of senior

management aspirations in the context of career decision-making. The data in this study

indicated that one’s congruence with a position in senior management is positively

related to the level of desire an individual holds towards a position in senior management.

These findings support prior research that individuals who see themselves as capable of

fulfilling managerial roles aspire to and even attain those positions (Meier, 1991;

Tharenou, 1997 b). The desire to attain an end state, or reach a goal, is reflective of one’s

attitude towards attaining that particular goal. Thus, the desire to become a senior
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manager is reflective of an individual’s wants, regarding his or her career goals. This

desire is influenced by occupational-self congruence.

In general, individuals assess their overall congruence with a senior management

position, as well as congruence regarding specific aspects of a senior management

position. Specific facets of a senior management position include the job requirements or

intrinsic aspects of the position as well as the rewards. In this study, overall congruence

with a position in senior management was related positively to individual’s desire to

move into senior management positions.

These findings are consistent with an expectancy model of career decision-

making. In terms of career decision-making, the positively valent second-level outcomes

like rewards associated with a particular position, in concert with the belief that entering

a particular position will be instrumental in the attainment of those outcomes, predicts the

overall level of valence or desire to obtain such a position (Pinder, 1998; Vroom, 1964).

This study provided support for the notion that one’s desire to move into a senior

management position in an organization is related to one’s intention to pursue senior

management as a career goal. Intentions represent a critical component of senior

management aspirations in the context of career decision-making. Intentions are the

component of senior management aspirations, which influence the behaviors associated

with attaining senior management positions. Thus, the intention to become a senior

manager is reflective of the behaviors individuals’ exhibit regarding their career goals. In

terms of senior management aspirations, intentions, or enacted aspirations are influenced

by desires and occupational-self congruence.

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In this study, one’s desire to become a senior manager was positively related to

one’s intention to pursue senior management as a career goal. These findings are

consistent with an expectancy model of career decision-making, which suggests that the

valence of first level outcomes, or the “want” component of a desired outcome, leads to

behaviors associated with achieving the outcome (Pinder, 1998; Vroom, 1964). These

findings also support prior research that suggests that attitudes inform intentions that are

in turn, associated with behaviors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1974; Pinder, 1998).

The direct effect of congruence on enacted aspirations suggests that individuals

with high congruence will engage in behaviors that they believe will lead them to senior

management positions, regardless of their desire to attain such positions. These results

concur with prior research, which suggests that individuals who see themselves as fitting

into certain positions will engage in behaviors associated with attaining those positions

(Chartrand & Walsk, 1999; Tharenou, 1997 b).

Environmental Factors as Determinants of Senior Management Aspirations

Because evidence suggests that environmental factors from both the work and

non-work domains influence career aspirations (Holland, 1985) it was expected that

occupational self-congruence would interact with factors from the non-work domain to

influence one’s desire to become a senior manager. In turn, one’s desire to attain a

position in senior management was expected to interact with work-related factors to

influence an individual’s intention to pursue positions in senior management.

Contrary to expectations, the strength of the relationship between congruence and

desired aspirations was not moderated by non-work commitments. It is possible that the
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lack of interaction effects between congruence and desired aspirations is attributable to

social desirability bias. Specifically, in a sample of managers and professionals, it is

possible that managers or senior management aspirants will not admit the existence of

significant household/family or other off-job activities that they perceive could interfere

with their career goals, particularly if they felt that they would fit well within the ranks of

senior management.

Unexpectedly, neither advancement prospects nor career support enhanced the

relationship between desired and enacted aspirations. The lack of interaction effects

between desired aspirations and the environmental variables suggests that when

individuals believe they can attain a position in senior management, they will pursue it,

despite low desires. Specifically, the data seem to suggest that the desire to attain a

position in senior management exists irrespective of perceived opportunities and support

by significant others. The data in this study supports the idea that desire alone is enough

to spur individuals to engage in enacted aspirations. In addition to desired aspirations,

work-related factors also influenced enacted aspirations directly.

Objective advancement prospects, measured as career plateau, which indicates the

end of increases in promotions or responsibility, influenced enacted aspirations. This

finding may suggest that individuals who are not plateaued will engage in behaviors that

they believe will lead them to senior management positions. Alternatively, it might mean

that individuals who engage in career enhancing strategies do not become career

plateaued. Finally, it may suggest that the career enhancing strategies encapsulated

within the enacted aspirations measure are not specific to senior management aspirants.

The findings in this study support prior research that non-plateaued employees tend to
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use career strategies like networking, seeking-guidance and self-nomination significantly

more than plateaued employees (Gould & Penley, 1984).

Career-support, both at work and at home, was positively related to enacted

aspirations in this study. Prior research suggests that supervisor support has a positive

effect on career development (Jiang & Klein, 2000), and that it is a key factor in

influencing managers’ motivation to take risks and make change (Spreitzer & Quinn,

1996). Thus supervisors seem to encourage individuals to engage in career enhancing

strategies. Additionally, career support at home is positively related to coaching

opportunities and developmental assignments (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000).

The main effects of objective advancement prospects and career support on

enacted aspirations indicates that not being plateaued, and having support at work or at

home regarding career aspirations, respectively, influences an individual’s intentions to

pursue a position in senior management.

In general, the model of senior management aspirations in this study encapsulates

the attitudes and intentions that individuals hold regarding their careers in the context of

senior management positions. The following discussion focuses on the attitudes,

intentions and associated behaviors that characterize individuals for whom career

decisions regarding senior management are salient.

Attitudes, Intentions and Behaviors in Senior Management Aspirations

Research suggests that attitudes are general predispositions that lead to a set of

specific intentions that indicate a certain amount of affect toward the object in question

(Pinder, 1998). Each of these intentions is related to a specific behavior (Ajzen &
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Fishbein, 1980; Pinder, 1998). Attitudes affect behavior only to the extent that they

influence a person's intentions to act (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).

In this research, the influence of desired aspirations on enacted aspirations was

evident and supportive of prior research that suggests that attitudes inform intentions that

are in turn, associated with behaviors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Pinder, 1998). The

model of senior management aspirations indicates that an individual’s attitudes (desired

aspirations) leads to a set of behaviors (enacted aspirations) through which intentions are

assumed.

There is an element of expectancy in the relationship between attitudes and

intentions. Once attitudes have been formed, an individual’s feelings concerning the act

being considered (perceived consequences of the act) will influence the intention to act

(Pinder, 1998). In other words, a perception of attainability (or “can”) must be present

for an individual to engage in a behavior.

In this study, advancement prospects and career support were thought to represent

that “can” aspect of an individual’s perception that would interact with their desire to

become a senior manager such that their intentions (i.e. engaging in enacted aspirations)

would become evident. The findings indicated that the influence of those environmental

variables were associated with intentions but not with the relationship between attitudes

and intentions.

It may be that when individuals believe that a goal is attainable, and/or when they

are being encouraged to pursue the goal, whether or not they have a strong desire

(attitude) to attain the goal, they feel an obligation to pursue it. Consider the following

examples. An individual may not be particularly attracted to the responsibilities

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associated with a senior management job. However, because the prospect of advancing is

associated with a high salary, he or she may feel obligated to pursue such a position,

given his or her financial responsibilities. Similarly, an individual may have no internal

desire to be promoted to a position in senior management. Yet encouragement from a

supervisor, to the extent that the supervisor is extending opportunities to the individual,

may present the individual with a sense of obligation or duty to pursue the opportunities

presented.

With respect to the environmental factors in the model, the presence of main

effects, but not moderating effects, speaks to the distinction between attitudes and

intentions, such that certain factors may influence intentions or attitudes but not the

relationship between them. These findings provide support for the conceptualization of

senior management aspirations offered in this study, the idea that desired and enacted

aspirations are related, although conceptually distinct constructs.

The Role of Gender

This research confirmed findings of earlier studies that women are less likely than

men to aspire to senior management positions (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000; Greenhaus

et al., 1997). The indirect relationship between gender and desired aspirations through

congruence indicates that women were less likely than men to see themselves in terms

that were congruent with senior management positions. The perceived lack of fit might

explain why women have traditionally held lower aspirations to advance in the

management hierarchy (Greenhaus et al., 1997; Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 1992) than

men.
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The direct effect of gender on enacted aspirations favors women. The indirect of

effect of gender on enacted aspirations, through congruence and desired aspirations,

favors men. In essence, the differential effects of gender on enacted aspirations negate

each other. What the findings suggest however is that beyond the effects of congruence

and desired aspirations, women enact aspirations more often than men. Perhaps women

feel they have to work twice as hard to gain recognition and therefore are more likely to

engage in career enhancing strategies.

Women were not more likely to be career plateaued than men, although they did

perceive less extensive subjective advancement prospects than men. These findings are

interesting in light of prior research which has stipulated that women may perceive fewer

opportunities for advancement than men due to the glass ceiling phenomenon (Powell,

1999) or other organizational biases (McKeen, 1992; Powell, 1999). If the women in this

sample are not plateaued but still perceive fewer advancement prospects than men, it may

still be due to a glass ceiling effect.

The career plateau measure employed in this study assessed structural career

plateau, which is defined as the end of promotions (Feldman & Weitz, 1988). Individuals

can be content plateaued, which is defined as the end of expected increases in

responsibility associated with the current job (Bardwick, 1986; Feldman & Weitz, 1988;

Ference et al., 1977). Content plateaued individuals may still perceive the existence of a

glass ceiling, because a lack of additional responsibilities may send signals that there are

no opportunities for growth and advancement.

There are other cues that an organization provides that may indicate to women

that the chances for advancement are not good. For example, women have reported that
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traditional male hierarchies may negatively affect opportunities for advancement in

management (Tharenou & Conroy, 1994; Tharenou et al., 1994). In this study, women

who reported a low percentage of senior women managers in proportion to the total

number of senior managers in their organizations, held lower enacted aspirations than

men.

Women did not perceive less extensive career support than men. These findings

are counter to research which suggests that the types and amounts of career support both

on and off the job, differ for men and women (Greenhaus et al., 2000; King et al., 1995;

Konrad & Cannings, 1997; Powell & Mainiero, 1992). In terms of career support in the

non-work domain, the lack of a gender difference may be attributed to diminishing

gender role stereotypes (Lobel & St. Clair, 1992). In this study, the gaps between the

amounts and types of support both on and off the job for men and women appeared to be

negligible.

Dominant Concepts in Career Development and Decision-Making

This study informs contemporary concepts in the career development and

decision-making making literature. First, the boundaryless career (Arthur, 1994; Arthur

& Rousseau, 1996) denotes an independence from traditional principles such as formal

hierarchical progression in an organization as a means of defining career success. The

idea that careers are “boundaryless” suggests that the knowledge, skills and experiences

individuals collect as they progress through various jobs may provide intrinsic rewards

and a sense of satisfaction and success. This is contrasted to the traditional notion that

hierarchical advancement by its very existence defines career success.

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The individuals in this study who reported congruence also engaged in career

enhancing strategies, even if they had no desire to attain positions in senior management.

This may mean that broadening one’s knowledge base and networking are viewed by

these individuals as ends in themselves, rather than as the means to attain higher

positions. In other words, the processes and experiences gained through the enacted

aspirations were still meaningful to those individuals who saw themselves in terms of

senior management positions, even though they had no desire to become senior

managers.

Second, the concept of congruence as it relates to the model of senior

management aspirations acknowledges the crucial link between the occupational self-

concept, desires, and the active pursuit of those desires. The idea that individuals who

see themselves in terms that are congruent with positions in senior management are

desirous of such positions and ultimately intend to pursue them, is reminiscent of

Levinson’s (1977) Dream concept. The Dream is conceptualized as “an imagined

possibility of self-in-world, a vision of the adult self living the good life. It is a soil in

which joyful hopes can flower, but it also nourishes illusive beliefs: that I am capable of

accomplishing everything the Dream envisages that certain others will unequivocally

support my efforts, that fulfilling the Dream will bring me true happiness” (Levinson,

1977)(p. 108).

Finally, individuals can be differentiated on the basis of their life-role priorities

(Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Since involvement in the non-work domain had virtually

no influence in the model of senior management aspirations, it may be that the

individuals in the sample were career-focused (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), or more
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oriented toward work than to any other aspect of their lives. Exploratory analyses

revealed that both the men and women in this study were more highly involved in their

jobs than in the off-job activities accounted for in this study. This is especially

interesting since women have traditionally been more highly involved in non-work

activities than men, although in this study, there were no discernible differences between

men and women.

Theoretical Contributions of the Study

The present study has contributed to the literature in career development and

decision-making in a number of ways. First, this study provides evidence of links

between congruence, desired aspirations, and enacted aspirations and acknowledges these

components in the career decision-making process. The findings in this study are

consistent with the notion of matching, present in many models of career decision making

(Holland, 1985; Schein, 1978, 1993, 1996; Super, 1990; Super et al., 1996; Vroom,

1964). The congruence or matching concept, suggests that individuals evaluate their

skills, abilities, talents, likes and dislikes in the context of an occupational environment.

Individuals seek careers in which they perceive a high degree of fit (Holland, 1985;

Schein, 1978, 1993, 1996; Super, 1990; Super et al., 1996; Vroom, 1964).

In terms of career decision-making, the better the fit between a job and the

individual, the higher the levels of motivation, satisfaction and commitment (Holland,

1985; Schein, 1978, 1993, 1996; Super, 1990; Super et al., 1996; Vroom, 1964), thus the

better the decision. The data in this study reveals that individuals who perceive a high
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degree of fit between themselves and a position in senior management also exhibit the

desire to pursue and attain such positions.

Second, this study investigates senior management aspirations using a sample of

individuals with managerial and professional experience. Therefore, this study garners

an understanding of the senior management aspirations of those individuals for whom

this career decision may be most salient.

Third, this study found that both work and non-work factors were related to

enacted aspirations. Prior studies have looked at the impact of work factors on

management aspirations (Rynes et al., 1988), and in some cases, have correlated

personality variables with aspirations (i.e. ambition or motivation to manage) (Van

Vianen, 1999; Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996) but very few have looked at work and non-

work factors and their impacts on senior management aspirations.

Fourth, this study refines an earlier conceptualization and measure of senior

management aspirations offered by Tharenou and Terry (1998). The desired and enacted

aspirations measures displayed strong construct validity and reliability in this sample and

promise to be valuable tools for use in future studies of senior management aspirations.

Fifth, two new measures, senior management schema and senior management

self-assessment, were developed for use in this research. Both measures of facet fit,

derived from the senior management literature and deemed reliable in this sample,

include competencies and rewards that are characteristic of positions in senior

management. The expectation was that analyzed together, these measures would assess

congruence, such that each component would contribute equally to the variance in

desired aspirations. Senior management schema, which measured individuals’

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perceptions of the responsibilities and rewards associated with a senior management

position, was not related to desired aspirations. Although the items were derived from

the literature, it is possible that individuals associated the senior management schema

items with the senior managers in their organizations and felt that the items were not

descriptive or accurate.

Conversely, the senior management self-assessment measure was related to

desired aspirations. Because the knowledge, skills, abilities, and rewards that comprised

the self-assessment measure were taken from the literature as components of senior

management positions, it is possible that agreement with the measure items implies high

fit. Thus, the senior management self-assessment measure alone, may have tapped

occupational-self congruence. Agreement with the measure suggests that people agree

that they possess certain characteristics and are attracted to or motivated by certain types

of rewards.

Practical Implications of the Study

This research on senior management aspirations has several practical

implications. The strategic nature of the human resources function requires that

organizations identify the individuals who are the most likely candidates for career

progression. A rich understanding of the in-house talent pool aids in the effort to gauge

the long-term leadership needs of the organization.

The taxonomy of senior management job characteristics acknowledged in this

study can help to identify the human capital assets contained within the firm, as well as to

further hone those skills and competencies which the firm wishes to capitalize upon to

help achieve its long-term goals. Development of valid and reliable selection processes
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and performance management systems can be influenced through the inclusion of the

taxonomy of senior management job characteristics.

It is important for organizations to understand the perceptions that their

employees have about the advancement prospects and career support in the firm.

Individuals who have not reached career plateaus are likely to engage in career enhancing

strategies, as are those who receive career support at work. An understanding of

employee perceptions and aspirations can aid in the design of career development

programs. This research suggests that individuals, who aspire to positions in senior

management, need to have appropriate signals from the organization regarding their long-

term career needs.

Given that women in this study perceived fewer prospects for advancement than

their male counterparts, organizations should determine the reasons why women

employees believe their chances for promotion are limited. It is important for

organizations to understand that both women and men have senior management

aspirations but that women are less likely to see themselves in terms that are congruent

with senior management positions. In an effort to provide equal access to senior

positions for women, organizations must evaluate their current systems to determine what

barriers may exist that are influencing the perceptions of their female managers.

Limitations of the Research

There are several methodological issues in this study. First, the cross-sectional,

correlational research design, despite certain benefits, does not permit causal inferences

(Judd et al., 1991). The results of the cross-sectional research indicate the presence of
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concurrent relationships, and although directionality is grounded in theory, the actual

temporal nature of the relationships depicted may only be assessed using a longitudinal

research design.

Second, the use of a sample of graduate students and managers enrolled in

continuing education programs at one university could limit the generalizability of the

findings. Finally, the data for this study were collected using a survey, which adds to the

potential of common method variance, which means that correlations among variables

could have been artificially inflated or otherwise affected by some type of systematic bias

of the respondents.

Following Konrad and Linnehan (1995), a factor analysis was employed to test

for the possible effects of common method variance. All model variables and pertinent

demographic variables including age, marital status, race, spouse’s employment status,

number of hours per week spouse works, presence of children, organization tenure,

number of subordinates, salary, and spouses’s salary were entered into the analysis. The

factor analysis extracted four components with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. The four

factors accounted for 62% of the variance among the 11 study variables, and the first

factor accounted for 28.5% of the variance. Since multiple factors emerged and the first

factor accounted for less than half of the variance, common method variance does not

appear to be present. Since self-report questionnaires have the potential for allowing

response bias to affect the results, a combination of data gathering methods may be

considered in the future. The next section offers a discussion of how the knowledge

gained in this research can enhance future research in the career development and

decision-making area.
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Directions for Future Research in this Area

The findings from this research have opened some areas for future investigation

by researchers interested in the career decisions and development of senior managers.

Occupational-self congruence seems to drive individuals’ senior management

aspirations. The strongest support found was that individuals with high congruence had

strong desires to attain positions in senior management and that those desires positively

influenced intentions to pursue such positions. Outside factors were by and large not as

instrumental in influencing desires or intentions to pursue senior management positions

as expected. What this means is that occupational-self congruence plays a primary role

in career aspirations, and that external factors are of secondary importance, if at all

important in the career decisions of prospective senior managers. Since occupational-self

congruence emerged as instrumental in aspirations to senior management, for both men

and women, the factors that influence congruence are the next logical area of study.

What are the correlates of occupational-self congruence? This study uncovered

the role that gender plays, indicating that women were less likely to see themselves in

terms that were congruent with senior management positions than men. Future research

may investigate why women have lower occupational-self congruence in terms of senior

management jobs. A predominantly male hierarchy has negatively influenced women’s

advancement to senior management positions (Tharenou, 2001). Perhaps the lack of

women in senior management positions has also negatively impacted the perceived fit

women feel they have with senior management positions. As mentioned previously, the

women in this sample who reported a small number of women senior managers in
 155

comparison to total senior management hierarchy in their organizations tended to report

lower enacted aspirations than men.

Aside from gender, prior research suggests that career orientation may be one

factor that influences occupational-self congruence. Career orientation is based upon

Schein’s (1978) notion of career anchor. The career anchor is a pattern of self-perceived

talents, motives, and values, which functions as a way of organizing experience. An

individual’s career anchor serves to guide, constrain, stabilize, and integrate his or her

career. The career anchor is that one element in a person's self-concept that he or she will

not give up, even in the face of difficult choices (Schein, 1993). Igbaria, Greenhaus, and

Parasuraman (1991) found that employees whose career orientations were compatible

with their job setting reported high job satisfaction, high career satisfaction, strong

commitment to their organization, and low intentions to leave their organization.

Furthermore, research suggests that a managerial career orientation is related to

the pursuit of management education (Steiner & Farr, 1986) and that the identification

and understanding of career orientation may positively influence career development and

planning on the part of organizations (Bray et al., 1979; Bray & Howard, 1983; Crepeau,

Crook, Goslar, & McMurtrey, 1992; Crook et al., 1991). Exploratory analyses revealed

that managerial career anchor was positively related to global and facet congruence (both

senior management schema and senior management self-assessment), desired aspirations

and enacted aspirations. Future research can investigate the role that one’s career

orientation, conceptualized as an internal force, plays in the development of one’s

occupational-self concept.
 156

Finally, the role of self-esteem can be explored with regard to the impact it may

have on the differences in occupational-self congruence regarding senior management

positions. Self-esteem has been cited as influential in work-related aspirations regarding

the types of careers and jobs people enter (Korman, 1976; Pinder, 1998) and for its

impact on the relationship between self-perceived abilities and the abilities required in the

chosen occupation (Greenhaus, 1971).

The role of gender as it relates to desired aspirations may be explored in future

research. Evidence suggests that individual difference variables are related to

management aspirations (Martin et al., 1987; Van Vianen & Keizer, 1996) Perhaps

individual differences also account for the gender discrepancies in desired aspirations.

For example, (Martin et al., 1987) found that respondents with feminist sex-role

ideologies were more likely than women who held traditional sex-role ideologies to

aspire to management positions. Tharenou (2001) suggested that masculinity, an

instrumental orientation focused on getting a job done or problem solved (p. 1005) was

consistently related to perceptions of leadership. Thus, traits such as sex-role ideology

may influence women’s desires to pursue positions in senior management.

Future research may seek a deeper understanding of the role external factors play

in career decisions regarding positions in senior management. In this study,

psychological involvement in community activities positively impacted the relationship

between congruence and desired aspirations. Without overstating the importance of this

finding, it is interesting to note that it is perhaps contacts outside of work that individuals

with high congruence seek, which fuel their desires and perhaps intentions to pursue

positions in senior management. Regarding the importance of networking, social capital

 157

theory (Burt, 1992) may provide a clear rationale for the inclusion of additional factors

that may be related to senior management aspirations. Tharenou (1997 b) found that

informal social networks were instrumental in the advancement from middle to upper

management. In future studies, benefits derived from social capital networks, such as

information and influence (DeCarolis, 2002), may be examined as potential moderators

of the relationship between congruence and desired aspirations.

The findings in this study revealed that desires play a role in aspirations, but even

when desires are not considered, individuals who perceive a fit between themselves and

positions in senior management are still likely to engage in behaviors associated with

attaining positions in senior management. Although not related to desired aspirations in

this study, objective advancement prospects and career support at work were both related

to enacted aspirations. It is therefore possible that other work-related variables would

also influence intentions to pursue senior management and perhaps be related to desires

as well.

For example, Tharenou (1997 a; 1997 b) found that opportunities for training and

development and work experience were key factors in the advancement of men and

women to positions in management. Future studies may include an exploration of the

nature and types of work experiences, as well as the training and development

experiences in which individuals have participated, to understand potential links to senior

management aspirations.

There are a number of studies that capture the factors that influence managerial

advancement (Tharenou, 1997 a, 1997 b; Tharenou & Conroy, 1994; Tharenou et al.,

1994) and how they are potentially different for women and men. We know that women
 158

perceive lower opportunities for advancement, due to a variety of reasons such as the

existence of a glass ceiling (Powell, 1999) differential opportunity structures (Markham

et al., 1987), gender bias (Konrad & Cannings, 1997) and male hierarchies (Tharenou et

al., 1994). Although in this study, advancement prospects did not affect women’s senior

management aspirations, future studies should capture the potential detrimental effects

that organizational systems may have on the senior management aspirations of women

and men.

The findings of this study have contributed to our overall understanding of senior

management aspirations. The enormous possibilities of future exploration within the area

of senior management aspirations offer a great deal of promise in terms of further

advancement of the career development and decision-making literature.

 159

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 171
Table 1 - Empirical Studies of Managerial Aspirations
Authors Sample Aspirations Aspirations Aspirations Correlates Research Design
Type Treatment Measure + or (-)
Martin, Price, Female Sales Manager DV Single item Sex-role ideology Experimental Design
Bies & Powers, secretaries Aspirations i.e. respondents with
1987 feminist role ideology
held management
aspirations.
Rynes, Tolbert Engineering Managerial DV Single item Career anchors, Career Cross-sec, Survey
& Strausser, students and Aspirations management strategies
1988 alumni
Sloan, 1993 30 Women Sr. Manager or DV 3 items (Difference between Case Study
managers CEO Aspirations Perceived leadership Semi-structured
styles of top managers interviews
and their own leadership
styles)
 172
Table 1 (continued)
Authors Sample Aspirations Aspirations Aspirations Correlates Research Design
Type Treatment Measure + or (-)
Stout, 122 White Promotional DV 2 items (Organizational plateau) Cross-sec, Survey
Slocum & male Aspirations
Cron, 1988 salespeople
Van Vianen, Study 1 = Intention to DV 6 items Perceived self-efficacy, Cross-sec, Survey
1996 621 Men & assume a Outcome expectancies x
women Managerial Job Valence, Subjective
Study 2 = Norms x Valence,
461 Gender
Perceived self
Men & efficacy
Women
Van Vianen, Study 1 = Ambition for a DV 5 items Managerial self-efficacy, Cross-sec, Survey
1999 485 Men & Managerial Outcome expectancies x
women Position Valence, Work-role
Study 2 = salience;
312 Men & Outcome expectancies

Women Mgrl. Self-efficacy

Study 3 = Ambition
241 Men &
Women
 173
Table 2 - Expectancy Theory as a Framework for Present Study
Expectancy Theory Variable Variable in Present Study
Instrumentality (I) Senior Management Schema
Valence of Second-Level Outcomes (V2) Senior Management Self-Assessment
I x V2 Schema-Self Congruence
Valence of First-Level Outcome (V1) Desired Aspirations
Off-Job Involvement∗
Expectancy (E) Advancement Prospects
Career Support
Behavior (B) Enacted Aspirations
Gender∗∗
________________________________________________________________________
∗
Off-job involvement as used in the present study does not have a conceptual equivalent in a model of expectancy.
∗∗
Gender does not have a conceptual equivalent in a model of expectancy. In the present study, the moderating role of gender will be discussed with the model
of senior management aspirations introduced in Chapter Three.
 174

Table 3 - Summary of Hypotheses

H1: There is a positive relationship between an individual’s congruence and

desired aspirations.

H2: The positive relationship between congruence and desired aspirations is

stronger for individuals with limited off-job involvement than for individuals
with extensive off-job involvement.

H3: There is a positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted

aspirations.

H4: The positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted aspirations
is stronger for individuals who perceive extensive advancement prospects
than for individuals who perceive limited advancement prospects.

H5: The positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted aspirations
is stronger for individuals who perceive extensive career support than for
individuals who perceive limited career support.

H6a: The positive relationship between congruence and desired aspirations is

stronger for men than for women.

H6b: Women experience more extensive off-job involvement than men.

H6c: The moderating effect of gender between congruence and desired aspirations
disappears when controlling for off-job involvement.

H6d: The positive relationship between desired aspirations and enacted aspirations
is stronger for men than for women.

H6e: Women perceive less extensive advancement prospects than men.

H6f: The moderating effect of gender between desired aspirations and enacted
aspirations disappears when controlling for advancement prospects.

H6g: Women perceive less extensive career support than men.

H6h: The moderating effect of gender between desired aspirations and enacted
aspirations disappears when controlling for career support.
 175

Table 4 - Demographic Summary

Variable N Mean Standard Range

Deviation
Age 354 38.12 8.326 22-63
Job Tenure 339 2.85 2.851 0-20
Organization Tenure 346 6.73 6.284 0-36

Variable Frequency Percent

Children No 149 47
Yes 168 53

Highest Level
Achieved High School 2 0.6
Some College 20 5.7
Associates/Technical 21 6
Bachelor's Degree 192 55
Master's Degree 101 28.9
Professional Degree (Law, MD) 3 0.9
Ph.D. 10 2.9

Functional Area Accounting 9 2.7

Finance 19 5.7
Human Resources 21 6.3
Information Systems 77 22.9
Legal 2 0.6
Marketing 35 10.4
Research and Development 25 7.4
Sales 25 7.4
Other 123 36.6

Gender Male 189 53.7

Female 163 46.3

Industry Accounting 3 0.9

Consulting 27 8.2
Financial/Insurance 40 12.2
Manufacturing 41 12.5
Pharmaceuticals 43 13.1
Public Administration 8 2.4
Retail/Hospitality 10 3
Services (health, legal) 20 6.1
Telecommunications 13 4
Transportation/Utilities 10 3
Other 114 34.7
 176

Table 4 (continued)

Job Level Supervisor 31 8.4

First-line Manager 53 14.4
Middle Manager 132 35.8
Senior Manager 28 7.6
Top Manager 1 .27

Marital Status Not married/not living with partner 85 24.4

Married/living with partner 263 75.6

Organization Size Under 100 employees 67 21.4

100-999 employees 77 24.6
1,000-4,999 employees 62 19.8
5,000-9,999 employees 26 8.3
10,000 or more employees 81 25.9

Race African American 7 2

Asian 17 4.8
Caucasian 317 90.1
Hispanic 2 0.6
Native American 2 0.6
Other 7 2

Salary 24,999 - or less 4 1.2

25,000 - 49,999 51 15
50,000 - 74,999 115 33.9
75,000 - 99,999 87 25.7
100,000 - 124,999 41 12.1
125,000 - 149,999 25 7.4
150,000+ 16 4.7
 177
Table 5 – Rotated Factor Structure of Senior Management Schema Scale
Competencies Extrinsic
Rewards
Item Label Factor 1 Factor2
Pull people together around a common goal .79 -.18
Inspire commitment in people .75 -.13
Clearly demonstrate commitment in ensuring an organization’s success .72 -.17
Persevere in the face of obstacles or criticism, when they believe in what they .72 -.01
are doing
Articulate a broad vision for the future of an organization .69 -.01
Have knowledge of the various parts of organization and how they fit together .67 -.12
Problem-solve under conditions of uncertainty .67 -.01
Communicate openly and candidly with others .67 -.31
Identify the most important part of a complex problem or issue .67 -.15
Try new things, even when there is some risk involved .65 -.12
Integrate and manage the efforts of others .64 -.17
Make decisions that have far reaching implications for their organizations .61 .27
Are accountable for actions implemented by others .57 .01
Work with and understand the perspectives of individuals from other ethnic .55 -.23
and/or corporate cultures
Exercise power without feeling uncomfortable .52 .26
Measure career success by the amount of income they earn -.20 .84
Equate status and prestige with rank and job title -.12 .80
Measure their status by the number of subordinates they have -.26 .75
Are rewarded with bonuses such as incentive compensation, for meeting .19 .67
organizational targets
Eigenvalue 6.74 2.82
Variance Explained 35% 15%
Note: N = 356
 178
Table 6 - Rotated Factor Structure of Senior Management Self-Assessment Scale
Competencies Extrinsic
Rewards
Item Label Factor 1 Factor2
Inspire commitment in people .75 .01
Integrate and manage the efforts of others .69 .13
Make decisions that have far reaching implications for an organization .69 .01
Articulate a broad vision for the future of an organization .68 .11
Exercise power without feeling uncomfortable .66 .13
Clearly demonstrate commitment in ensuring an organization success .65 .15
Problem-solve under conditions of uncertainty .65 -.01
Pull people together around a common goal .64 -.01
Try new things, even when there is some risk involved .63 -.01
Identify the most important part of a complex problem or issue .63 -.01
Persevere in the face of obstacles or criticism, when I believe in what I am .62 .00
doing
Learn about the various of parts of organization and how they fit together .57 -.19
Communicate openly and candidly with others .52 -.01
Work with and understand the perspectives of individuals from other ethnic .49 .78
and/or corporate cultures
Feel comfortable being held accountable for actions implemented by others .49 .31
Measure career success by the amount of income I earn -.13 .80
Equate status and prestige with rank and job title -.01 .78
Measure status by the number of subordinates I have .01 .70
Value being rewarded with bonuses, such as stock options, for meeting .11 .61
organizational targets
Eigenvalue 5.94 2.35
Variance Explained 31% 12%
Note: N = 348
 179
Table 7 - Factor Structure of the Global Congruence Scale
Item Label Factor 1
The requirements of a position in senior management match my talents and skills. .91
A position in senior management would be a good fit for me. .90
My personality fits in well with the requirements of a senior management position .88
I have what it takes to be an effective senior manager .86
I would enjoy doing the things senior managers do .86
I would fit in well with other senior managers in an organization .83
Eigenvalue 4.60
Variance Explained 76%
Note: N = 360
 180
Table 8 – Rotated Factor Structure of Subjective Off Job Involvement Scale
Community Child Care House Recreational
Activities Chores Activities
Item Label Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Religious activities .81 -.01 .00 .01
Community activities .78 .11 .16 .33
Civic and/or political .70 -.01 .18 .26
activities
Enhancing your education .43 .14 .01 -.01
Taking care of your children .17 .93 .01 .01
Your children’s sports .15 .92 .01 .14
activities
Household chores .11 -.01 .85 .01
Household maintenance .20 -.01 .77 -.01
Shopping for family -.01 .20 .63 .23
Leisure and hobby pursuits -.01 -.01 .11 .79
Organized social activities .38 -.01 .16 .69
Your sports activities .30 .26 -.11 .48
Eigenvalue 2.30 1.90 1.80 1.60
Variance Explained 19% 16% 15% 13%
Note: N = 320
 181
Table 9 – Rotated Factor Structure of Subjective Advancement Prospects Scale
Present Different
Organization Organization
Item Label Factor 1 Factor 2
In a different organization:
I am likely to obtain a senior .94 .18
management position
I expect to obtain a senior management .93 .19
position
My opportunities to move into a senior .81 .01
management position are limited
In my present organization:
I am likely to obtain a senior .17 .93
management position
I expect to obtain a senior management .21 .91
position
My opportunities to move into a senior .01 .82
management position are limited
Eigenvalue 2.50 2.40
Variance Explained 41% 41%
Note: N = 362
 182
Table 10 - Factor Structure of the Career Support Work Domain Scale
Item Label Factor
1
Takes the time to learn about my career goals and aspirations .85
Would like to see me achieve my career goals .84
Gives me helpful advice on improving my performance, when I need it .80
Makes sure I get the credit when I accomplish something substantial on the job .80
Gives helpful feedback about my job performance .79
Keeps me informed about different career opportunities for me in the organization .78
Provides assignments that give me the opportunity to develop and strengthen new skills .76
Supports my attempts to acquire additional training or education to further my career .75
Assigns me special projects that increase my visibility in the organization .74
Eigenvalue 5.60
Variance Explained 62%
Note: N = 360
 183
Table 11 - Factor Structure of the Career Support Non-Work Domain Scale
Item Label Factor
1
Enjoys hearing about my achievements at work .86
Takes the time to learn about my career goals and aspirations .83
Is happy for me when I am successful at work .81
Would like to see me achieve my career goals .80
Doesn’t really care what job I have as long as I am making money .73
Does not seem very interested in hearing about my work day .68
Often provides a different way of looking at my work-related problems .62
Can be counted on to take care of everything at home if I have to work late or have to go .56
out-of-town for my job
Eigenvalue 4.40
Variance Explained 55%
Note: N = 337
 184
Table 12 - Factor Structure of the Desired Aspirations Scale
Item Label Factor
1
I do not wish to advance to a position of more responsibility (reversed) .81
I have no desire to advance to a position in senior management (reversed) .81
A promotion to a senior management position means more worries and should be avoided .76
for that reason (reversed)
I would like to be in a position in which I could develop, manage and coordinate the .76
policies and activities of a substantially large part of the organization
I would like to advance to a position where I can have a greater influence on policy .71
decisions
It would not bother me if my responsibilities and job duties remained the same in the future .69
(reversed)
Eigenvalue 3.40
Variance Explained 57%
Note: N = 352
 185
Table 13 - Factor Structure of the Enacted Aspirations Scale
Item Label Factor
1
I have asked to work on challenging assignments .75
I have participated in networking opportunities within my organization .73
I have sought out assignments that enable me to strengthen leadership skills .71
I have improved critical thinking skills by asking to work on complex problems .70
I have demonstrated to a senior person in my organization my willingness to take risks .69
I have updated my skills in order to be more competitive for a promotion .67
I have sought opportunities to gain knowledge of a variety of functional areas in my .66
organization
I have engaged in career planning activities .65
I have participated in networking opportunities outside my organization .64
I have worked long hours .54
I have expressed my opinions when I know they are aligned with an individual in a key .47
senior position
I have sought opportunities to work with individuals from other cultures .43
Eigenvalue 5.00
Variance Explained 41%
Note: N = 342
 186
Table 14 - Summary of Factor Analyses and Reliability Analyses
Final Number %
Original # of No. Variance Factor
Variable N # items items Factors Factor Names Items/Factor Eigenvalues Explained Alpha Alpha
Model Variables
Senior Management Schema 356 23 19 2 Competencies 15 6.74 35% 0.84 0.91
Extrinsic Rewards 4 2.82 15% 0.79
Senior Management Self-
Assessment 348 23 19 2 Competencies 15 5.94 31% 0.86 0.89
Extrinsic Rewards 4 2.35 12% 0.72
Global Congruence 360 6 6 1 6 4.60 76% 0.95
Subjective Off Job
Involvement 320 12 12 4 Community Activities 4 2.30 19% 0.77 0.70
Child Care 2 1.90 16% 0.90
House Chores 3 1.80 15% 0.64
Recreational Activities 3 1.60 13% 0.50
Subjective Advancement
Prospects 362 6 6 2 Present Organization 3 2.50 41% 0.82 0.88
Different Organization 3 2.40 41% 0.89
Career Support Work
Domain 360 9 9 1 9 5.60 62% 0.92
 187
Table 14 continued
Career Support Non-Work
Domain 337 8 8 1 8 4.40 55% 0.88
Desired Aspirations 352 6 6 1 6 3.40 57% 0.85
Enacted Aspirations 342 12 12 1 12 5.00 41% 0.87
 188
Table 15 - Descriptive Statistics1, Reliabilities2 and Intercorrelations3 among Demographic and Study Variables
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Age
2 Gender (Female) .018
3 Marital Status (Married) .084 -.223***
4 Race (White) .055 .041 .083
5 Spouse Work (Yes) -.12 .321*** -.081 -.026
6 Children (Yes) .491*** -.234*** .292*** .031 -.307***
7 Highest Level of Education .042 -.129** .014 -.223*** -.145* -.003
8 Org. Tenure .374*** .017 -.004 .048 -.059 .171** -.108*
9 Organization Size -.023 -.145** .085 -.191*** -.064 .155** .133* .136*
10 Number of Subordinates .124* -.137* .092 .059 -.03 .103 -.049 .210***
11 Salary .260*** -.203*** .155** .016 -.169** .314*** .316*** .142**
12 Spouse Salary -.06 .334*** .035 -.012 .278*** -.252*** .104 -.052
13 Schema .023 .042 -.053 -.019 -.019 .002 .044 -.002
14 Self-Assessment -.042 -.119* .141** .019 -.041 .098 .044 -.009
15 Global Congruence -.076 -.170*** .127* .011 -.130* .05 .163** -.064
16 Objective OJI .098 -.031 .146** -.01 -.074 .374*** -.087 .037
17 Subjective OJI .130* -.084 .123* -.06 -.117 .449*** .033 .09
18 Plateau (Not Plateaued) -.167** -.067 .029 -.077 .064 -.049 .091 -.288***
19 Subjective AP -.213*** -.152** .134* .015 -.049 -.014 .127* -.114*
20 Career Support Work -.069 .027 -.025 .056 .029 -.034 -.022 -.021
21 Career Support Non-Work -.102 -.007 .222*** -.068 .004 -.082 .064 -.042
22 Desired Aspirations -.225*** -.226*** .092 -.04 -.112 .00 .119* -.132*
23 Enacted Aspirations -.151** .027 .092 -.037 .021 -.016 .119* -.174***
Mean 38.1 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4.2 6.7
Standard Deviation 8.3 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- .94 6.3
________________________________________________________________________
1
Means and standard deviations below the correlation matrix.
2
Coefficient alpha above the diagonal in parentheses.
3
***p < .001, ** p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10
 189
Table 15 (continued)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 Age
2 Gender (Female)
3 Marital Status (Married)
4 Race (White)
5 Spouse Work (Yes)
6 Children (Yes)
7 Highest Level of Education
8 Org. Tenure
9 Organization Size
10 Number of Subordinates .181***
11 Salary .207*** .188***
12 Spouse Salary -.04 -.108 .098
13 Schema .052 -.055 .115* .151* (.84)
14 Self-Assessment .144* .204*** .175*** .00 .210*** (.86)
15 Global Congruence .082 .255*** .127* -.029 .148** .502*** (.95)
16 Objective OJI .10 -.051 -.026 -.061 -.09 .045 .074
17 Subjective OJI .112* -.01 .073 -.187** .063 .084 .066 .390***
18 Plateau (Not Plateaued) .11 .066 -.022 -.093 -.043 .084 .077 -.035
19 Subjective AP .004 .183*** .186*** -.044 .104* .348*** .561*** .075
20 Career Support Work .089 -.023 .073 .019 .323*** .059 .046 -.026
21 Career Support Non-Work -.01 -.042 .086 .162* .1 .101 .145** -.087
22 Desired Aspirations .066 .184*** .091 -.045 .106* .432*** .659*** .01
23 Enacted Aspirations .197*** .108* .128* .044 .164** .493*** .439*** .09
Mean 2.9 2.6 3.7 2.9 3.7 3.6 3.7 47
Standard Deviation 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 .47 .46 .80 29
 190
Table 15 (continued)
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
1 Age
2 Gender (Female)
3 Marital Status (Married)
4 Race (White)
5 Spouse Work (Yes)
6 Children (Yes)
7 Highest Level of Education
8 Org. Tenure
9 Organization Size
10 Number of Subordinates
11 Salary
12 Spouse Salary
13 Schema
14 Self-Assessment
15 Global Congruence
16 Objective OJI
17 Subjective OJI (.77)
18 Plateau (Not Plateaued) -.041
19 Subjective AP .043 .116* (.82)
20 Career Support Work -.001 -.043 .169*** (.92)
21 Career Support Non-Work -.009 .095 .144** .110* (.88)
22 Desired Aspirations -.007 .099 .448*** .072 .188*** (.85)
23 Enacted Aspirations .008 .151** .326*** .171*** .182*** .462*** (.87)
Mean 2.6 ---- 3.1 3.4 3.9 3.8 3.5
Standard Deviation .61 ---- .83 .88 .68 .77 .67
 191

Table 16 - Moderating Effect of Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations (Hypotheses 1 and 2)
Model Variable β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .185 .853
Age -.204*** -3.593 .000
Marital Status .113* 2.007 .046
Education .153** 2.706 .007
1
HR Function .051 .909 .364
Legal Function -.007 -.120 .905
R2=.073*** ∆R2=.073***
2 (Constant) -.183 .855
Age -.177*** -4.264 .000
Marital Status .021 .496 .620
Education .045 1.081 .281
HR Function .000 .006 .995
Legal Function -.057 -1.375 .170
Global Congruence .676*** 16.010 .000
2= 2=
R .505*** ∆R .433***
3 (Constant) -.157 .875
Age -.169*** -4.032 .000
Marital Status .028 .656 .513
Education .041 .973 .331
HR Function .004 .099 .922
Legal Function -.059 -1.424 .155
Global Congruence .682*** 16.057 .000
Objective OJI2 -.037 -.813 .417
Subjective OJI -.033 -.728 .467
R2=.508*** ∆R2=.003 n.s.
4 (Constant) -.179 .858
Age -.165*** -3.981 .000
Marital Status .017 .398 .691
Education .035 .838 .403
HR Function .003 .072 .943
Legal Function -.061 -1.475 .141
Global Congruence .675*** 15.995 .000
Objective OJI -.033 -.731 .465
Subjective OJI -.032 -.714 .476
Global Congruence * Objective OJI -.091* -2.071 .039
Global Congruence * Subjective OJI .114** 2.550 .011
R2=.522*** ∆R2=.013*
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
Off-Job Involvement, Coded (2) = Extensive, (1) = Moderate, (0) = Limited
 192

Table 17 - Moderating Effect of Advancement Prospects on the Relationship

Between Desired and Enacted Aspirations (Hypotheses 3 and 4)
Model Variables β t Sig.
1 (Constant) -.043 .966
Age -.154** -2.696 .007
Education .155** 2.719 .007
+
Marital Status .102 1.788 .075
HR1 Function .049 .863 .389
Legal Function -.164** -2.873 .004
R2= .086*** ∆R2=.086***
2 (Constant) -.279 .780
Age -.143** -2.770 .006
Education .088+ 1.698 .091
Marital Status .042 .809 .419
HR Function .014 .267 .790
Legal Function -.196*** -3.830 .000
Global Congruence .445*** 8.512 .000
Objective OJI2 .018 .319 .750
Subjective OJI .005 .094 .925
R2=.277*** 2
∆R =.191***
3 (Constant) -.213 .832
Age -.103* -1.970 .050
Education .077 1.504 .134
Marital Status .032 .628 .531
HR Function .013 .250 .803
Legal Function -.182*** -3.607 .000
Global Congruence .283*** 3.973 .000
Objective OJI .026 .484 .629
Subjective OJI .013 .231 .817
Desired Aspirations .237*** 3.304 .001
2 2
R =.304*** ∆R =.027***
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
Off-Job Involvement, Coded (2) = Extensive, (1) = Moderate, (0) = Limited
 193

Table 17 (continued)
4 (Constant) -.231 .818
Age -.079 -1.444 .150
Education .064 1.241 .216
Marital Status .034 .669 .504
HR Function .020 .402 .688
Legal Function -.178*** -3.506 .001
Global Congruence .290*** 3.665 .000
Objective OJI .029 .516 .606
Subjective OJI .020 .368 .713
Desired Aspirations .244*** 3.413 .001
Plateau1 .104* 1.978 .049
Subjective AP2 -.010 -.163 .871
2
R =.314*** ∆R2=.010 n.s
5 (Constant) -.272 .786
Age -.084 -1.537 .125
Education .071 1.373 .171
Marital Status .036 .710 .478
HR Function .026 .502 .616
Legal Function -.174*** -3.427 .001
Global Congruence .292*** 3.654 .000
Objective OJI .028 .494 .621
Subjective OJI .016 .283 .777
Desired Aspirations .252*** 3.471 .001
Plateau .097+ 1.845 .066
Subjective AP -.009 -.133 .894
Desired * Plateau -.065 -1.257 .210
Desired * Subjective AP .003 .050 .960
2
R =.318*** ∆R2=.004 n. s.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Objective Advancement Prospects, (1) = not plateaued, (0) = plateaued
2
Advancement Prospects, Coded (2) = Extensive, (1) = Moderate, (0) = Limited
 194

Table 18 - Moderating Effect of Career Support on the Relationship

Between Desired and Enacted Aspirations (Hypothesis 5)
Model Variable β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .446 .656
Age -.150*** -2.612 .009
Education .146** 2.562 .011
Marital Status .069 1.196 .233
HR1 Function .070 1.219 .224
Legal Function -.171** -2.982 .003
2 2
R =.084*** ∆R =.084***
2 (Constant) .264 .792
Age -.135** -2.572 .011
Education .085 1.643 .102
Marital Status .010 .182 .856
HR Function .035 .678 .498
Legal Function -.204*** -3.941 .000
Global .442*** 8.389 .000
Congruence
Objective OJI2 .012 .208 .836
Subjective OJI .012 .221 .825
R2=.272*** ∆R2=.187***
3 (Constant) .355 .723
Age -.088+ -1.677 .095
Education .077 1.506 .133
Marital Status -.002 -.033 .974
HR Function .031 .619 .537
Legal Function -.188*** -3.715 .000
Global .258*** 3.622 .000
Congruence
Objective OJI .022 .411 .681
Subjective OJI .022 .401 .689
Desired .268*** 3.743 .000
Aspirations
R2=.307*** ∆R2=.035***
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
Off-Job Involvement, Coded (2) = Extensive, (1) = Moderate, (0) = Limited
 195

Table 18 (continued)
4 (Constant) .368 .713
Age -.079 -1.500 .135
Education .075 1.479 .140
Marital Status -.033 -.631 .528
HR Function .021 .419 .676
Legal Function -.188*** -3.744 .000
Global .254*** 3.595 .000
Congruence
Objective OJI .030 .546 .585
Subjective OJI .010 .188 .851
Desired .250*** 3.501 .001
Aspirations
CSWD1 .071 1.426 .155
2
CSNWD .117* 2.210 .028
2 2
R =.324*** ∆R =.017*
5 (Constant) .504 .615
Age -.082 -1.564 .119
Education .075 1.479 .140
Marital Status -.037 -.692 .490
HR Function .020 .396 .693
Legal Function -.191*** -3.781 .000
Global .258*** 3.637 .000
Congruence
Objective OJI .028 .515 .607
Subjective OJI .009 .162 .871
Desired .248*** 3.449 .001
Aspirations
Career Support .073 1.467 .144
Work
Career Support .122* 2.270 .024
Non-Work
Desired * CSWD -.029 -.558 .577
Desired * -.028 -.539 .590
CSNWD
2
R =.326*** ∆R2=.002 n.s.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Career Support Work Domain, Coded (2) = Extensive, (1) = Moderate, (0) = Limited
2
Career Support Non-Work Domain, Coded (2) = Extensive, (1) = Moderate, (0) = Limited
 196

Table 19 - Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations (Hypotheses 6a)
Model Variable β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .271 .786
Age -.204*** -3.594 .000
Education .157** 2.781 .006
Marital Status .116* 2.060 .040
HR1 Function .050 .887 .376
Legal Function -.007 -.127 .899
R2=.074*** ∆R2=.074***
2 (Constant) -.120 .905
Age -.177*** -4.263 .000
Education .048 1.140 .255
Marital Status .023 .540 .590
HR Function .000 -.006 .995
Legal Function -.057 -1.376 .170
Global Congruence .675*** 15.919 .000
2 2
R =.504*** ∆R =.430***
3 (Constant) -.176 .861
Age -.178*** -4.303 .000
Education .038 .911 .363
Marital Status -.001 -.031 .975
HR Function .025 .579 .563
Legal Function -.056 -1.349 .178
Global Congruence .659*** 15.468 .000
Gender2 -.105* -2.372 .018
2 2
R =.514*** ∆R =.009*
4 (Constant) .093 .926
Age -.177*** -4.300 .000
Education .031 .749 .454
Marital Status .002 .054 .957
HR Function .019 .435 .664
Legal Function -.060 -1.457 .146
Global Congruence .664*** 15.563 .000
Gender -.103* -2.328 .021
Global Congruence * Gender .060 1.443 .150
2 2
R =.517*** ∆R =.003 n.s.
+
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
0 = Male, 1 = Female
 197

Table 20a - Relationship Between Gender and Objective Off-Job Involvement

(Hypothesis 6b)
Model Variables β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .226 .821
Age .120 2.088 .038
Education -.092 -1.609 .109
+
Marital Status .108 1.884 .061
HR1 Function .022 .382 .703
Legal Function -.052 -.900 .369
R2=.038* ∆R2=.038*
2 (Constant) .167 .867
Age .121 2.107 .036
Education -.106 -1.846 .066
Marital Status .078 1.324 .186
HR Function .049 .831 .406
Legal Function -.051 -.897 .370
Gender2 -.119+ -1.962 .051
R2=.051+ ∆R2=.012+

Table 20b - Relationship Between Gender and Subjective Off-Job Involvement

(Hypothesis 6b)
1 (Constant) .480 .632
Age .109 1.963 .050
Education .007 .122 .903
Marital Status .091 1.649 .100
HR Function .099+ 1.800 .073
Legal Function .002 .042 .967
R2=.033+ ∆R2=.033+
2 (Constant) .483 .630
Age .109* 1.974 .049
Education -.005 -.085 .932
Marital Status .068 1.197 .232
HR Function .120* 2.128 .034
Legal Function .002 .045 .964
Gender -.095 -1.632 .104
2 2
R =.041* ∆R =.008
n.s.
+
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
0 = Male, 1 = Female
 198

Table 21 - Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship

Between Desired and Enacted Aspirations (Hypotheses 6d)
Model Variables β t Sig.
1 (Constant) -.177 .859
Age -.167** -3.054 .002
Education .155** 2.841 .005
Marital Status .109* 1.990 .048
HR1 Function .050 .923 .357
Legal Function -.157** -2.878 .004
R2=.090*** 2
∆R =.090***
2 (Constant) -.167 .868
Age -.167** -3.049 .002
Education .161** 2.938 .004
Marital Status .122* 2.164 .031
HR Function .038 .673 .502
Legal Function -.157** -2.880 .004
Gender2 .055 .959 .338
2 2
R =.093*** ∆R =.003 n.s.
3 (Constant) -.176 .860
Age -.061 -1.224 .222
Education .102* 2.079 .038
Marital Status .085+ 1.696 .091
HR Function -.006 -.125 .900
Legal Function -.156*** -3.216 .001
Gender .159** 3.019 .003
Desired Aspirations .471*** 9.130 .000
R2=.287*** 2
∆R =.194***
4 (Constant) -.136 .892
Age -.061 -1.220 .224
Education .102* 2.060 .040
+
Marital Status .085 1.696 .091
HR Function -.007 -.134 .893
Legal Function -.156*** -3.214 .001
Gender .159** 3.017 .003
Desired Aspirations .471*** 9.107 .000
Desired Aspirations * Gender .007 .153 .879
2 2
R =.287*** ∆R =.000 n.s.
+
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, p < .1

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
0 = Male, 1 = Female
 199

Table 22a - Relationship Between Gender and

Objective Advancement Prospects (Hypothesis 6e)
Model Variables β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .146 .884
Age -.213*** -3.831 .000
Education .101+ 1.840 .067
Marital Status -.039 -.695 .488
HR1 Function -.066 -1.201 .231
Legal Function -.055 -.986 .325
R2=.066*** 2
∆R =.066***
2 (Constant) .142 .887
Age -.213*** -3.827 .000
Education .099+ 1.779 .076
Marital Status -.043 -.759 .449
HR Function -.062 -1.084 .279
Legal Function -.055 -.984 .326
Gender2 -.020 -.349 .727
2 2
R =.066*** ∆R =.000 n.s.

Table 22b - Relationship Between Gender and Subjective Advancement Prospects

(Hypothesis 6e)
1 (Constant) .604 .546
Age -.185*** -3.427 .001
Education .149** 2.768 .006
Marital Status .170** 3.157 .002
HR Function .049 .917 .360
Legal Function -.026 -.475 .635
2 2
R =.082*** ∆R =.082***
2 (Constant) .610 .543
Age -.185*** -3.439 .001
Education .134* 2.490 .013
Marital Status .141* 2.544 .011
HR Function .076 1.385 .167
Legal Function -.025 -.474 .636
Gender -.122* -2.145 .033
2 2
R =.095*** ∆R =.013*
+
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, p < .1

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
0 = Male, 1 = Female
 200

Table 23a - Relationship Between Gender and

Career Support in the Work Domain (Hypothesis 6g)
Model Variables β t Sig.
1 (Constant) -.085 .932
Age -.001 -.025 .980
Education .040 .724 .470
Marital Status .037 .663 .508
HR1 Function .069 1.234 .218
Legal Function -.039 -.694 .488
R2=.010 n.s. 2
∆R =.010 n.s.
2 (Constant) -.085 .932
Age -.001 -.025 .980
Education .041 .726 .468
Marital Status .038 .660 .510
HR Function .068 1.183 .238
Legal Function -.039 -.693 .489
Gender2 .004 .075 .940
2 2
R =.010 n.s. ∆R =.000 n.s.

Table 23b - Relationship Between Gender and

Career Support in the Non-work Domain (Hypothesis 6g)
1 (Constant) -.066 .947
Age -.121* -2.188 .029
Education .057 1.035 .301
Marital Status .250*** 4.512 .000
HR Function .092+ 1.670 .096
Legal Function .029 .526 .599
2 2
R =.086*** ∆R =.086***
2 (Constant) -.065 .948
Age -.119* -2.162 .031
Education .068 1.234 .218
Marital Status .271*** 4.760 .000
HR Function .072 1.286 .199
Legal Function .028 .520 .603
Gender .090 1.557 .121
R2=.093*** ∆R2=.007 n.s.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
2
0 = Male, 1 = Female
 201

Table 24 – Summarized Hypothesis Results

Hypothesis Regression Results Table # Support

H1: There is a positive Global b=.68*** 5 Yes

relationship between an R2=.51***
individual’s schema-self ∆R2=.43***
congruence and desired
aspirations.
H2: The positive relationship Global * OOJI b=-.09* 5 Partial
between schema-self congruence Global * SOJI b=.11* Support,
and desired aspirations is stronger R2=.52*** Objective
for individuals with limited off-job ∆R2=.01* OJI only
involvement than for individuals
with extensive off-job
involvement.
OJI was coded
0=limited Off-Job Involvement
1=moderate Off-Job Involvement
2=extensive Off-Job Involvement
H3: There is a positive Desired b=.24*** 6 Yes
relationship between desired R2=.30***
aspirations and enacted ∆R2=.03***
aspirations.

H4: The positive relationship Desired * Plateau b=-.07 6 No

between desired aspirations and n.s.
enacted aspirations is stronger for Desired * Subjective
individuals who perceive extensive b=.01 n.s.
advancement prospects than for R2=.32***
individuals who perceive limited ∆R2=.01 n.s.
advancement prospects.

Objective AP (Plateau)
Subjective AP coded
0=limited Advancement Prospects
1=moderate Advancement
Prospects
2=extensive Advancement
Prospects
 202

Table 24 (continued)
Hypothesis Regression Results Table # Support

H5: The positive relationship Desired * CSWD 7 No

between desired aspirations and b=-.03 n.s.
enacted aspirations is stronger for Desired * CSNWD
individuals who perceive b=-.03 n.s.
extensive career support than for R2=.33***
individuals who perceive limited ∆R2=.01 n.s.
career support.

CSWD and CSNWD coded

0=limited Career Support
1=moderate Career Support
2=extensive Career Support

H6a: The positive relationship Global Congruence * 8 No

between schema-self congruence Gender
and desired aspirations is stronger b=.06 n.s.
for men than for women. R2=.52***
∆R2=.01 n.s.
H6b: Women experience more Objective OJI 9 Marginal
extensive off-job involvement Gender b=-.12+ Support,
than men. R2=.05+ Objective
∆R2=.01+ OJI Only

Subjective OJI 9 No
Gender b=-.10 n.s.
R2=.04***
∆R2=.01 n.s.
H6d: The positive relationship Desired * Gender 10 No
between desired aspirations and b=-.01 n.s.
enacted aspirations is stronger for R2=.29***
men than for women. ∆R2=.00 n.s.
H6e: Women perceive less Plateau 11 No
extensive advancement prospects Gender b=-.02 n.s.
than men. R2=.07***
∆R2=.00 n.s.
Subjective AP 11 Partial
Gender b=-.12* Support,
R2=.10*** Subjective
∆R2=.01* AP Only
 203

Table 24 (continued)
Hypothesis Regression Results Table # Support

H6g: Women perceive less CSWD 12 No

extensive career support than men. Gender b=.01 n.s.
R2=.01 n.s.
∆R2=.00 n.s.
CSNWD 12 No
Gender b=.09 n.s.
R2=.09***
∆R2=.01 n.s.
 204
Instrumentality
(I) Expectancy (E)
Valence of First Behavior
Level Outcomes
(V1)
Valence of
Second Level
Outcomes (V2)
Figure 1 - General Model of Career Decision-Making
 205
Advancement 6e (–)
Prospects
Senior
4 (+)
Management
Schema
1 (+) Desired 3 (+) Enacted
Congruence Aspirations Aspirations
Senior
Management 2 (–) 6d (–) 5 (+)
Self
Assessment
Off Job Career Support
6f (0) Work/Non-Work
6a (–) Involvement 6h (0)
6c (0)
6b (+) 6g (–)
Gender
(M=0, W=1)
Figure 2 - Senior Management Aspirations of Managers and Professionals
 206
100
90
80
70
Desired Aspirations

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Low Mean High
Global Congruence
Limited Objective Off Job Involvement Extensive Objective Off Job Involvement
Figure 3 - Moderating Effect of Objective Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship
Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations
 207
5
4
Desired Aspirations

3
2
1
Low Mean High
Global Congruence
Limited Subjective Off Job Involvement Extensive Subjective Off Job Involvement
Figure 4 - Moderating Effect of Subjective Off-Job Involvement on the Relationship
Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations
 208
5
4
Desired Aspirations

3
2
1
Low Mean High
Global Congruence
Limit ed Subject ive Involvement in Communit y Act ivit ies Ext ensive Subject ive Involvement in Communit y Act ivit ies
Figure 5 - Moderating Effect of Subjective Involvement Community Activities on the Relationship
Between Congruence and Desired Aspirations
 209
5
4
Enacted Aspirations

3
2
1
Low Mean High
Desired Aspirations
Limited Advancement Prospects Different Organization
Extensive Advancement Prospects Different Organization
Figure 6 - Moderating Effect of Advancement Prospects in a Different Organization
On the Relationship between Desired Aspirations and Enacted Aspirations
 210
Subjective Advancement Prospects
Objective
Advancement
Prospects
-.10+ .10*
.21**
-.18** Desired .33*** Enacted
Gender Congruence .69*** Aspirations Aspirations
.17*** -.10*
.09+
Career Support
.16** Work Domain
Career Support
Non-Work
Domain
1
Figure 7 - Mediated Model of the Relationships between Gender and Senior Management Aspirations
________________________________________________________________________
1
Fit: __ = 226.56, df = 27, p < .001; GFI = .87; AGFI = .74; RMSEA = .16. Parameter estimates are from the standardized solution and are significant at ***p <
.001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10. Hypothesized paths that were not significant were eliminated from the model.
 211

Appendix A – Study Measures

Senior Management Schema

Adapted from Kotter (1986)
Spreitzer, McCall, and Mahoney (1997)
Schein (1975)

Rating Scale:
1=Not at all
2=To a slight extent
3=To a moderate extent
4=To a great extent
5=To a very great extent

A senior manager is an individual who is responsible for setting the long run priorities for
an organization, for deciding how to allocate resources effectively to achieve long-run
goals, and for the efficient use of the human, financial, and material resources employed
in that business, including some profit responsibility A senior manager is generally
accountable to either a CEO or board of directors, and has authority over a very diverse
set of subordinates. Senior managers may have titles such as vice president, president,
general manager, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer or
chairman of the board.

Please indicate how well each statement describes a position in senior management by
circling one number to the right of each statement which corresponds most closely to
your desired response.

Senior managers…
1. have knowledge of the various 1 2 3 4 5
parts of an organization and how
they fit together.
2. work with and understand the 1 2 3 4 5
perspectives of individuals from
other ethnic and/or corporate
cultures.
3. persevere in the face of obstacles 1 2 3 4 5
or criticism when they believe in
what they are doing.
4. equate status and prestige with 1 2 3 4 5
rank and job title.
5. measure their achievements 1 2 3 4 5
through the attainment of results
critical to an organization’s
success.
6. identify the most important part 1 2 3 4 5
 212

of a complex problem or issue.

7. pull people together around a 1 2 3 4 5
common goal.
8. try new things, even when there is 1 2 3 4 5
some risk involved.
9. measure career success by the 1 2 3 4 5
amount of income they earn.
10. work on highly visible and 1 2 3 4 5
challenging projects.
11. make decisions that have far 1 2 3 4 5
reaching implications for their
organizations.
12. communicate openly and 1 2 3 4 5
candidly with others.
13. exercise power without feeling 1 2 3 4 5
uncomfortable.
14. are rewarded with bonuses such 1 2 3 4 5
as incentive compensation plans,
for meeting organizational
targets.
15. have high levels of responsibility. 1 2 3 4 5

16. problem-solve under conditions 1 2 3 4 5

of uncertainty.
17. clearly demonstrate commitment 1 2 3 4 5
to seeing an organization succeed.
18. are accountable for actions 1 2 3 4 5
implemented by others.
19. measure their status by the 1 2 3 4 5
number of subordinates they
have.
20. integrate and manage the efforts 1 2 3 4 5
of others.
21. make unpopular decisions such as 1 2 3 4 5
laying people off or cutting
programs.
22. articulate a broad vision for the 1 2 3 4 5
future of an organization.
23. inspire commitment in people. 1 2 3 4 5
 213

Senior Management Self Assessment

Rating Scale:
1=Not at all
2=To a slight extent
3=To a moderate extent
4=To a great extent
5=To a very great extent

Please indicate how well each statement describes you personally by circling one number
to the right of each statement which corresponds most closely to your desired response.

I…
1. have knowledge of the various 1 2 3 4 5
parts of an organization and how
they fit together.
2. am able to work with and 1 2 3 4 5
understand the perspectives of
individuals from other ethnic
and/or corporate cultures.
3. am able to persevere in the face 1 2 3 4 5
of obstacles or criticism when I
believe in what I am doing.
4. equate status and prestige with 1 2 3 4 5
rank and job title.
5. measure my achievements 1 2 3 4 5
through the attainment of results
critical to an organization’s
success.
6. am able to identify the most 1 2 3 4 5
important part of a complex
problem or issue.
7. am able to pull people together 1 2 3 4 5
around a common goal.
8. will try new things, even when 1 2 3 4 5
there is some risk involved.
9. measure career success by the 1 2 3 4 5
amount of income I earn.
10. value working on highly visible 1 2 3 4 5
and challenging projects.
11. am able to make decisions that 1 2 3 4 5
have far reaching implications for
an organization.
12. am able to communicate openly 1 2 3 4 5
and candidly with others.
 214

13. am able to exercise power 1 2 3 4 5

without feeling uncomfortable.
14. value being rewarded with 1 2 3 4 5
bonuses such as incentive
compensation plans, for meeting
organizational targets.
15. value high levels of 1 2 3 4 5
responsibility.

16. am able to problem-solve under 1 2 3 4 5

conditions of uncertainty.
17. can clearly demonstrate 1 2 3 4 5
commitment to seeing an
organization succeed.
18. am not bothered by being held 1 2 3 4 5
accountable for actions
implemented by others.
19. measure status by the number of 1 2 3 4 5
subordinates I have.
20. am able to integrate and manage 1 2 3 4 5
the efforts of others.
21. can make unpopular decisions 1 2 3 4 5
such as laying people off or
cutting programs.
22. am able to articulate a broad 1 2 3 4 5
vision for the future of an
organization.
23. can inspire commitment in 1 2 3 4 5
people.
 215

Global Measure of Congruence

Adapted from Singh (2001)

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by circling one number to the right of each statement which
corresponds most closely to your desired response.

1. A position in senior management 1 2 3 4 5

would be a good fit for me.

2. The requirements of a position in 1 2 3 4 5

senior management match my
talents and skills.

3. I would enjoy doing the things that 1 2 3 4 5

senior managers do.

4. I would fit in well with other 1 2 3 4 5

senior managers in an
organization.

5. My personality fits in well with 1 2 3 4 5

the requirements of a senior
management position.
6. I have what it takes to be an 1 2 3 4 5
effective senior manager.
 216

Objective Off-Job Involvement

Adapted from Godshalk (1997)

Please list the number of hours per week on average you spend in each of the following
activities:

Hours Per Week Activity

Household chores (e.g., cooking, cleaning)
Household maintenance (e.g., yard work, repairs)
Shopping for family
Taking care of your children
Your sports activities
Your child(ren)’s sports activities (e.g. driving, watching, coaching)
Organized social activities
Community activities
Religious activities
Civic and/or political activities
Leisure and hobby pursuits
Enhancing your education
Working at your job1
Other, please specify:

________________________________________________________________________
1
While number of hours worked per week is traditionally collected in the demographic/personal
information section of a survey, it was collected here for continuity and space saving purposes.
 217

Subjective Off-Job Involvement

Adapted from Godshalk (1997)

Please indicate how IMPORTANT each of these activities is in your life by circling one
number to the right of each statement that corresponds most closely to your desired
response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Unimportant
2 = Of little importance
3 = Moderately important
4 = Important
5 = Very important
N/A = Not applicable

Household chores (e.g., cooking, 1 2 3 4 5 N/A

cleaning)
Household maintenance (e.g., yard work, 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
repairs)
Shopping for family 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Taking care of your children 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Your sports activities 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Your child(ren)’s sports activities (e.g. 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
driving, watching, coaching)
Organized social activities 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Community activities 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Religious activities 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Civic and/or political activities 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Leisure and hobby pursuits 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Enhancing your education 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Working at your job 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
Other, please specify: 1 2 3 4 5 N/A
 218

Objective Advancement Prospects

Adapted from Igbaria and Greenhaus (1992)

Please indicate the number of years you have been in your current position. _______
(Determined by 2s the average length of job tenure.)

Subjective Advancement Prospects

Adapted from Godshalk (1997)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by circling one number to the right of each statement which
corresponds most closely to your desired response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

In my present organization…
1. My opportunities to move into a 1 2 3 4 5
senior management position are
limited (reversed).

2. I expect to obtain a senior 1 2 3 4 5

management position.

3. I am likely to obtain a senior 1 2 3 4 5

management job.

In a different organization…
4. My opportunities to move into a 1 2 3 4 5
senior management position are
limited (reversed).

5. I expect to obtain a senior 1 2 3 4 5

management position.

6. I am likely to obtain a senior 1 2 3 4 5

management job.
 219

Career Support in the Work Domain

Adapted from Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of the
following statements about your manager by circling one number to the right of each
statement which corresponds most closely to your desired response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
My manager…
1. takes the time to learn about my 1 2 3 4 5
career goals and aspirations.

2. would like to see me achieve my 1 2 3 4 5

career goals.

3. keeps me informed about 1 2 3 4 5

different career opportunities for
me in the organization.

4. makes sure I get the credit when I 1 2 3 4 5

accomplish something substantial
on the job.

5. gives me helpful feedback about 1 2 3 4 5

my job performance.

6. gives me helpful advice on 1 2 3 4 5

improving my performance when
I need it.

7. supports my attempts to acquire 1 2 3 4 5

additional training or education to
further my career.

8. provides assignments that give 1 2 3 4 5

me the opportunity to develop
and strengthen new skills.

9. assigns me special projects that 1 2 3 4 5

increase my visibility in the
organization.
 220

Career Support in the Non-Work Domain

Adapted from King, Mattimore, King, and Adams (1995)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of the
following statements about your significant other by circling one number to the right of
each statement which corresponds most closely to your desired response. A significant
other is anyone who is particularly important in your life such as a spouse or partner, a
parent, sibling, child or other family member, or a friend.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
My significant other…
1. takes the time to learn about my 1 2 3 4 5
career goals and aspirations.

2. would like to see me achieve my 1 2 3 4 5

career goals.

3. does not seem very interested in 1 2 3 4 5

hearing about my work-day.
(reversed)

4. does not really care what job I 1 2 3 4 5

have as long as I am making
money. (reversed)

5. often provides a different way of 1 2 3 4 5

looking at my work-related
problems.

6. is happy for me when I am 1 2 3 4 5

successful at work.

7. enjoys hearing about my 1 2 3 4 5

achievements at work.

8. can be counted on to take care of 1 2 3 4 5

everything at home if I have to
work late or go out of town for
my job.
 221

Desired Aspirations
Adapted from Tharenou and Terry (1998)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by circling one number to the right of each statement which
corresponds most closely to your desired response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

1. I have no desire to advance to a 1 2 3 4 5

position in senior management.
(reversed)

2. It would not bother me if my 1 2 3 4 5

responsibilities and job duties
remained the same in the future.
(reversed)
3. I do not wish to advance to a 1 2 3 4 5
position of more responsibility.
(reversed)

4. I would like to advance to a 1 2 3 4 5

position where I can have a
greater influence on policy
decisions.

5. A promotion to a senior 1 2 3 4 5
management position means more
worries and should be avoided for
that reason. (reversed)

6. I would like to be in a position in 1 2 3 4 5

which I could develop, manage,
and coordinate the policies and
activities of a substantially large
part of the organization.
 222

Enacted Aspirations
Adapted from Tharenou and Terry (1998),
Gould and Penley (1984)
Konrad, Waryszak, and Hartmann (1997)
Wentling (1996)

Please indicate how often you have engaged in the behaviors listed below in the past 12
months by circling one number to the right of each statement which corresponds most
closely to your desired response.
Rating Scale:
1 = Never
2 = Occasionally
3 = Sometimes
4 = Often
5 = Frequently

1. I have sought opportunities to work with 1 2 3 4 5

individuals from other cultures.

2. I have sought opportunities to gain 1 2 3 4 5

knowledge of a variety of functional
areas in my organization.

3. I have expressed my opinions when I 1 2 3 4 5

know that they are aligned with an
individual in a key senior position.

4. I have sought out assignments that enable 1 2 3 4 5

me to strengthen my leadership skills.

5. I have improved my critical thinking 1 2 3 4 5

skills by asking to work on complex
problems.

6. I have worked long hours. 1 2 3 4 5

7. I have demonstrated to a senior person in 1 2 3 4 5

my organization my willingness to take
risks.

8. I have engaged in career planning 1 2 3 4 5

activities.

9. I have participated in networking 1 2 3 4 5

opportunities within my organization.
 223

10. I have participated in networking 1 2 3 4 5

opportunities outside my organization.

11. I have updated my skills in order to be 1 2 3 4 5

more competitive for a promotion.

12. I have asked to work on challenging 1 2 3 4 5

assignments.
 224

Attitudinal variables for future exploratory analysis

Job Attribute Preferences
Adapted from
Crosby (1982)
Gattiker and Larwood (1988)
Konrad, Corrigal, Lieb, and Ritchie (2000)
Wheeler (1981)
Rating Scales:
Importance
1=Unimportant
2=Of little importance
3=Moderately important
4=Important
5=Very important

Please indicate how IMPORTANT each of the following aspects of a job is to you by
circling one number to the right of each statement that corresponds most closely to your
desired response.

1. Helping others at work 1 2 3 4 5

2. Working with friendly and congenial associates 1 2 3 4 5

3. Working as part of a team 1 2 3 4 5

4. Working for a company that puts people first 1 2 3 4 5

5. Having work that allows me to engage in 1 2 3 4 5

satisfying leisure activities

6. Earning a high salary 1 2 3 4 5

7. Having high prestige and social status 1 2 3 4 5

8. Having supportive co-workers 1 2 3 4 5

9. Being in a leadership or supervisory role 1 2 3 4 5

10. Ability to balance work and personal/family life 1 2 3 4 5

11. Being highly regarded in my field 1 2 3 4 5

12. Getting promoted faster than my peers 1 2 3 4 5

13. Rapidly advancing to higher organizational 1 2 3 4 5

levels
 225

Career Satisfaction
Adapted from
Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by circling one number to the right of each statement which
corresponds most closely to your desired response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
I am satisfied…
1. with the success I have achieved in my 1 2 3 4 5
career.

2. with the progress I have made toward 1 2 3 4 5

meeting my overall career goals.

3. with the progress I have made toward 1 2 3 4 5

meeting my goals for income.

4. with the progress I have made toward 1 2 3 4 5

meeting my goals for advancement.

5. with the progress I have made toward 1 2 3 4 5

meeting my goals for the development of
new skills.
 226

Willingness to Relocate
Adapted from Tharenou and Terry (1998)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with the following
statements by circling one number to the right that most closely represents your desired
response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

I am willing….
1. to relocate my residence to 1 2 3 4 5
advance to a higher level
position.

2. to change organizations to 1 2 3 4 5
advance to a higher level
position.
 227

Job Involvement
Adapted from Lodahl and Kejner (1965)

Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with the following
statements by circling one number to the right that most closely represents your desired
response.

Rating Scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

A major source of satisfaction in my life is my job. 1 2 3 4 5

Most of the important things that happen to me involve 1 2 3 4 5

my job.

I am very much involved personally in my job. 1 2 3 4 5

 228

Demographic and Background Variables

1. What is your age? _____

2. What is your gender?

1. Male
2. Female

3. Which of the following best describes you?

1. African-American
2. Asian
3. Caucasian
4. Hispanic
5. Native American
6. Other, please specify _______________________

4. What is your present marital status:

1. Not Married/Not living with partner
2. Married/Living with a partner

5. If married or living with a partner, is your spouse/partner currently employed?

1. Yes
2. No

6. If your spouse/partner is currently employed, please indicate the number of hours

worked per week _____

7. Do you have children?

1. Yes
2. No

8. If you have children, what are their ages?

______ ______ ______ ______ ______

9. What is the highest level of education you have completed?

1. High School
2. Some college
3. Associates/Technical
4. Bachelors degree
5. Masters degree
6. Professional degree (Law, M.D.)
7. Ph.D.

10. How long have you been with your current employer? ______ (Years)
 229

11. How long have you been in your current position? _____ (Years)

12. How long before you expect to retire? _____ (Years).

13. What functional area do you work in? (Accounting, Finance, human Resources,
Information Systems, Legal, Marketing, Research and Development, Sales,
Other)

14. What type of industry do you work in? (Accounting, Consulting,

Financial/Insurance, Manufacturing, Pharmaceuticals, Public Administration,
Retailing/Hospitality, Services (health, legal), Telecommunications,
Transportation/Utilities

15. What is your job level?1

1. Executive
2. Upper management
3. Middle management
4. First line manager
5. Non-manager

16. How many subordinates report directly or indirectly to you?

1. No subordinates
2. 1-4 subordinates
3. 5-9 subordinates
4. 10-14 subordinates
5. 15-19 subordinates
6. 20 subordinates or more

17. What is your manager’s gender?

1. Male
2. Female

18. Which of the following best describes your manager?

1. African-American
2. Asian
3. Caucasian
4. Hispanic
5. Native American
6. Other, please specify ___________________

19. To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the middle managers of your
company are women? _____ %

________________________________________________________________________
1
Inadvertently left this item out of the survey.
 230

20. To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the middle managers of your
company are ethnic minorities? _____ %

21. To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the senior managers of your
company are women? _____ %

22. To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the senior managers of your
company are ethnic minorities? _____ %

23. Present yearly salary including bonus:

1. $24,999 – or less
2. $25,000 - $49,999
3. $50,000 - $74,999
4. $75,000 - $99,999
5. $100,000 - $124,999
6. $125,000 - $149,999
7. 150,000 +

24. Spouse/Partner’s present yearly salary including bonus:

8. $24,999 – or less
9. $25,000 - $49,999
10. $50,000 - $74,999
11. $75,000 - $99,999
12. $100,000 - $124,999
13. $125,000 - $149,999
14. 150,000 +
 231

Appendix B – Polynomial Regression Results

Table B1– Simultaneous Effect of Senior Management Schema

And Senior Management Self Assessment on Desired Aspirations

Model Variable β t Sig.

1 (Constant) .585 .559
Age -.232*** -3.875 .000
Marital Status .115* 1.924 .055
Education .158** 2.669 .008
1
Functional Area HR .059 .993 .322
Functional Area Legal -.006 -.103 .918
R2=.084*** ∆R2=.084***
2 (Constant) -456 .649
Age -.202*** -3.657 .000
Marital Status .038 .684 .495
Education .123* 2.274 .024
Functional Area HR .057 1.048 .296
Functional Area Legal .008 .143 .887
Schema -.003 -.054 .957
Self-Assessment .436*** 7.426 .000
X2•• -.075 -1.290 .198
XY .035 .548 .584
Y2 .027 .444 .658
2=
R .261*** ∆R2=.177***
3 (Constant) .461 .645
Age -.197*** -3.526 .000
Marital Status .042 .736 .462
Education .124* 2.268 .024
Functional Area HR .059 1.092 .276
Functional Area Legal .008 .148 .883
Schema .001 .019 .985
Self-Assessment .438*** 7.431 .000
X2 -.075 -1.273 .204
XY .028 .428 .669
Y2 .032 .512 .609
2
Objective OJI .011 .188 .851
Subjective OJI -.041 -.679 .498
R2=.262*** ∆R2=.001 n.s.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
••
Dummy Variables: X2=Schema * Schema, XY=Schema * Self-Assessment,
Y2=Self-Assessment * Self Assessment
2
Off-Job Involvement
 232

Table B1 (continued)
4 (Constant) .389 .698
Age -.198 -3.519 .001
Marital Status .044 .775 .439
Education .120 2.186 .030
Functional Area HR .051 .927 .355
Functional Area Legal .011 .192 .848
Schema .010 .152 .879
Self-Assessment .438 7.233 .000
X2 -.079 -1.320 .188
XY .016 .233 .816
Y2 .036 .549 .584
Objective OJI .005 .081 .935
Subjective OJI -.041 -.672 .502
Schema * Objective OJI -.039 -.640 .523
Self-Assessment * Objective OJI -.015 -.239 .811
Schema * Subjective OJI .022 .354 .724
Self-Assessment * Subjective OJI .067 1.137 .256
R2=.268*** ∆R2=.005 n.s.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05, +p < .10
 233

Table B2– Test of Constraints1

To Determine Reliability of Squared Difference Model

Schema, Self-Assessment and Dummy Variables

Analyzed As a Separate Model with Desired Aspirations
As the Dependent Variable
Model Variable β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .225 .822
Schema -.015 -.286 .775
Self-Assessment .461 8.793*** .000
X2 -.090 -1.782 .076
XY .012 .230 .818
Y2 .068 1.235 .218
2=
R .183***

Test of Constraints - A Matrix

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
3 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 -1.000
4 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.000 1.000 0.000

Test of Hypotheses
Source SS df MS F P2
Hypothesis 66.668 4 16.667 20.434 0.000
Error 283.843 348 .816 0.000 0.000

________________________________________________________________________
1
Quadratic regression equation tested: Z=b0 + b1X + b2Y + b3X2 + b4XY + b5Y2 + e; Four constraints
tested as a set: B3 = B5, B4 + -2B3, B1 = 0, B2 = 0. For a detailed explanation of the use of quadratic
regression equations as a substitute for difference scores, the reader is referred to Edwards, J.R. and
Rothbard, N.P. (1999). Work and family stress and well-being: An examination of person-environment fit
in the work and family domains, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 77 (2), 85-129.
2
Significant p-value indicates that there are differences between the means of the standardized beta
coefficients, thus the null hypothesis is not rejected. Therefore the constraints have not been met and the
variation in the desired aspirations is accounted for primarily by the self-assessment variable.
 234

Table B2 (continued)

Test of Higher Order Terms - A Matrix

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
3 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 -1.000
4 0.000 0.000 0.000 3.000 1.000 0.000

Test of Hypotheses
Source SS df MS F P
Hypothesis 67.129 4 16.782 20.502 0.000
Error 284.861 348 .819 0.000 0.000
 235

Table B3 - Moderating Effect of Gender on the

Relationship Between Schema and Desired Aspirations and
Self-Assessment and Desired Aspirations (Hypotheses 6a)
Model Variable β t Sig.
1 (Constant) .445 .657
Age -.209 -3.696 .000
Education .155 2.763 .006
Marital Status .121 2.153 .032
Functional Area HR1 .068 1.212 .226
Functional Area Legal -.007 -.122 .903
2 2
R =.079*** ∆R =.079***
2 (Constant) -.439 .661
Age -.195 -3.792 .000
Education .124 2.434 .016
Marital Status .056 1.085 .279
Functional Area HR .056 1.099 .273
Functional Area Legal .007 .134 .893
Schema .028 .506 .613
Self-Assessment .432 8.093 .000
2••
X -.032 -.603 .547
XY .013 .237 .812
Y2 .055 1.020 .309
R2=.265*** ∆R2=.186*** 8.093
3 (Constant) -.749 .455
Age -.195 -3.881 .000
Education .102 2.028 .043
Marital Status .010 .192 .848
Functional Area HR .099 1.934 .054
Functional Area Legal .007 .146 .884
Schema .046 .843 .400
Self-Assessment .419 8.021 .000
X2 -.008 -.145 .885
XY .004 .080 .936
2
Y .056 1.066 .287
Gender -.200 -3.758 .000
R2=.300*** ∆R2=.034***

________________________________________________________________________
1
Human Resources
••
Dummy Variables: X2=Schema * Schema, XY=Schema * Self-Assessment,
Y2=Self-Assessment * Self Assessment
 236

Table B3 (continued)
4 (Constant) -.788 .431
Age -.195 -3.873 .000
Education .100 1.985 .048
Marital Status .011 .208 .835
Functional Area HR .097 1.894 .059
Functional Area Legal .003 .064 .949
Schema .051 .921 .358
Self-Assessment .417 7.901 .000
X2 -.004 -.076 .939
XY -.002 -.033 .973
Y2 .063 1.151 .251
Gender -.202 -3.775 .000
Schema * Gender -.018 -.335 .738
Self-Assessment * Gender .026 .483 .630
R2=.300*** ∆R2=.001 n.s.
5 (Constant) -.820 .413
Age -.186 -3.660 .000
Education .097 1.909 .057
Marital Status .017 .323 .747
Functional Area HR .104 2.007 .046
Functional Area Legal .002 .042 .967
Schema .057 1.021 .308
Self-Assessment .421 7.950 .000
X2 .000 -.001 .999
XY -.010 -.180 .857
Y2 .066 1.194 .234
Gender -.210 -3.885 .000
Schema * Gender -.026 -.481 .631
Self-Assessment * Gender .024 .450 .653
Objective Off-Job Involvement -.016 -.293 .770
Subjective Off-Job Involvement -.056 -1.016 .311
R2=.304*** 2
∆R =.004 n.s.
***p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05, +p<.10
 237

Appendix C – Web Survey

Career Attitude
Survey

Thank you for coming to this website! We appreciate your interest in participating
in this study. The study seeks to explore and understand a number of career-related issues
that are relevant to individuals in middle management positions. A middle manager is defined
in this research as an individual who reports directly to a senior level manager and who
oversees the people and/or processes within a specific functional area.

If you are a middle manager, you are eligible to participate in this research. You will be asked
a variety of questions designed to assess your attitudes towards yourself and your career.

The survey consists of six sections and will take about 30 minutes of your time. Please
complete the survey in one sitting, as it is not possible to save partial responses for
completion at a later time. We have made it as easy as possible for you to answer ALL of the
questions by clicking on the appropriate option. If you have any questions about this
research, please feel free to contact us at the email addresses or telephone numbers shown
below.

Your participation is VITAL to the success of the study! As a small token of

our appreciation for your participation in the survey, you will be eligible to win one of four
$50 gift certificates to Barnes & Noble Book Store.
Your responses to this survey will be completely ANONYMOUS and CONFIDENTIAL. Your
confidentiality will be maintained to the degree permitted by the technology used. Specifically,
no guarantees can be made regarding the interception of data sent via the Internet by any
third parties. Only the researchers will have access to individual responses. Any forthcoming
publications will include summarized findings only. To ensure complete anonymity, we do not
gather any information that might personally identify your responses and we therefore
encourage you to answer honestly. You may, however, decline to answer specific questions.
Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. A completed Career Attitude
Survey (IRB #0 1B10 17-00) implies your consent to particiate. We suggest you print and
retain a copy of this page for your records.
Thank you in advance for your participation.

Please click on the “START THE SURVEY” button to continue.

Dr. Jeffrey H. Greenhaus Barrie E. Litzky

William A. Mackie Professor of Management Instructor, Management and Organization
Drexel University Penn State Great Valley
Phone: (215) 895-2139 Email: Phone: (610) 725-5286 Email:
greenhaus@drexel.edu barrielitzky@psu.edu
 238

Career Attitude
Survey
A. Perceptions of Senior Management Positions
In this section, we are interested in understanding your perceptions of the requirements and
rewards associated with a position in senior management. Please use the following definition of
senior manager when answering the questions below.

A senior manager is generally responsible for setting the long-run priorities for an
organization, for deciding how to allocate resources effectively to achieve long-run goals,
and for the efficient use of the human, financial, and material resources employed in that
business, including some profit responsibility. A senior manager is generally accountable
to either a President/CEO or board of directors, and has authority over a very diverse set
of subordinates. Senior managers may have titles such as vice president, executive vice
president, assistant vice president, president, general manager, managing director, chief
operating officer, chief executive officer or chairman of the board.

Please indicate how well each statement describes senior managers by selecting one
category that most closely corresponds to your desired response. If you are unsure about
a particular question, please give us your best estimate.
To a
To a To a To a
Not at very
Senior managers... all
slight moderate great
great
extent extent extent
extent
Have knowledge of the various parts of an
organization and how they fit together.
Work with and understand the perspectives
of individuals from other ethnic and/or
corporate cultures.
Persevere in the face of obstacles or
criticism, when they believe in what they are
doing.
Identify the most important part of a complex
problem or issue.

Pull people together around a common goal.

Try new things, even when there is some risk

involved.
Make decisions that have far reaching
implications for their organizations.
Communicate openly and candidly with
others.
Exercise power without feeling
uncomfortable.
 239

To a
To a To a To a
Not at very
Senior managers... all
slight moderate great
great
extent extent extent
extent
Problem-solve under conditions of
uncertainty.
Clearly demonstrate commitment in ensuring
an organization's success.

Integrate and manage the efforts of others.

Make unpopular decisions such as laying

people off or cutting programs.
Articulate a broad vision for the future of an
organization.

Inspire commitment in people.

Equate status and prestige with rank and job

title.
Measure their achievements through the
attainment of results critical to an
organization's success.
Measure career success by the amount of
income they earn.
To a
To a To a To a
Not at very
Senior managers... all
slight moderate great
great
extent extent extent
extent
Work on highly visible and challenging
projects.
Are rewarded with bonuses, such as
incentive compensation plans, for meeting
organizational targets.

Have high levels of responsibility.

Are accountable for actions implemented by

others.
Measure their status by the number of
subordinates they have.
 240

B. Beliefs About Your Career

In this section, we are interested in learning about various career-related experiences including
your perceived advancement opportunities, the type of career support you receive from your
manager, and some general feelings about your career and your job.

Part 1. Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your
desired response.
Neither
Strongly Disa Strongly
In my present organization... disagree gree
agree nor Agree
agree
disagree
My opportunities to move into a senior
management position are limited.
I expect to obtain a senior management
position.
I am likely to obtain a senior management
position.
Neither
Strongly Disa Strongly
In a different organization... disagree gree
agree nor Agree
agree
disagree
My opportunities to move into a senior
management position are limited.
I expect to obtain a senior management
position.
I am likely to obtain a senior management
position.
Neither
Strongly Disa Strongly
My manager... disagree gree
agree nor Agree
agree
disagree
Takes the time to learn about my career
goals and aspirations.
Would like to see me achieve my career
goals.
Keeps me informed about different career
opportunities for me in the organization.
Makes sure I get the credit when I
accomplish something substantial on the job.
Gives me helpful feedback about my job
performance.
Gives me helpful advice on improving my
performance when I need it.
Supports my attempts to acquire additional
training or education to further my career.
 241

Provides assignments that give me the

opportunity to develop and strengthen new
skills.
Assigns me special projects that increase my
visibility in the organization.
Neither
Strongly Disa Strongly
I am satisfied... disagree gree
agree nor Agree
agree
disagree
With the success I have achieved in my
career.
With the progress I have made toward
meeting my overall career goals.
With the progress I have made toward
meeting my goals for income.
With the progress I have made toward
meeting my goals for advancement.
With the progress I have made toward
meeting my goals for the development of
new skills.

Part 2. Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your
desired response.
Neither
Strongly Disa Strongly
agree nor Agree
disagree gree agree
disagree
I am willing to relocate my residence to
advance to a higher-level position.
I am willing to change organizations to
advance to a higher-level position.
A major source of satisfaction in my life is my
job.
Most of the important things that happen to
me involve my job.
I am very much involved personally in my
job.
I talk up my organization to my friends as a
great organization to work for.
I am proud to tell others I am part of the
organization.

I feel very loyal to my organization.

 242

Part 3. Please indicate how IMPORTANT each of the following aspects of a career is to you
by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your desired response.

Very
Unimport Of little Moderately
Important import
ant importance important
ant

Helping others at work

Working with friendly and

congenial associates

Working as part of a team

Working for a company that puts

people first
Having work that allows me to
engage in satisfying leisure
activities

Earning a high salary

Having high prestige and social

status

Having supportive co-workers

Being in a leadership or
supervisory role
Being able to balance work and
personal/family life

Being highly regarded in my field

Getting promoted faster than my

peers
Rapidly advancing to higher
organizational levels

You have completed 25% of the survey!

 243

C. Beliefs About Yourself

In this section, we are interested in learning about your perceptions of your talents, skills and
abilities, as well as what motivates you and the types of rewards you value.

Part 1. Please indicate how well each statement describes you personally by selecting
ONE category that most closely corresponds to your desired response.
To a
To a To a To a
Not at very
I have the ability to... all
slight moderate great
great
extent extent extent
extent
Learn about the various parts of an
organization and how they fit together.
Work with and understand the perspectives
of individuals from other ethnic and/or
corporate cultures.
Persevere in the face of obstacles or
criticism when I believe in what I am doing.
Identify the most important part of a complex
problem or issue.

Pull people together around a common goal.

Try new things, even when there is some

risk involved.
Make decisions that have far reaching
implications for an organization.
Communicate openly and candidly with
others.
Exercise power without feeling
uncomfortable.
To a
To a To a To a
Not at very
I have the ability to... all
slight moderate great
great
extent extent extent
extent
Problem-solve under conditions of
uncertainty.
Clearly demonstrate commitment in ensuring
an organization's success.

Integrate and manage the efforts of others.

Make unpopular decisions such as laying

people off or cutting programs.
Articulate a broad vision for the future of an
organization.

Inspire commitment in people.

 244

To a
To a To a To a
Not at very
I ... all
slight moderate great
great
extent extent extent
extent
Equate status and prestige with rank and job
title.
Measure my achievements through the
attainment of results critical to an
organization's success.
Measure career success by the amount of
income I earn.
Value working on highly visible and
challenging projects.
Value being rewarded with bonuses, such as
stock options, for meeting organizational
targets.

Value high levels of responsibility.

Feel comfortable being held accountable for

actions implemented by others.
Measure status by the number of
subordinates I have.

Part 2. Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your
desired response.
Neither Strong
Strongly Dis
agree nor Agree ly
disagree agree
disagree agree
A position in senior management would be a
good fit for me.
The requirements of a position in senior
management match my talents and skills.
I would enjoy doing the things that senior
managers do.
I would fit in well with other senior managers
in an organization.
My personality fits in well with the
requirements of a senior management
position.
I have what it takes to be an effective senior
manager.
 245

Part 3. Please indicate how well the following item DESCRIBES YOU PERSONALLY by
selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your desired response.
If you have a managerial career orientation, your primary concern is to integrate the efforts
of others, to be fully accountable for total results, and to tie together different functions in an
organization. Managerial jobs require not only analytic skills, but also interpersonal and
group skills and the emotional resilience to handle power and responsibility. You feel you
have this combination of characteristics and skills and you enjoy exercising them. If you are
in a technical or functional area, you are anxious to move into a generalist position. You will
not be satisfied that you have achieved your career goals until you have achieved a position
in which you are managing multiple business functions, such as finance, marketing,
production, engineering, and sales.

Not at all Almost not Only a little To some A great

at all extent deal

You have completed 50% of the survey!

D. Questions About Your Life Outside of Work

Next we would like to ask you about how you spend your time outside of work, the type of support
you may receive from a significant other, and questions which address the impact that your
career has on your home life as well as the impact that your home life has on your career.
Part 1. Please list the NUMBER OF Part 2. Please indicate the IMPORTANCE of each of
HOURS you spend in each of the these activities in your life, by selecting one
following activities in an average category which most closely corresponds to your
week. desired response.
Of little Moderatel Very Not
Unimportan Importan
importanc y importan applicabl
t t
e important t e

Household chores (e.g.,

cooking, cleaning)

Household maintenance
(e.g., yard work, repairs)

Shopping for family

Taking care of your children

Your sports activities

 246

Your child(ren)'s sports

activities (e.g., driving,
watching, coaching)

Organized social activities

Community activities

Religious activities

Of little Moderately Very Not

Unimportant Important
importance important important applicable

Civic and/or political activities

Leisure and hobby pursuits

Enhancing your education

Working at your job

Other, please specify:

Answer the following questions with regard to your significant other. A significant other is
anyone who is particularly important in your life such as a spouse or partner, a parent,
sibling, child or other family member, or a friend.

Part 3. Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your
desired response.
Neither
Strongly Disagre agree Strongl
My significant other... disagree e nor
Agree
y agree
disagree
Takes the time to learn about my career
goals and aspirations.
Would like to see me achieve my career
goals.
Does not seem very interested in hearing
about my work day.
Doesn't really care what job I have as long
as I am making money.
 247

Often provides a different way of looking at

my work-related problems.
Is happy for me when I am successful at
work.
Enjoys hearing about my achievements at
work.
Can be counted on to take care of everything
at home if I have to work late or have to go
out of town for my job.

Part 4. Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your
desired response.
Neither
Strongly Dis Strongly
agree nor Agree
disagree agree agree
disagree
The demands of my work interfere with my
home or family life.
The amount of time my job takes up makes it
difficult to fulfill home or family
responsibilities.
Things I want to do at home do not get done
because of the demands my job puts on me.
My job produces strain that makes it difficult
to fulfill home or family duties.
Due to work-related duties, I have to make
changes to my plans for home or family
activities.
The demands of my home or family interfere
with work-related activities.
I have to put off doing things at work
because of demands on my time at home.
Neither
Strongly Dis Strongly
agree nor Agree
disagree agree agree
disagree
Things I want to do at work don't get done
because of the demands of my home or
family.
My home life interferes with my
responsibilities at work such as getting to
work on time, accomplishing daily tasks, and
working overtime.
Home or family-related strain interferes with
my ability to perform job-related duties.
 248

E. Questions About Your Career Aspirations

In this section we are interested in understanding your career aspirations and career planning
activities.

Part 1. Please indicate the extent to which you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of the
following statements by selecting one category which most closely corresponds to your
desired response.
Neither
Strongly Dis agree Strongly
Agree
disagree agree nor agree
disagree
I have no desire to advance to a position in
senior management.
It would not bother me if my responsibilities
and job duties remained the same in the
future.
I do not wish to advance to a position of
more responsibility.
I would like to advance to a position where I
can have a greater influence on policy
decisions.
A promotion to a senior management
position means more worries and should be
avoided for that reason.
I would like to be in a position in which I
could develop, manage, and coordinate the
policies and activities of a substantially large
part of the organization.

Part 2. Please indicate how OFTEN you have engaged in the behaviors listed below in the
past 12 months by selecting one category that most closely corresponds to your desired
response.
Frequentl
In the past twelve months... Never Occasionally Sometimes Often
y
I have sought opportunities to work with
individuals from other cultures.
I have sought opportunities to gain
knowledge of a variety of functional areas
in my organization.
I have expressed my opinions when I
know that they are aligned with an
individual in a key senior position.
I have sought out assignments that
enable me to strengthen my leadership
skills.
 249

I have improved my critical thinking skills

by asking to work on complex problems.

I have worked long hours.

I have demonstrated to a senior person in

my organization my willingness to take
risks.
I have engaged in career planning
activities.
I have participated in networking
opportunities within my organization.
I have participated in networking
opportunities outside my organization.
I have updated my skills in order to be
more competitive for a promotion.
I have asked to work on challenging
assignments.

You have completed 75% of the survey!

F. Background Information

Please help us understand you better by telling us a few things about your background and work
experiences. This information will be used for research purposes only. Please remember that
your responses are completely anonymous.

What is your age? Years

What is your
gender? Male Female

Which of the following best describes you?

African-American Asian Caucasian

Hispanic Native American Other, please specify

What is your present marital status?

Not Married/Not living with a partner Married/Living with a partner

If you are not married or living with a partner, Click here.

 250

Is your spouse/partner currently employed? Yes No

If your spouse/partner is currently employed,

please indicate the number of hours worked Hours
per week.

Do you have children? Yes No

If you do not have children, Click here.

What are your children's ages?

Age Age Age Age Age

What is the highest level of education you have completed?

High Some College Associates/Technical Bachelors Degree

School Degree

Masters
Professional Degree (Law, M.D.) Ph.D.
Degree

If you are currently a student (pursuing a degree, professional

certificate, or enrolled in a continuing education program),
please indicate the university you are attending.

Please indicate your field of study.

How long
have you been Years
with your
current
organization?
How long
have you been Years
in your current
position?
How long
before you Years
expect to
retire?
What
functional area
do you work
in?
What type of
industry do
you work in?
 251

What is the size of the organization you work for?

Under 100 employees 100-999 employees 1,000-4,999 employees

5,000 -9,999 employees 10,000 or more employees

How many subordinates report directly to you?

No subordinates 1-4 subordinates 5-9 subordinates

10-14 subordinates 15-19 subordinates 20 subordinates or more

What is your manager's gender?

Male Female

Which of the following best describes your manager?

African-American Asian Caucasian

Hispanic Native American Other, please specify

To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the middle managers in your
organization are women? %
To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the middle managers in your
organization are ethnic minorities? %
To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the senior managers in your
organization are women? %
To the best of your knowledge, what percentage of the senior managers in your
organization are ethnic minorities? %

Present yearly salary including bonus:

$24,999 - or $75,000 -
$25,000 - $49,999 $50,000 - $74,999
less $99,999

$100,000 - $125,000 - 150,000 +

$124,999 $149,999

Spouse/Partner's present yearly salary including bonus:

$24,999 - or $75,000 -
$25,000 - $49,999 $50,000 - $74,999
less $99,999
 252

$100,000 - $125,000 -
150,000 + NA
$124,999 $149,999

Thank you so much for taking the time to complete this survey.

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Book Store,
please enter your email address in the space provided below.

The email address will be used for entry into the drawing and not for any other purpose.
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 253

Vita

Barrie E. Litzky, Ph.D.

Education
Ph.D. Business Administration, June 2002
Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104
Organizational Science and Psychology
Senior Management Aspirations of Managers and Professionals

MBA, May 1991

University of Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201

B.S. Business Administration, May 1985

Towson State University, Towson, MD 21204
Marketing

Academic Experience
1999-Present, Assistant Professor, Penn State Great Valley, Malvern, PA 19355
1995-1999, Teaching Assistant, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104
1991-1995, Senior Lecturer, Towson State University, Towson, MD 21204
1992-1994, Instructor, University of Maryland, University College, College Park, MD 20783
1995, Instructor, Certificate Program in Human Resource Management, University of Maryland, Baltimore
County, Baltimore, MD 21250

Conference Proceedings
• Litzky, B.E. and DeCarolis, D.M. (2000). “Corporate Social Performance (CSP), Person-Organization
Fit, Organizational Commitment and Firm Performance: Exploring Relationships”, Proceedings of
International Association for Business and Society, 11th Annual Conference, Essex Junction, Vermont,
March, 2000.
• Smith, W.P. and Litzky, B.E. (1993). “One Hour Short and More Than a Dollar Behind: The Special
Case of Involuntary Part-Time Employees”, Proceedings of Southeast TIMS Annual Conference,
Myrtle Beach, SC, April 1993, 358-360.

Conference Presentations
• Litzky, B.E., Becker, R. S. and Parasuraman, S. (1998). “Beliefs about Dual-Career Relationships:
Towards the Development of a Construct.” Paper presented at The Academy of Management Annual
Meeting, San Diego, CA, August, 1998. *Presenter
• Eddleston, K.A., Litzky, B.E. and Kidder, D.L. “When Bartenders Serve up More Than Just Drinks: A
Qualitative Look at the Conflict between Customer and Management Expectations.” Paper presented
at The Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington, D.C., August 2001. *Co-
presenter.

Manuscripts submitted for publication

When satisfying the customer dissatisfies management: How service workers choose between customer
and management expectations. Submitted to Special Issue on Service Workers, Academy of Management
Executive, April 1, 2002. Revised and Resubmitted September 30, 2002.
254