Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser

DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

Theory/ Application Paper: Schemas Theory

Language Acquisition and Learning

“Schematic knowledge, on the other hand, is socially acquired. It is an important

part of the ‘fit’ which exists between people’s culture-specific cognition and their native

language” (Alptekin,1993, p.136). A schema is a unit of functional analysis including

vocabulary linking to structural analysis. Schemas include high-level vocabulary however,

the acquisition and implementation varies among children based on several factors:

context, language modeling, and children’s executive function progression (attention,

discrimination, organization, and memory). Piaget (1964) described how children acquire

schemas through eye-hand coordination and object permanence, which, the schemas

eventually develop as part of children’s language and abstract thought. In a way, schemas

are considered an active organization and network of children’s context including

experiences. Essentially, children acquire and build their schemas around real-world

experiences, as well as read-out loud interactions including viewing and reading stories.

Christensen and Delgado (1993) believed that most children’s early language developed

through observations of daily routines. By using sensorimotor interactions, the children

will decode and filter the input stimuli from the world. Moreover, as stated by Vygotsky,

the interactions between children and adults stimulate children’s cognitive development.

Through the interactions with adults, children will comprehend the way the world works

and how to use the tools of their culture (Andrews, Leigh & Weiner, 2004). Owens

(2008) explained that during face to face conversations, facial expressions, body posture

and gestures carry 60% of information thus, the children already have begun their

language acquisition naturally by decoding and encoding the schemas parallel to their

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

parents’ language. “Children’s vocabulary size and use, on the other hand, is very closely

related to how much their caregivers read to them” (King & MacKey, 2007, p. 302).

Furthermore, as Runesson (1999) explains, as a part of cognitive development, children

will need to use the stimuli to process the experience encountering the specific object

multiple times in order to proceed the code through the executive function. When the

children have transferred the code through the executive function, the children have

developed and built schemas within their context. With the opportunities the parents

provide for their children to explore the world, the children will build their schemas

linking to the language scaffold. Moreever, Alptekin (1993) stressed on facilitating

children’s familiar schemas (schemata) during second language acquisition as the

children will rely on their developed schematic knowledge while processing new

systemic knowledge. Thus the children will be able to use their previous coding to link

the established schemas to the new context. Thus, when the time comes, the children will

be able to use their coding to create connections from their prior knowledge and

experience to the semantics and language used at school, “…researchers argued that L2

learning takes place mainly through what they called a ‘creative construction hypothesis,’

according to which learners gradually and inductively reconstruct rules of the language as

they are exposed to it in the course of acquisition” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.119). The

children acquire the literacy skills via their play experience with their parents and other

adults (Singer, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2007). Nowadays children are starting school

with fewer literacy skills than in the past. According to Hoffmeister (2000); Padden and

Ramsey (2000) Strong and Prinz (2000),

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

“The deaf children who made steady progress in both ASL and MCE [manually

coded English] also made steady progress in reading English; the children who

made progress only in MCE did not. In fact, controlling for whether a child’s

parents were hearing or deaf, signing skills turn out to be the best predictors of

reading skill (Cummins, 2014, pp. 5-6).

Bilingual Deaf Children

Owens (2001) mentioned, infants with hearing loss need to have early visual experiences

that form the basis of later language acquisition, “Deaf and hard of hearing children who

[do] not receive early access to a complete language exhibit the deficit that began in

infancy” (Easterbrooks & Baker, 2002, p.54). Moreover, Cummins (2014) explained how

the children acquire language, “Language mediates the child’s relationship to his or her

world and the child’s identity is formed through linguistic interaction with other people.

Emotional and cognitive dispositions that form the child’s identity are imprinted in the

early years primarily through linguistic interaction” (Cummins, 2014, p. 1). The language

modeling Deaf and hard of hearing children receive within the environment builds their

schemas, which, promotes the children’s future language scaffolding ability. As Owens

(2001) stated the progression of developing the meaning of words and creating word

combinations, “With more experience, knowledge becomes less dependent upon

particular events…Language meaning is based on what we, as individuals, know” (p.21).

Moreover, Andrews, Leigh and Weiner (2004) mentions, more exposure and experience

will promote children’s language to be more adult-like. Children use semantic and

syntactic stretching to fill in gaps of knowledge about the language, “Semantic

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

relationships reflect the perception and understanding of relationships between the

entities and the actions in a child’s environment” (Owens, 2008, p.43). Furthermore,

Haron (1991) explained how children try out the words that the adults have used and

make adjustments to the word meaning after receiving a feedback from others,

“…researchers observe that when children are interacting in meaningful contexts, they do

not simply imbibe or absorb the language they hear around them; rather they attend to it

selectively and use it as data to make sense of the world around them” (Haron, 1991,

p.178). Throughout my teaching experience, I have seen how each child’s language

acquisition differs from another child. However, I have seen how schemas have

contributed greatly to children’s language acquisition. Parent and teacher meetings

usually happen before I get the chance to know the students. Typically, half of the

families shared their love and enthusiasm for their nightly bedtime reading and another

half of the families expressed their fondness for television or iPad applications rather than

reading a book. The children who have spent nights reading with their families received

opportunities to build schemas linking the context to content thus expanding their

vocabulary awareness and language scaffolding abilities. The children expressed their

keen interest in books, initiating and engaging in conversations, asking questions and

stringing together 3-4 word sentences while sharing thoughts, needs and wants. On the

other hand, for the children who have not received the opportunities to use language

while interacting with the family, did not want to participate story time, demonstrated

little interest in conversations, and used 1-2 word sentences. “Deaf individuals whose

first language exposure was delayed until age 6 or older showed low accuracy in English

grammatical judgment and comprehension compared to Deaf and hearing individuals

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

who had learned English as a second language in school after appropriate exposure to a

(signed or oral) first language in the home during early childhood (Cummins, 2014, p. 6).

It is rather fascinating seeing how family interaction and the environment out of the

classroom has impacted children’s language acquisition as well.

Practical Instructional Application

“…we [educators] must look at each specific learning experience from the point

of view of the spontaneous operations which [are] present at the outset and the

operational level which has been achieved after the learning experience” (Piaget, 1964,

pp. 184-185). According to Long (1989) schema-theoretic literature in L1 listening

comprehension includes visual and verbal organizers, prior background knowledge, story

schemata, recall, and listening. Unlike hearing children, Deaf and hard of hearing

children are not accustomed to using English as a social language out of the classroom,

“As a case in point, a learner of English who has never resided in the target-language

culture will most likely experience problems in processing English systemic data if these

are presented through such unfamiliar contexts as, say, Halloween or English pubs”

(Alptekin, 1993, p. 137). Thus, deaf and hard of hearing children have not received as

much English mircopragmatics, marcopragmatics and metapragmatics opportunities

outside of the classroom as the hearing children, “Because they do not overhear

conversation and have limited early literacy experiences in English, deaf children

struggle to develop their English vocabularies at age-appropriate levels” Singleton,

Morgan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers, 2004, p.87). In addition, Andrews, Leigh, and Weiner

(2004) explained that without a bridging strategy, Deaf and hard of hearing children

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

could get lost translating from ASL to English, as there is so much structure happening in

speech, writing and signing. A fully evolved bilingual environment is where fluency is

occurring in both languages: ASL and English. “It was found that, while some L1

strategies were transferred to the L2 writing processes, the learners struggled in utilizing

all strategies that could have helped them in their writing process in the L2” (Polio &

Shea, 2014, p.128). The knowledge and understanding of first language (L1) impacts the

process of acquiring a second language (L2); when bilingual children are proficient in

second language, hence the ability of linguistic interference. “Lado (1957) also stressed

the importance of the native language, considering it a major cause of lack of success in

L2 learning” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.118). As explained by Polio and Shea (2014), Mu

and Carrington’s (2007) research demonstrated the strategies children acquired including

metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies transferred from the first

language foundation to the second language development, “…the high-ASL group

produced more vocabulary that would be considered less common, diverging away from

the [most frequent words] list, than the [English as Second Language] group and the low-

ASL group” (Singleton, Morgan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers, 2004, p.96). Freeman and

Freeman (2009) emphasized on the importance of integrating students’ context within the

instruction and lesson plans to promote students’ ability to transfer their L1 schemas and

strategies to L2. In addition, Alptekin (1993) pointed out the significance of integrating

students’ relevant cultural backgrounds to provide students opportunities to bridging their

schemata and schemas. Lesslow-Hurley (2013) justified the significance of using

students’ schemas to expand their pragmatics knowledge and ability. “Much as we may

try to mediate our lessons with hands-on activities, objects, and illustrations, we are often

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

several steps removed from real-life experience” (p.91). Cummins (1980) explained the

threshold hypothesis as a tool to promote students’ second language acquisition.

Cummins’ (1980) threshold hypothesis emphasized students’ linguistic and conceptual

knowledge acquisition in their first language in order to promote the students’ second

language development. “Quite simply, children can be enriched by knowing more than

one language as long as they are additive rather than subtractive bilinguals” (Lessow-

Hurley, 2013, p.48). Unfortunately, as Lessow-Hurley (2013) pointed out the cognitive

demands from the classroom are focusing on written and verbal explanations rather than

focusing on students’ context to scaffold their knowledge towards the context-reduced

method. “Deaf students with normal intellectual abilities are seldom provided with early

access to natural (primarily visual) communication. Early natural language deprivation

may explain the reason why these children often do not reach their potential in English

language usage…” (Christensen & Delgado, 1993, p.18). What the educators can do is

spark deaf and hard of hearing children’s interest in reading and writing in parallel with

their prior context. “When [students] are ready, their natural curiosity—and the fact that

they have come to recognize that the written word holds lots of information and fun—

gets them interested in reading” (Mahshie, 1995, p.3). Numerous studies have shown

when literacy materials are incorporated within play settings, the children’s interest was

sparked and the children were motivated to engage in the literacy acts. “[Student]

identified with the experiences, the characters, and the theme of the book because it was

so much like [the student]’s own story” (Freeman & Freeman, 2009, p. 163). In addition,

Himmel (2015) pointed out the research unveiled, when the students are able to use

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

English in meaningful context, the students demonstrated the best ability to acquire the

English as a second language.

Since there are a variety of theories and method, Gardner’s 8 intelligences will be

used as a tool to recognize students’ strength, style and preference for learning in order to

promote the children’s language acquisition and learning strategies. As an educator, when

I am able to recognize my students’ strengths and learning style thus I will ensure their

interests are intergraded in the instructions to promote their interest in sight words and

reading. According to Eurydice, Patrick, and Crystal (2010), I will use the bridge method

to link the new context to students’ their foundation of previous knowledge. “However,

after students discussed (sometimes using their native language) the topic among

themselves, and created a list of ways that caring for the Earth applies in their own

personal experiences in their native language, they then used their English to explain it to

me” (Eurydice, Patrick, & Crystal, 2010, p. 431). By allowing students to use their

familiar schematic knowledge, they will be able to process the information by using

either top-down or bottom-up strategies. Since I worked with three-year olds, I often

created and demonstrated picture dictionaries to promote the students’ language

acquisition.

“…ensuring that students read and understand the often nuanced differences

among a wide range of text types, helping students make sense of information and

ideas across multiple texts, and teaching vocabulary in every subject area in a way

that helps students understand the specialized nature of discipline- specific words”

(Shanahan & Shanahan, 2014, p.638).

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

Furthermore, I need to enforce Himmel’s (2015) recommendation by creating and posting

language objectives aligning the lesson plan. Including considering and determining

which key vocabulary, concept words and other academic words should be focused on

during specific lesson plans. Himmel (2015) shared several tips and recommendations to

be mindful while teaching including: language functions, language skills, identifying

grammar/ language structures, students’ expected tasks, and to explore language learning

strategies. Moreover, Singleton, Morgan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers (2004) recommended

on developing Most Frequent Words (MFW) list in English as one of the pedagogical

approach to promote Deaf and hard of hearing students’ second language acquisition.

“Consequently, the world in which a child is born greatly influences how the brain forms

and functions—that is, environment is central in shaping the brain” (Easterbrooks &

Baker, 2002, p.41). Rockets, moon, space, and aliens have shaped my students’ minds

thus I have provided opportunities for the students to explore the space and airspace

concept by reading nonfiction and fiction literatures. The students were able to use their

previous schemas they acquired from the readings and to apply the knowledge during

hands-on activities. The hands-on activities included following written instructions with

picture cues promoting students to create their own paper airplane or space slime. The

students demonstrated their text comprehension by retelling stories, identifying sight

words, and sharing their vivid imagination through story-telling in related to the content.

After a month of student-led space investigation, it was time for the class to gain a real

life experience aligning our thematic study. Off we went to National Air and Space

Museum in Washington, D.C., as soon as the students went into the building, their eyes

were filled with a wonder. The students turned into pilots and astronauts with a desire to

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

fly away in one of the aircrafts. Despite the lemon vehicles, the students were able to

drive and land a plane virtually. The students even touched a moon rock! In a merely

two-hour field trip, the students have linked the previous context from the instructions

and built the context around the decoded schemas by identifying the sight words and

signing out the vocabularies. Moreover, after the space concept has passed, the students

shifted their interest from aliens to monsters. Some of the students have shared their fear

of a monster sitting inside their closet or under their bed, waiting. Hence it was a

wonderful opportunity to introduce the students to “There’s a Nightmare in My Closet”

by Mercer Mayer, which gradually led to “Go Away Big Green Monster!” by Ed

Emberley. The students could regulate their feelings as soon as they were able to relate

their experience with the character from the books. Progressively, the students acquired

schemas from the book, which they were able to use while expressing their needs, wants,

feelings and thoughts. Moreover, Stahl, Hynd, Britton, and McNish (1996) discovered,

“Similarly, literary summaries need to do more than capture plot elements; they need to

include characters’ emotional responses and motivations. Research reveals that students

tend not to understand these nuances unless they’re explicitly taught” (Shanahan &

Shanahan, 2014, p. 637).

Subsequently, the educators need to understand the natural context of the

language and to use the language as a tool; “…the literature of the last two decades

suggests that students who are in greater need of quality instruction are often offered

vocabulary-controlled material, which limits the amount of engaging content they are

exposed to” (Eurydice, Patrick, & Crystal, 2010, p. 430). On the other hand, King and

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

MacKey (2007) pointed out, as the acquisition of a first language has interwoven in

everyday life thus second language acquisition should occur in a setting where the

environment is pleasurable and meaningful.

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DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

References:

Alptekin, C. (1993). Target-language culture in EFL materials. ELT Journal, 47(2), 136-
143. doi:10.1093/elt/47.2.136

Andrews, J., Leigh, I., & Weiner, M. (2004). Deaf people: Evolving perspectives from
psychology, education, and sociology. Boston: Pearson.

Christensen, K. & Delgado, G. (1993). Multicultural issues in deafness. White Plains,

NY: Longman.

Cummins, J. (1980). The Construct of language proficiency - ResearchGate. Retrieved

June 25, 2018, from
https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/555473/GURT_
1980.pdf?sequence=1#page=93

Easterbrooks, S. & Baker, S. (2002). Language learning in children who are deaf and
hard of hearing: Multiple pathways. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Eurydice B., B., Patrick C., M., & Crystal, C. (2010). Supporting content learning for
English learners. The Reading Teacher, (5), 430. doi:10.1598/RT.63.5.9

Freeman, Y. & Freeman, D. (2009). Academic language for English language learners
and struggling readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Retrieved
from
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002/Readings%20Teaching%20Academic%20Language%20and%20SubjectArea
%20Content%20%28Freeman%20%26%20Freeman%2C%202009%29/Freeman
%20%26%20Freeman%202009%20Chapter%207.pdf

Haron, F. (1991). Language development a process of children's creative

construction. Securing Our Future. Proceedings of the Conference on Children--
Our Future, 171-183. Retrieved June 25, 2018, from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED363432.pdf#page=171.

Himmel, J. (2015, December 01). Language objectives: The key to effective content
area instruction for English learners. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from
http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/language-objectives-key-effective-content-
area-instruction-english-learners

King, K. & MacKey, A. (2007). The bilingual edge: Why, when, and how to teach your
child a second language. New York: HarperCollins.

Lessow-Hurley, J. (2013). The foundations of dual language instruction. New York:

Longman.

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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin

Long, D. R. (1989). Second language listening comprehension: A schema-theoretic

perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 32. doi:10.2307/327265

Mahshie, S. (1995). Educating deaf children bilingually. Washington, DC: Gallaudet

University.

Owens, R. (2001). Language development: An introduction (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and
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Piaget, J. (1964). Development and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,

2, 176-186. Retrieved June 26, 2018, from
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Polio, C., & Shea, M. C. (2014). An investigation into current measures of linguistic
accuracy in second language writing research. Journal of Second Language
Writing, 26, 10-27. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2014.09.003

Shanahan, C., & Shanahan, T. (2014). Does disciplinary literacy have a place in
elementary school?. Reading Teacher, 67(8), 636-639.

Singleton, J. L., Morgan, D., DiGello, E., Wiles, J., & Rivers, R. (2004). Vocabulary use
by low, moderate, and high asl-proficient writers compared to hearing esl and
monolingual speakers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9(1), 86-103.
doi:10.1093/deafed/enh011

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