International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Mechanical behavior of salt rock under uniaxial compression and creep tests T
⁎
Hadiseh Mansouri, Rassoul Ajalloeian
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The mechanical characteristics of salt rock are investigated using uniaxial compression tests and creep tests in a
Salt rock salt diapir located in the south of Iran. To investigate how the microstructure evolution of salt rock due to creep
Stress-strain curve test affects the stress-strain behavior, the crept samples were again tested at a constant displacement rate. The
Strain-time curve test results showed that the axial peak stress, axial peak strain, and modulus of elasticity gradually increase with
Creep model
increasing strain rate. The stress-strain curves were typical for a ductile material characterized by moderate
strain hardening. The creep strain and creep rate increased with increasing axial stress. The Burgers viscoelastic
creep model agreed quite well with the experimental creep data. The microstructure observations indicated that
grain-boundary cracking and grain boundary sliding were the dominant deformation mechanisms. Under the
uniaxial compression test, the crept samples showed a slightly higher modulus of elasticity compared to the
intact salt samples. Finally, it seems that free dislocations increased during the creep test led to strain hardening
of salt samples through the uniaxial compression test.

1. Introduction history, stress path,14 temperature,9 available moisture, chemical en-

Particular properties of salt such as low density, unusually high
ductility, and very low creep strength under crustal conditions cause
that salt formations play an important role in crustal tectonic processes.
Stable salt formations are attractive sites for the development of stra-
tegic storage caverns and disposal of radioactive and chemical wastes.1
Salt is also useful as an analog material for understanding the micro-
structural processes and textural development in silicate rocks.2 De-
formed salt rock can display microstructures developed in silicate rocks
at high pressures and temperatures.3,4 Accordingly, there has long been
an interest in the mechanical properties of salt rock, and in the asso-
ciated deformation mechanisms and microstructural development.1 The
analysis of salt rheological or salt creep properties is fundamental for
understanding salt tectonics5 and drilling problems that occur in the
petroleum industry and salt mining.6 Such an analysis represents the
basic input required for modeling the long-term performance of salt-
based repository systems.7
In rock engineering, the strength and deformation of all rock ma-
terial are affected by factors such as loading rate, temperature, and
moisture content, and salt rocks are no exceptions.8 Several studies
have shown that at ordinary temperatures, the deformation of salt rocks
is accompanied by both plastic and brittle strain.9–11 The intensity of
brittle and plastic strain that occurs in a salt rock depends on stress
level, confining pressure,12 time,11 strain or stress rate,13 loading
vironment,15 mineralogy, texture, and grain size.16 The effects of
loading rate on the compressive strength and deformability of salt rocks
have been the subject of intense research.8,17,18 It has been reported
that the salt strength increases with the applied stress and strain rates.
Several studies19,20 have shown that the uniaxial compression strength
(UCS) of salt rock is within the range of 12–20 MPa. Moreover, the
rheology of salt rock typically is a combination of elastic and visco-
plastic deformation.21–23 Numerous test studies have shown that the
mechanical response of salt rock is time-dependent.22–24 When a con-
stant mechanical load is applied to a salt sample, a steady-state strain
rate is reached after some time.25 Although many empirical or rheo-
logical constitutive equations have been proposed for describing the
creep time-dependent strain,26,27 all of them have their limitations re-
garding the physical meaning of the phenomenon.28
Despite a large number of studies on mechanical properties of salt
rock, how this rock type behaves under rapid loading after the long-
term performance under a constant stress is not well documented. In
this paper, the uniaxial compression tests under several strain rates and
uniaxial creep tests under various stress levels (10, 12, and 15 MPa)
were performed on salt samples taken from the Deh Kuyeh salt diapir in
the south of Iran. The uniaxial compression tests were also carried out
on crept samples to investigate the effect of loading rate as well as
microstructure evolution during creep tests on the salt mechanical
properties.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rasajl@sci.ui.ac.ir (R. Ajalloeian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2018.07.006
Received 4 September 2017; Received in revised form 25 July 2018; Accepted 27 July 2018
1365-1609/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27

2. Material and methods Table 1

The results of uniaxial compression tests.
Salt rock samples used in this study were taken from Deh Kuyeh salt Sample condition Displacement rate Peak Peak strain Elastic
diapir located at about 27 km NE of Lar city, Fars province, Iran. (mm/min) stress to failure modulus
Several salt blocks were collected from the diapir. The blocks consist of (MPa) (%) (Gpa)
white and gray halite layers. Cores, 58 mm in diameter, were drilled dry
intact sample 0.2 32.43 5 1.67
in the laboratory using a diamond-coring bit from salt blocks. intact sample 0.05 27 4.1 1.35
Cylindrical samples were trimmed to a length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio of crept sample under 0.05 28.78 5 1.06
2. The trimming and lapping of the rock cores were done in accordance σ = 10 MPa
with the ASTM method D4543-08.29 The salt specimens were cored crept sample under 0.05 27.60 4.28 1.58
σ = 12 MPa
perpendicular to the colored layers. The salt specimens were relatively
crept sample under 0.05 26.98 3.41 2.34
coarse-grained, with individual crystals measuring between 1 mm and σ = 15 MPa
15 mm in diameter. The average bulk density of the samples was about
2.11 g/cm3.
The uniaxial compressive strength test was performed in accordance 1 µm diamond paste and ethylene glycol as a lubricant on a Buehler
with ASTM D701229 on cylindrical salt samples. A SANTAM-150 uni- machine. To observe the texture of the rock-salt specimens, they were
versal testing machine with a maximum axial loading capacity of etched in a mixture of alcohol and water for 1 min32 Applying this
150 kN was used for testing. The samples were loaded with constant method, low angle subgrain boundaries can be easily distinguished
displacement rates of 0.05 and 0.2 mm/min corresponding to strain from high angle grain boundaries on the basis of the intensity of etching
rates of 6.8 × 10−6 and 2.6 × 10−5 s−1, respectively. The tests con- observed in reflected light.33 Microstructural analysis was carried out
tinued until the macroscopic fractures appear. on the thin sections using an Olympus BX60 light microscope equipped
The conventional uniaxial creep tests were performed at room with a Canon Kiss X4 video camera.
temperature on cylindrical salt samples, under constant axial stresses of
10, 12, and 15 MPa. The specimens were placed in a frame connected to
3. Experimental results
soft springs in its lower part. A uniform loading was established using
loading platens with a portable hydraulic press. The springs were
3.1. Uniaxial compression tests
compressed with increasing hydraulic pressure. Once the desired load
was reached, the nuts were tightened, the press was removed, and the
Fig. 1a and Table 1 present the stress-strain data monitored from the
load was preserved by the compressed springs. The load value was
intact salt specimens under constant displacement rates of 0.2 and
monitored every day. If the load value descended during the test, it was
0.05 mm/min. The uniaxial compressive strength decreases with de-
again reached a desired value by the hydraulic press. The experiments
creasing the strain rate. UCS values are 32 and 27 MPa, respectively, for
lasted 14 days. The axial strain was measured based on the time during
displacement rate values of 0.2 and 0.05 mm/min. These values are
the tests using two dial-gauges.
within the range of the USC values reported by Hansen et al.14
Before and after deformation, the specimens were stored in a dry
(15–32 MPa) for the pure salt. Due to the high ductility of salt rock, the
room and later sectioned for microstructural analysis using methods
studied samples mostly behaved in a plastic manner under the uniaxial
described by Schleder and Urai30 and Urai et al.31 Sections were made
test. The stress-strain curves have an extremely short elastic region, but
of the central portion of the cylinder, parallel to the compression di-
their plastic deformation stage before the peak stress is comparatively
rection. The samples were cut dry along their length using a diamond
long (Fig. 1a). The slope of the initial linear part of each curve until the
tipped saw. The slabs were polished dry with a grinding paper, etched
stress of 5 MPa, where there is a sign of a slight change in the slope, was
with pure water for 2 s, and quickly dried with a tissue. This etching
considered as the modulus of elasticity (E). The E was calculated to be
technique removes scratches and provides a micro-relief on the surface
within 1.35 and 1.67 GPa with an increasing displacement rate from
of the slabs improving the stability of mounting. The slabs were
0.05 to 0.2 mm/min. These values are in concordance with the corre-
mounted on glass plates at room temperature using epoxy and were cut
sponding values reported by previous researchers.19,34–36 The E seems
into thick sections of 4 mm using the dry cutting with a low-velocity
to increase slowly with the strain rate. This trend is similar to that of
metallurgical saw. The sections were then ground dry with grinding
Jiangsu salt rock studied by Liang et al.8, for example. The strain rate
papers of 600, 1000, and 1200, and with a final polish using 3 µm and
also is related to the strain-to-failure: with an increase in the strain rate

Fig. 1. Stress-strain curves obtained from the uniaxial tests at different strain rates: (a) Stress-strain curves of intact salt specimens and (b) Stress-strain curves of the
crept samples (D.R is displacement rate).

20
H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian
value, the strain at peak strength is slightly higher. The strain-to-failure
is 4.1% when the displacement rate is 0.05 mm/min whereas it in-
creases to 5% when the displacement rate is increased to 0.2 mm/min.
However, the stress-strain curves show that an increase in strain rate
produces a decrease in axial strain for a fixed value of axial stress. The
peak-strain to failure is more than 4% and involves a plastic deforma-
tion stage, which is different from other hard rocks. The accumulation
of axial strain is about 0.5% for brittle and hard rocks.37
The stress-strain behaviors of crept samples were also measured
under the uniaxial compression test. Fig. 1b shows the results of these
tests. The stress-strain curves of crept samples are similar to that ob-
tained from the intact salt samples in which the displacement rate is
0.05 mm/min (Fig. 1a). However, the elastic limit is larger for the crept
samples and a proper yield point demonstrates the initiation of the
plastic mechanism (Fig. 1b). The axial stress-strain curves of these
samples can be divided into two stages. Stage I: elastic deformation
(segment between point A and B). At this stage, the deformation of the
crept sample shows linear regular growth with increasing stress and its
axial stress-strain curve is almost a straight line. Stage II: plastic de-
formation between point B and C. In this stage the axial stress-strain
curve gradually deviates from the straight line and continues with a
positive slope until it reaches the peak stress (point C). In the stress-
strain curve of the sample crept under σ = 10 MPa, small serrations are
observed before the axial stress reaches the peak value (see arrows in
Fig. 1b). As seen in Fig. 1b and Table 1, the samples crept under the
higher axial stress level represent a lower axial peak stress and axial
peak strain and the higher E under the uniaxial compression test. The
yield point also occurs in the higher stress and lower strain with in-
creasing the axial stress.
3.2. Uniaxial creep tests
Knowledge of creep behavior is of paramount importance for reli-
able model calculations, especially in soft rocks.38 In order to study the
creep behavior of the salt rock, three samples were loaded continuously
for a maximum period of fourteen days under applied stresses of 10, 12,
and 15 MPa. Fig. 2 presents the results of uniaxial creep tests in the
form of axial strain-time curves.
The strain-time curves represent an instantaneous elastic strain,
followed by a transient stage during which creep strain increases with a
decrease in the strain rate until reaching a more or less constant strain
rate. The elastic strain, ε0, is the strain where there is a discontinuity in
the creep curve between the high strain rate of elastic loading stage and
the decreasing strain rate of creep strain.39 The instantaneous strain,
marked in each creep curve, increases with increasing the axial stress.
This strain is 0.585%, 0.88%, and 1.19% under the axial stress of
10 MPa, 12 MPa, and 15 MPa, respectively. It is evident that the axial
stress level has an enhancing effect on the amount of axial creep strain
of the salt during the primary and steady creep. The higher the axial
stress level, the greater the axial strain.40,41 For example, the stain
Fig. 2. Uniaxial creep test results at various axial stresses: (a) Strain-time curve at the axial stress of 10 MPa; (b) Strain-time curve at the axial stress of 12 MPa; and
(c) Strain-time curve at the axial stress of 15 MPa.
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International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27
reaches 0.605%, 1.06%, and 1.6% after 10 days under the axial stress of
10, 12, and 15 MPa, respectively.
The axial stress level has also an important effect on the amount of
strain rate. The higher the axial stress level, the greater the axial creep
rate.40,41 Under a steady state condition, the effect of axial stress level
on the creep rate is even more important than that at earlier creeps.40
The axial strain rate appears to be stabilized at around 8 × 10−4%/day,
0.003%/day, and 0.015%/day when the axial stress is 10, 12, and
15 MPa, respectively. The analysis of creep rate is presented in the next
sections.
4. Deformation mechanism
4.1. Macroscale observations of salt specimens
Fig. 3a and b present the intact specimens before and after the
uniaxial compression test. As illustrated in this figure, the post-test
specimens have more than one fracture plane. The fractures are along
the axial direction and have a loading capacity. A higher strain rate
results in a higher cracks development. Patterns of microcracks have
some similarities to those previously reported.42,43 At the beginning of
loading, the salt grains extrusion was observed. Both intercrystalline
cracks and grain boundary cracks are found to develop in the samples.
However, the frequency of intercrystalline cracks is higher than that of
grain boundary cracks. The cracks grow and open wider with the in-
creasing loading stress. Many intracrystalline cracks and grain
boundary cracks are connected to form the principal rupture cracks
when the stress is bigger than the strength of salt samples.
Fig. 3c-e illustrate the salt specimens before and after the creep test
and after the uniaxial compression test. As can be seen from Fig. 3c, the
grain boundaries are more obvious and more serrated than the intact
sample. The failure mode in these samples can also be attributed to the
accumulation and coalescence of microcracks. Cracks occur as in-
tragranular cracks and grain boundary openings. In this regard, com-
pared to intact samples, the frequency of grain boundary cracks is
higher in the crept samples. In the sample crept under σ = 10 MPa,
intragranular cracks were oriented parallel to the loading direction and
in some areas they were connected to axially oriented grain boundaries
(Fig. 3c). Cavitation (void opening) on grain boundaries and at triple
junctions are also seen in this sample (Fig. 3c). In the samples crept
under σ = 12 and 15 MPa most of grain boundary cracks are aligned
inclined to the loading direction, and narrow-spaced intracrystalline
cracks are propagated in the loading direction. As can be noticed, the
color (Fig. 3c) and shape (Fig. 3e) of some gains have changed during
the deformation.
4.2. Microstructural observations
Fig. 4a shows the optical image of the longitudinal thin section
provided from an undeformed salt sample. The grain texture is almost
H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27

Fig. 3. Images of salt samples showing the damage development during the tests: (a) The intact sample, damaged sample, and an enlarged view of fractures created
under uniaxial test at 0.2 mm/min displacement rate; (b) The intact sample, damaged sample, and an enlarged view of fractures created under uniaxial test at
0.05 mm/min displacement rate; (c) The damage development in the sample crept at σ = 10 MPa and then loaded at 0.05 mm/min displacement rate. Red arrows,
white arrows, black arrows, and blue arrows point to intragranular cracks, grain boundary openings, cavitation on grain boundaries and at triple junctions, and
change in color grain due to microcracking, respectively; (d) The damage development in the sample crept at σ = 12 MPa and then loaded at 0.05 mm/min
displacement rate; and (e) The damage development in the sample crept at σ = 15 MPa and then loaded at 0.05 mm/min displacement rate. The magnified view of
the grain marked as red color in the salt sample shows the change in grain shape during deformation.

polygonal (foam texture) with lobate grain boundaries, triple points,
and junctions. The undeformed sample shows minor intragranular mi-
crocracking. Most grain boundaries are aligned at about 45° to the long
axis of the samples.
Fig. 4b-e show the optical images of thin sections taken from the
post-uniaxial test sample at 0.2 displacement rate. As can be noted,
microcracks have formed in various directions; however, the longest
ones are parallel to loading direction (Fig. 4b). The cleavages (planar
features) seen in all photomicrographs of deformed samples were
formed during the sectioning process. A gap can be seen at the interface
between grain boundaries and triple junctions (Fig. 4c). The micro-
crack in a wing-crack44 type configuration can be seen in nearby grain
boundaries and triple junctions (Fig. 4c). In some areas, a small dis-
placement is obvious along the grain boundaries (Fig. 4c,d). The ser-
ration pattern is observed near some grain boundaries consisting of the
aggregation of many microcracks perpendicular45 and parallel to the
stress direction (Fig. 4e). Under a lower displacement rate (0.05 mm/
min), curved lamellae (Fig. 4f) and subgrain boundaries (Fig. 4g) are
seen in the thin sections.
The salt microstructure in all three crept samples was nearly the
same. Fig. 5 presents the salt microstructures in the sample crept under
15 MPa and then uniaxially loaded at a displacement rate of 0.05 mm/
min. Similar to the intact samples, crept samples display microcracks
(Fig. 5a), serration pattern in grain boundaries (Fig. 5b), curved la-
mellae (Fig. 5b and c) and subgrain boundaries (Fig. 5d and e).
5. Analysis of creep strain and creep rate
5.1. Burgers equation
The creep curves in Fig. 2 illustrate that the salt samples experience
a transient and a steady creep stage under each axial loading, and the

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H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27

Fig. 4. Optical micrographs to show microstructures and microcrack development after uniaxial compression tests. The bi-directional arrow in the right upper corner
of photographs shows the loading direction; (a) The microstructure of undeformed sample. Arrows point to triple junctions; (b-e) Microcrack development in salt
grains after the uniaxial compression test at a displacement rate of 0.2 mm/min; and (f-g) Microstructure development in salt grains after the uniaxial compression
test at a displacement rate of 0.05 mm/min.

Fig. 5. Optical micrographs to show microstructures in the crept samples after the uniaxial compression test. The bi-directional arrow in the right upper corner of
photographs shows the loading direction: (a) Microcrack development in salt grains; (b) A micrograph showing the curved lamellae and serration pattern; (c) A
micrograph showing the curved lamellae in salt grains; (d) Development of subgrain boundaries within a salt grain; and (e) A detailed view of the subgrain
boundaries in (d).

creep strain rate first increases and then decreases toward a constant where εcreep(t) is the strain evaluated at a certain time instant t, σ is the
value. The creep behavior of salt rock is frequently modeled using applied stress, EM and ηM are Maxwell's modulus of elasticity and
rheological equations. Burgers equation is the most common creep coefficient of viscosity, respectively, and EK and ηK are Kelvin's modulus
behavior. This model is a form of connection in series by Kevin body of elasticity and coefficient of viscosity, respectively. The first term in
and Maxwell body. The model is simulated by the following equation: this model presents the instantaneous, time-independent, or elastic
strain, the second linear time-dependent term represents secondary
σ σ σ ⎛ ⎛ EK t ⎟⎞ ⎞ creep, and the third term represents an exponential decreasing strain
εcreep (t ) = + t+ ⎜1−exp ⎜ − ⎟
EM ηM EK ⎝ ⎝ ηK ⎠ ⎠ (1) rate, representing the primary creep.28 The Burgers parameters were

23
H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian
determined for each strain-time curve, as follows46:
Maxwell's modulus of elasticity, EM, is inversely proportional to the
initial elastic strain, ε0 = εM:
σ viscous flow became exaggerative, resulting in the reduced EK and ηK.
EM =
εM (2)
Maxwell's coefficient of viscosity is inversely related to the creep
rate of steady state branch, εṀ :
σ parameters of the Burgers model vary with the axial stress. To validate
ηM =
εṀ (3)
The Kelvin modulus of elasticity, EK, is related to the ε intercept, εeq,
of the steady state branch, as follows:
σ σ
EK = =
εeq − εM εK (4)
Kelvin's coefficient of viscosity (ηK) is related to the retardation time
t *, which corresponds to the time at which 63% of Kelvin's steady state
strain is attained. Considering the obtained curve, the time necessary to
achieve 0.63εK can be determined and ηK can be obtained as follows:
ηK = EK t * (5)
The creep results calculated using the Burgers equation and the test
data are shown in Fig. 6 under the axial stresses of 10 MPa (a), 12 MPa
(b), and 15 MPa (c). The simulation curves obtained using the Burgers
model are drawn in blue lines. It can be seen that the predicted data
show a satisfactory agreement with the experimental data under each
stress. The parameters of the Burgers creep equation are summarized in
Table 2 for each of the axial stresses. The relatively high determination
coefficients (R2) indicate the Burgers model can describe well the time-
dependent behavior of the salt specimens.
Burgers model parameters show significant relationships with the
axial stresses. Zhang et al.46 stated that changes in Burgers model
parameters with stress level may effectively reflect the creep char-
acteristics of different salt rocks. According to the constitutive Eq. (2),
Maxwell's modulus of elasticity EM determines the instantaneous elastic
strain, which can be immediately recovered on the removal of stress.47
As shown in Table 2, instantaneous elastic strain increases and subse-
quently EM decreases somewhat with the increase of the axial stress.
The ηM, which represents the irrecoverable creep strain and is a factor
of several to tens higher than the ηK, is very sensitive to the stress
level.47 As shown in Table 2, the ηM demonstrates a significant des-
cending trend with the axial stress. The viscosity coefficient ηM can
reflect the variation of the strain rate of a steady-state creep as defined
by Eq. (3). Generally, the strain rate of the steady state is quasi-in-
dependent of the loading history and depends only on the current stress
state.41 Eq. (3) shows that ηM is inversely proportional to the steady-
state rate. So, increasing the strain rate as a result of increasing the
stress leads to a decrease in the ηM. As presented in Table 2, EK and ηK
were considerably decreased with an increase in the axial stress,
showing a high-stress dependency. Such a trend shows that the salt rock
Fig. 6. Prediction of the experimental creep data using Burger model: (a) Creep data at the axial stresses of 10 MPa 10 MPa; (b) 12 MPa; and (c) 15 MPa.
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International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27
deformed very small under low stress, suggesting that the Kelvin unit
behaved with an extremely high modulus and a very high resistance to
viscous flow.47 With increasing the stress, both elastic deformation and
As presented in Table 2, the consistent change of EK and ηK with stress
leads to a nearly constant retardant time t* for each axial stress.
The parameters in Table 2 represent the best value for predicting the
behavior of a single salt rock specimen. As previously noted, the
the applicability of the model, it is necessary to determine one set of
parameters (EM, ηM, EK, and ηK)48 per the studied salt rock. Therefore, in
Fig. 7, the parameters that are assumed to better describe the studied
salt rock are presented. The values of EM, ηM, and EK are computed as
the slope of a linear regression of σ versus εM (Fig. 7a), σ versus εṀ
(Fig. 7b), and σ versus εK (Fig. 7c), respectively. Therefore, values of EM,
ηM, and EK are estimated as 831 MPa, 3,1061 MPa-day, and 2009 MPa,
respectively. As shown in Eq. (5), ηK is calculated by EK multiplied by t*.
According to the results in Table 2, t* is almost constant for all three
axial stress levels. Regarding the mean value of t*(0.84 day) and EK
value obtained in Fig. 7c, the ηK value is calculated as 1681 MPa-day.
5.2. Creep rate
Before discussing the creep rate, it is also necessary to describe the
creep characteristics. The axial creep strain rates are calculated with a
time period of 10 min to 24 h depending on the observed changes in the
slope of strain-time curves (Fig. 8). The axial creep rates significantly
decrease at the initial creep stage and tend to be stable at the steady
creep stage. The axial creep rate at the initial creep stage ranges from
10−1 per day to 10−3 per day under the axial stress of 10 MPa and from
101 per day to 10−2 per day under the axial stresses of 12 and 15 MPa.
The steady creep rates range from 10−3 to 10−4 per day under the axial
stress of 10 MPa and from 10−2 to 10−3 under the axial stress of 12 and
15 MPa.
Liu et al.40 proposed a nonlinear regression model to describe the
law of creep rate evolution in both primary and steady creep stages.
They stated that the power law in general form can well account for the
creep properties:
ε ̇ (t ) = ε0̇ . tb (6)
where ε ̇ (t ) is the creep rate in per day, t is creep time in day, ε0̇ de-
termines the effect of loading rate and can be influenced by the initial
creep mechanism, and b is a parameter with negative value depending
positively on the deviatoric stress level and is related to the steady
creep mechanism of material. The fitting curves using this equation are
plotted in Fig. 8 as blue lines for three axial stresses of 10, 12, and
15 MPa. It can be seen that the fitting curves agree well with experi-
mental data. High values of R2 also suggest that the regression models
are very satisfactory to describe the axial creep rates.
H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27

Table 2
The simulated parameters of Burgers model.
σ (MPa) εM (%) ̇ (%/Day)
εM εeq (%) εK (%) t * (day) Em (GPa) ηM (GPa Day) EK (GPa) ηK (GPa Day) R2

10 0.585 8×10−4 0.60 0.02 0.79 1.71 1250 67.67 53.46 0.98
12 0.88 0.003 1.04 0.16 0.8 1.36 400 7.54 9.05 0.99
15 1.19 0.015 1.44 0.26 0.84 1.26 98.04 5.82 4.66 0.98

Fig. 7. Evaluation of the Burgers model parameters for the studied salt rock (a) EM; (b) ηΜ; (c) EK.

6. Discussion and axial stress can be approximated by a linear function, as shown in

In comparison to igneous rocks and many other sedimentary rocks,
salt rock is classified as a ‘‘soft rock’’. This rock possesses characteristic
mechanical properties of high ductility and low creep strength. The
obtained stress-strain curves in this study were typical for a ductile
material characterized by moderate strain hardening. The uniaxial test
results on intact salt samples showed that USC and E of the salt rock
increase with increasing strain rate (Fig. 1a). However, these char-
acteristics are not enhanced by an increasing strain rate as much as for
brittle rocks. As shown in Fig. 1a, the strain-to-failure also increased
with an increase in the displacement rate. This trend can be attributed
to the high ductility of salt rock. Liang, et al.8 stated that during rapid
loading process in a brittle material, the response and deformation
speed of grains in the material is slower compared to the case of a faster
loading rate. In this condition, the strain energy absorbed by the ma-
terial during compression cannot be consumed or released fully in the
short time span by the development of micro-fractures. This strain is
temporarily stored as material compression, thus the strength of the
material is somewhat enhanced. In comparison to brittle rocks, the
absorbed strain energy in salt rock during rapid compression can be
dissipated or released by deformation. Thus, the salt rock strength is not
enhanced by an increasing strain rate as much as for brittle rocks and
compared to the brittle material the strain-to-failure can also increase
with increasing strain rate.
It is obvious that creep strain and creep rate increase with in-
creasing axial stress. The relationship between steady-state strain rate
Fig. 7b. The creep strain and creep rate under 10 MPa are much lower
than those under 12 and 15 MPa. According to Duncan and Lajtai,49 a
substantial creep seems to occur only at loads exceeding the yield point
of the salt crystals. There is a little creep at stresses lower than the yield
point of the salt crystals. Therefore, the axial stress of 10 MPa may be
lower than the yield point of the studied salt, leading to little creep
under this stress.
Under uniaxial compression test, crept samples exhibited an initial
linear part with a sharp yield point in their stress-strain curves (Fig. 1b).
The E values of these samples were higher than that of the intact
samples. The salt samples crept under higher axial stress showed a
higher E under uniaxial compression test. This trend can be a result of
the salt sample's microstructure evolution during the creep test. Yang,
et al.41 stated that the increase in E indicates the strain hardening of the
specimen due to creep. Creep in salt rock is predominantly carried by
motion of dislocations in the crystal lattice.50,51 Dislocations are linear
defects in crystals along which crystallographic registry is lost. Dis-
locations are created and move when a stress is applied.52 An increase
in deviatoric stress on the rock leads to a consequent increase in the
dislocation density. Therefore, during the creep deformation, the mi-
crostructure evolves from a low density of dislocations more or less
uniformly distributed to a high dislocation density distributed hetero-
geneously.53 It seems the crept samples containing a higher frequency
of dislocations in a heterogeneous pattern difficultly deform at the in-
itial stages of uniaxial loading compared to intact salt samples.
The failure mode of salt rock in the uniaxial compression test was

Fig. 8. Evaluation of axial creep rate at axial stresses of 10 MPa (a); 12 MPa (b), and 15 MPa (c).

25
H. Mansouri, R. Ajalloeian
characterized by the progressive growth and coalescence of micro-
cracks. Since salt rock is classified as a “soft rock”,8 the damaged salt
samples still had a certain bearing capacity. Macro- and micro-scale
observations showed that most of the strain in salt samples under
uniaxial compression tests are produced by grain damage and grain slip
(e.g. see Jie et al.54). The salt grains extrusion at the beginning of
loading,41 microcracks observed in serration pattern45 (Fig. 4e), gap
observed at the interface between grain boundaries45 (Fig. 4c), and
wing-cracks in the triple junctions5,43 (Fig. 4c) could be produced
through the grain boundary sliding (GBS). According to the previous
studies,45 microcracks observed in the serration pattern could be pro-
duced to release the stress accumulated by the GBS. The grain-boundary
microcracking is influenced by loading configuration and geometric
relationships between neighboring grains. Most of the grain boundaries
in the studied salt samples are aligned at about 45° to the loading di-
rection. Previous studies43 have shown that when grain contacts are
oriented inclined with respect to load axis, sliding on grain boundaries
may occur, leading to opening-mode cracks and formation of the wing-
crack (Fig. 4c). During the uniaxial compression test and creep test, the
color of the salt grains turned gradually from its initial white to gray or
vice versa (see blue arrows in Fig. 3c). This color change can be due to
the changing of the light transmission property. The salt specimen was
damaged by loading and the light transmission property obviously
changed because of the cracking effect.54 Some grains also changed in
shape due to the microcrack development (Fig. 3e).
It seems that GBS has also occurred during the creep tests. The salt
grain extrusion occurred at the beginning of the creep test at 15 MPa
also can confirm the presence of GBS. However, most of the grain
boundaries are irregular and lobate in shape. The viscous resistance
against sliding depends on the shapes of the grain surfaces that meet at
the boundary, and on the angle of tilt between the crystal lattices of the
two grains.55 The irregular grain boundaries are effective in improving
creep-strength properties and do not permit continuous creep due to
GBS.56 Accordingly, by an increase in the friction between the irregular
boundaries, GBS could difficultly occur during the creep tests. This
process might be accompanied by grain boundary damage and cavita-
tion (void opening) on grain boundaries and at triple junctions. Hence,
these irregular grain boundaries in the crept samples were potential
sites for stress concentration and crack nucleation under uniaxial test
(Fig. 3c-e). Small serrations observed in the stress-strain curve of the
crept sample (Fig. 1b) can also be a result of GBS and cavitation on
grain boundaries. The change in the stress-strain curves above the yield
point in Fig. 1b is caused by the brittle deformation mechanisms in-
cluding grain boundary crack formation, crack extension, and the si-
multaneous dilation of the lengthening cracks. As illustrated in Fig. 3e,
grain boundary openings, and GBS have occurred in a higher frequency
in the samples crept under a higher axial stress. Hence, due to the
higher and easier development of these mechanisms in the salt samples
crept under higher axial stresses, these samples failed at a shorter time
when they were uniaxially loaded at a constant displacement rate
(Fig. 1b).
The findings of previous works57,58 show that at room temperature
salt deformation occur by both ductile and brittle mechanisms; i.e.,
crystal plasticity and grain boundary microcracking. Polished and
etched thin sections provided from the deformed samples at a low
displacement rate and crept samples showed evidence of intragranular
plasticities such as curved lamellae and subgrain boundaries (Figs. 4f, g,
and 5b-e). Subgrain boundaries in salt grains provide a clear indicator
of plastic deformation of the salt rock by dislocation creep.59
Stable salt formations are used for gas and hydrocarbon liquid sto-
rage and also for disposal of radioactive and chemical wastes. The issue
of salt cavern deformation (cavern dilation and shrinkage under various
load rates) is of great value to investigate. The present experimental
investigation revealed that rapid gas injection to a salt cavern crept
under a constant overburden during a long time can lead to the in-
creased permeability because of more extensive development of grain
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International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 110 (2018) 19–27
boundary opening and grain boundary sliding. It also seems that the
higher overburden on a salt cavern results in the higher microcrack
development during injection. However, this study showed that the E of
crept samples increases with increasing axial stress level. So, it can be
stated that a salt cavern slightly deforms under a gas pressure, which is
lower than the salt yield point. Overall, concluding about the gas in-
jection rate and gas pressure amount needs a comprehensive experi-
mental work.
7. Conclusion
In the present study, mechanical characteristics of salt rock were
investigated using the uniaxial and creep tests. Uniaxial compression
tests showed that UCS and E increased with an increase in the strain
rate. Due to the high ductility of the salt rock, the peak strain also in-
creased with increasing strain rate. The observations of the damage salt
specimens in micro and macro scales showed that microcracking and
GBS were the dominant brittle mechanisms in the salt samples under
uniaxial tests. Increasing axial stress level in the creep tests resulted in
more intensive creep deformation and a greater creep rate. The results
of uniaxial tests on crept samples suggest that rapid injection to a salt
cavern crept under a constant overburden during a long time can result
in the increased permeability, because of more extensive development
of grain boundary opening and grain boundary sliding. Regarding the
salt rock importance in storage cavern, it is suggested performing a
comprehensive experimental work to exactly investigate its uniaxial,
triaxial, dilatancy, and creep behavior.
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