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CH 4 The Cell
Cell membrane is chemically composed of lipids and proteins. In
addition there is a small quantity of carbohydrates.
The substances which are lipid soluble can cross it more easily.
Water, glucose being neutral can easily cross.
Ions have some difficulty in crossing.
phagocytosis→to engulf solid particles
pinocytosis→to take in liquid material
cisternae are present in endoplasmic reticulum.
SER is involved in lipid metabolism.
RER is involved in synthesis of proteins.
Ch 13 Gaseous Exchange M
Nasal cavities are lined with mucous membrane of ciliated
epithelium.
Each nasal cavity is subdivided into three passage ways by the
projection of bones from the walls of the internal nose.
The nasal cavity leads into throat or pharynx by 2 internal
openings.
The pharynx is a muscular passage lined with mucous
membrane.
The larynx or voice box is a complex cartilaginous structure
surrounding the upper end of trachea.
The opening of larynx is called glottis and is lined with mucous
membrane.
In the glottis the mucous membrane is stretched across into 2
thin edged fibrous bands called vocal cords, which help in voice
production when vibrated in air.
In the wall of trachea there are C shaped cartilage rings which
prevent the trachea from collapsing and keep the passage of air
open.
Bronchioles are made up of mainly circular smooth muscles.
Air sac is the functional unit of lungs.
Bronchioles totally lack cartilages.
Each air sac consists of several microscopic single layered
structures called alveoli through which exchange of gases takes
place.
Lungs are spongy because of millions of alveoli.
Lungs are placed in chest cavity which is bounded by ribs and
muscles on the sides.
Diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscles.
Lungs are covered with double layered membranous sacs called
pleura.
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
Chest cavity increases Chest cavity decreases
Diaphragm moves Diaphragm moves upward
downward
Diaphragm becomes less Diaphragm becomes more
dome-like dome-like
Intercostal muscles Intercostal muscles relax
contract
Ribs elevate forward Ribs elevate downward
Lungs expand Lungs contract
Volume of lungs increases Volume of lungs decreases
Pressure decreases Pressure increases
CH 14 Transportation M
Haemoglobin→purple red colour
Oxyhaemoglobin→bright red colour
Haemoglobin can absorb maximum oxygen at the sea level.
The maximum amount of oxygen which normal blood absorbs
and carries at the sea level is about 20ml/100ml of blood.
When an oxygen tension is 115mm mercury haemoglobin is 98
percent saturated and therefore 19.6ml of oxygen per 100ml of
blood.
CO2 increase=O2 decreases
Rise in temperature=decrease in oxygen carrying capacity
Blood declines→Ph Declines
About 20% CO2 is carried as carboxyhaemoglobin.
Carboxyhaemoglobin is formed when CO2 combines with amino
group of haemoglobin.
About 70% CO2 is carried as bicarbonate ion combined with
sodium in the plasma.
Small amount of CO2 is also carried by corpuscles combined
with potassium.
Each 100ml of blood takes up just 4ml of CO2 as it passes
through the tissues and gives off 4ml of C02 per 100ml of blood
as it passes through the lungs.
CH 14 Transport
White blood cells can be distinguished on the basis of:
Shape of the nucleus
Density of granules in the cytoplasm
Granulocytes include:
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Granulocytes are formed in red bone marrow.
Agranulocytes are formed in lymphoid tissue such as those of
the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids and the thymus.
XO-XX Type:
Present in grasshopper and protenor bug
Male is heterogametic (X0)
Female is homogametic(XX)
Sex of the offspring depends on the kind of sperm that
fertilizes an egg
Sex ratio 1:1
XY-XX Type:
Present in drosophila, man and many other organisms
Male is heterogametic(XY)
Female is homogametic(XX)
CH 23 Biotechnology M
Restriction endonucleases are natural enzymes of bacteria,
which they use for their own protection against viruses. The
restriction enzyme cuts down the viral DNA, but does no harm to
the bacterial chromosome. They are called restriction enzymes
because they restrict the growth of viruses.
Bacteria produce a variety of restriction enzymes which cut the
DNA at very specific sites characterized by specific sequence of
4 or 6 nucleotides arranged symmetrically in the reverse order.
Such sequences are known as palindromic sequences.
EcoR1, a commonly used restriction enzyme, cuts double-
stranded DNA when it has this sequence of bases at the
cleavage site.
Restriction enzyme EcoR1 cuts this sequence of nucleotides in
such a way that sticky ends are produced.
EcoR1 attacks on TTAA.
The single stranded but complementary ends of the two DNA
molecules are called sticky ends because they can bind by
complementary base pairing.
Plasmids were discovered by investigators studying the sex life
of the intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli.
For tetracycline→ pSC 101
For tetracycline as well as ampicillin→ pBR 322
DNA ligase seals the foreign piece of DNA into the vector.
Two different pieces of DNA have been joined together, which is
now known as recombinant DNA or chimaeric DNA.
Bacterial cells take up recombinant plasmid, especially, if they
are treated with calcium chloride to make them more permeable.
Besides plasmids, the DNA of bacterial viruses (lambda phage)
can also be used as a vector.
Each virus in bacteriophage clone contains a copy of the gene
being cloned.
PCR is very specific- the targeted DNA sequence can be less
than one part in a million of the total DNA sample. This means
that a single gene or smaller piece of DNA, among all the human
genes can be amplified using PCR.
PCR takes its name from DNA polymerase, the enzyme that
carries out DNA replication in a cell.
PCR does not replace gene cloning.
The primers are needed because DNA polymerase does not start
the replication process.
Taq polymerase: