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IMPORTANT POINTS OF MCAT BIOLOGY 1st Year


Ch 3 Enzyme
 Enzymes are globular proteins.
 Synthesis of enzymes takes place by translation.
 Detachable organic part is called coenzyme.
 Detachable inorganic part is called activator.
 In a living cell, reactions without enzymes would slow
down.
 Substrate molecules will not fit correctly at the active
site and there will be no catalytic action unless the
cofactor molecule is also present.
 Vitamins are essential raw materials from which
coenzymes are made.
 Protonerious part of holoenzyme is apoenzyme.
 Enzymes of photosynthesis are found in chloroplast.
 Enzymes of cellular respiration are found in
mitochondria.
 Some of the enzymes which are involved in the synthesis
of proteins are integral part of ribosomes.
 The charge and shape of the active site is formed by
some amino acids present in the polypeptide chain of
the active site of the enzyme.
 Active site is a rigid structure according to lock and key
model.
 Lock and key model was modified by koshland.
 When almost all the active sites are occupied, then the
rate of reaction will be maximum.
 All the enzyme active sites are occupied when substrate
concentration is high.
 The functional specificity of every enzyme is the
consequence of its specific chemistry and configuration.
 A slight change in Ph can change the ionization of the
amino acids at the active site.

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 Extreme changes in Ph can cause the bonds in the


enzyme to break, resulting in the enzyme denaturation.
 Irreversible inhibitors:
They check the reaction rate by
occupying the active sites or destroying the globular
structure. They occupy the active sites by forming
covalent bonds or they may physically block the active
sites.
 Reversible inhibitors:
They form weak linkages with
the enzyme. Their effect can be neutralized completely
or partly by an increase in the concentration of the
substrate.
 Competitive inhibitors:
Because of the structural
similarity with the substrate they may be selected by the
binding sites, but are not able to activate the catalytic
sites. Thus products are not formed.
Non-competitive inhibitors:
They form enzyme
inhibitor complex at a point other than the active site.
They alter the structure of enzyme in such a way that
even if genuine substrate binds the active site, catalysis
fails to take place.
 Malonic acid does not fit the active site hence no
product is formed.

CH 4 The Cell
 Cell membrane is chemically composed of lipids and proteins. In
addition there is a small quantity of carbohydrates.
 The substances which are lipid soluble can cross it more easily.
 Water, glucose being neutral can easily cross.
 Ions have some difficulty in crossing.
 phagocytosis→to engulf solid particles
 pinocytosis→to take in liquid material
 cisternae are present in endoplasmic reticulum.
 SER is involved in lipid metabolism.
 RER is involved in synthesis of proteins.

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 All eukaryotic cells consists of stacks of flattened, membrane
bound sacs called cisternae.
 Outer convex face→forming face
 Inner concave face→maturing face
 Blebs from tips of SER fuse with golgi apparatus cisternae at
forming face, whereas secretory granules are pinched off at the
maturing face of the golgi apparatus.
 Golgi complex is concerned with cell secretions.
 Non dividing cell has 1 centrosome (2 centrioles).
 Centrioles are absent in higher plants.
 Centrioles are made up of nine microtubule triplets.
 In mitochondria, cristae are present.
 Mitochondria are self replicating organelle.
 The inner surface of cristae in the mitochondrial matrix has
small knob like structures are known as F1 particles.
 Mitochondrial matrix contains in it a large number of enzymes,
coenzymes and organic and inorganic salts which help in
several metabolic processes like
 Krebs cycle
 Aerobic respiration
 Fatty acid metabolism
 The size and number of mitochondria varies and depends on the
physiological activity of the cell.
 Nucleus controls the life and activities of cell.
 Nucleus may be irregular or spherical in shape.
 Nucleus visible→non-dividing stage
 Nucleus disappears→dividing cells
 r RNA is synthesized and stored in the nucleolus.
 In non-dividing stage, chromatin material is present.
 In dividing stage, chromatin material is replaced by
chromosomes.
 Peripheral granular area is composed of precursors of
ribosomal sub units.
 Central fibril area consisting of large molecular weight RNA and
r DNA.
 DNA, RNA and proteins including enzymes form the chemical
composition of the nucleus.
 The number of chromosomes in normal body cells is diploid
(2n).
 Haploid (n) chromosome number is present in germ cells.
 Man contains 46 chromosomes.
 Frog cell→26 chromosomes
 Chimpanzee →48 chromosomes
 Drosophila melanogaster→8 chromosomes
 Onion→16 chromosomes

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 Potato→48 chromosomes
 Garden pea→14 chromosomes
 Eggs have about 30,000 pores per nucleus.
 Erythrocytes have only 3 or 4 pores per nucleus.
 In plants mitotic apparatus is composed of spindles only.
 Endoplasmic reticulum is not a property of prokaryotes.
 Cell wall of plants is made up of cellulose.
 Bacteria and blue green algae are prokaryotes.
 Following are absent in prokaryotic cells:
 Mitochondria
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Chloroplasts
 Golgi apparatus
 Prokaryotic cell→mitosis missing and cell divides by binary
fission.
 Prokaryotes have ribosomes→70S
 Eukaryotes have ribosomes→80S
Ch 5 Variety of Life
 DNA of bacteriophage is double stranded.
 Head is an elongated pyramidal, hexagonal, prism shaped
structure to which straight tail is attached.
 Temperate phage may exist as prophage.
 About 25 minutes, after infection, approximately 200 new
bacteriophages are formed.
 The phage which causes lysis of the host cell is known as lytic
or virulent phage.
 In some cases, viral DNA, instead of taking over the control of
host’s machinery, becomes incorporated into the bacterial
chromosome. Phage in this state is called prophage and this
process is called lysogeny .
 Viral DNA gets detached from the host’s chromosome and lytic
cycle starts. This process is called induction.
 The phage which causes lysogeny is called temperate (lysogenic)
phage.
 The best known phages are T phages that infect E.coli.
 The bacteriophage replicates only inside the bacterial cell.
 Small pox is DNA enveloped virus.
 Herpes simplex is DNA virus.
 In Herpes simplex, vascular lesions in the epithelial layers of
ectodermal tissues are formed.
 Mumps and measles belong to group paramyxoviruses. They are
RNA enveloped viruses.
 Polioviruses are the smallest known viruses and contain RNA in
spherical capsid.
 Retroviruses are also called oncoviruses or RNA tumor viruses.

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 Retroviruses cause diseases in fowl, rodents and cats.
 Reverse transcriptase can convert a single-stranded RNA genome
into double stranded viral DNA.
 The major cell infected by HIV is helper T-lymphocyte which is the
major component of immune system.
 Cells in central nervous system can also be infected by HIV.
 HIV is host specific.
 In lifecycle of HIV following steps takes place:
 Reverse Transcription
 Transcription
 Translation
 HIV is RNA enveloped virus.
Ch 6 Kingdome Prokaryote ( Monera)
 Tetrad is square of 4 cocci.
 Sarcina is cube of 8 cocci.
 Examples of cocci: Diplococcus pneumoniae and
Staphylococcus aureus.
 Examples of bacilli: Escherichia coli , Bacillus subtilis ,
Pseudomonas
 Vibrio is curved or comma shaped rod.
 Spirillum is a thick, rigid spiral.
 Spirochete is a thin, flexible spiral.
 Flagella come out through cell wall and originate from basal body,
structure just beneath the cell membrane in the cytoplasm.
 Most of bacilli and spiral shaped bacteria have flagella.
 Cocci very rarely have flagella.
 Pilli are smaller than flagella and are not involved in motility.
 Cell envelope includes capsule, slime and cell wall.
 Capsule has a thicky gummy nature that gives sticky characters to
the colonies of encapsulated bacteria.
 Cell wall is only absent in mycoplasmas.
 Gram positive bacteria are stained purple.
 Gram negative bacteria are stained pink.
 Cell walls of archaebacteria do not contain peptidoglycan.
 Bacterial membranes differ from eukaryotic membranes in lacking
sterols such as cholesterol.
 Cytoplasmic matrix is the major part of protoplast.
 Bacteria have a single chromosome so they are haploid.
 The plasma membrane and everything present within it is called
protoplast.
 Plasmids:
Plasmids are circular, double stranded DNA molecules.
They are self replicating. They often contain drug resistant, heavy
metals, disease and insect resistant genes on them.
 Ribosomes are composed of RNA and proteins.

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 Bacterial ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes.
 Bacteria store glycogen, sulphur, fat and phosphate.
 Common waste materials are alcohol, lactic acid and acetic acid.
 Spores are metabolically dormant bodies.
 Spores are resistant to light, high temperature, dessication, pH
and chemical agents.
 Cysts are dormant, thick-walled, dessication resistant forms.
 Mostly bacteria are heterotrophic.
 Chemosynthetic bacteria oxidize inorganic compounds like
ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, sulphur or ferrous iron and trap the
energy thus released for their synthetic reactions.
 Nitrifying bacteria are chemosynthetic.
 Antibiotics are synthesized and secreted by certain bacteria,
actinomycetes and fungi.
 Penicillin can cause allergic reactions.
 Streptomycin can affect auditory nerve thus causing deafness.
 Tetracycline can cause permanent discoloration of teeth in young
children.
Ch 8 Fungi M
 Black bread mold→Rhizopus
 Blue green mold→Penicillium
 Pink bread mold→Neurospora
 Brown molds→Aspergillus
 Hyphae of rhizopus are aseptate and multinucleate.
 Mitosis takes place asexually.
 Meiosis takes place sexually.
 Hyphae are coenocytic.
 Penicilluim reproduces asexually by means of naked
spores called conidia.
 Ergotine is used to relieve one kind of headache migraine.
 The poisonous material in the ergot causes nervous
spasm, convulsion, psychotic delusion and even gangrene.
Ch 9 Kingdome Plantae
 Physalis (Ground cherry) produces an edible fruit enclosed in a
bladder like persistent calyx, the husk, giving the name husk
tomatoe.
 Many plants are cultivated in the gardens for their beautiful
flowers, these includes Petunia, Nicotiana, Cestrum and Solanum.
 The leaves of Cassia alata are used to cure ringworm and skin
diseases.

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 Oil extracted from the seeds of Cynometera caulifornia is applied
for skin diseases.
 The heartwood of haemotoxylon (longwood) yields the dye
haemotoxylin.
 Plants providing food for man includes:
 Triticum sp. (wheat)
 Avena sativa (oats)
 Zea mays (Corn, Maize)
 Oryza sativa (rice)
 Hordeum vulgare (barley)
 Secale cereale (rye)
 Penisetum typhoideum (BAJRA)
 Sorghum vulgare (JWAAR)
 Many grasses are used in lawns e.g. Argotis, Poa, Festuca.
 Cymbopogon citratus (lemon grass) which yield lemon grass oil
is used in perfumes and soap industry and for making infusions.
Ch 10 Kingdome Animinlia M
 Cnidarians are diploblastic animals.
 Corals are formed from the secretions produced by
specialized polyps that are present in certain
coelenterates.
 Coral reefs are mostly formed of calcium carbonates
(lime stone).
 Cnidarians show the property of polymorphism.
 Flatworms are acoelomates.
 Animals belonging to phylum platyhelminthes
(flatworms) are triploblastic.
 Flatworms are mostly endoparasites. Most common
examples are:
 Taenia solium (tapeworm)
 Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke)
 Schistosoma (blood fluke)
 Dugesia (planaria)
 Fasciola is an endoparasite of bile duct.
 In tapeworm, the embryo inside the egg is round in
shape and has six (6) chitinous hooks.
 Round worms are pseudocoelomates.
 Ascaris lumbricoides is an intestinal parasite of man.
 Entrobius vermicularis commonly known as pin worm.

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 Ancylostoma duodenale is commonly known as hook


worm and is a parasite of human small intestine.
 Insects are most common arthropods on the earth.
 Anopheles transmits plasmodium that causes malaria in
man.
 Tse-Tse fly of African countries transmits
Trypanosoma, the cause of sleeping sickness and skin
diseases.
 House fly carries disease carrying organisms to
contaminate food and cause Cholera, Hepatitis.
 Some species of Trypanosoma cause diseases in cattle.
 Insect larvae are source of food for fish.
Ch 12 Nutrition
 Functions of oral cavity are:
 Selection of food
 Grinding or mastication
 Lubrication
 Digestion
 Tongue being sensory and muscular organ plays the most
important role in selection of food through its taste buds.
 Food is ground by molar teeths into smaller pieces.
 Fresh saliva is alkaline with a pH nearly 8 quickly loses carbon
dioxide and gets to Ph 6.
 Ptyalin is a carbohydrate digesting enzyme which digests starch
and glycogen to maltose.
 Peristalsis consists of the wave of contraction of circular and
longitudinal muscles preceeded by the wave of relaxation thus
squeezing the food along the canal.
 The stomach is situated below the diaphragm on the left side of
the abdominal cavity.
 Stomach empties into duodenum through relaxed pyloric
sphincter.
 Secretin inhibits gastric secretion.
 Duodenum is 20-25cm long.
 Liver secretes bile which may be temporarily stored in the gall
bladder and released into the duodenum through the bile duct.
 Jejunum is 2.4 meter in length comprising about 2/5 of the small
intestine.
 Lower 3/5 of the small intestine from jejunum is the ileum.
 Food is completely digested in jejunum.

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 Each villus is richly supplied with blood capillaries and a vessel
called lacteal of lymphatic system with a covering of epithelial
cells.
 Simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion or
active transport into the blood capillaries through the microvilli.
 At the end of ileum, there is an ileocolic sphincter that opens
and closes time to time to allow a small amount of residue from
the ileum to enter the large intestine.
 Caecum is a blind sac that projects from the large intestine
between ileum and colon.
 Anus is surrounded by two sphincters; internal is of smooth and
outer of striped muscles.
 Goblet cells secrete mucus.

Ch 13 Gaseous Exchange M
 Nasal cavities are lined with mucous membrane of ciliated
epithelium.
 Each nasal cavity is subdivided into three passage ways by the
projection of bones from the walls of the internal nose.
 The nasal cavity leads into throat or pharynx by 2 internal
openings.
 The pharynx is a muscular passage lined with mucous
membrane.
 The larynx or voice box is a complex cartilaginous structure
surrounding the upper end of trachea.
 The opening of larynx is called glottis and is lined with mucous
membrane.
 In the glottis the mucous membrane is stretched across into 2
thin edged fibrous bands called vocal cords, which help in voice
production when vibrated in air.
 In the wall of trachea there are C shaped cartilage rings which
prevent the trachea from collapsing and keep the passage of air
open.
 Bronchioles are made up of mainly circular smooth muscles.
 Air sac is the functional unit of lungs.
 Bronchioles totally lack cartilages.
 Each air sac consists of several microscopic single layered
structures called alveoli through which exchange of gases takes
place.
 Lungs are spongy because of millions of alveoli.
 Lungs are placed in chest cavity which is bounded by ribs and
muscles on the sides.
 Diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscles.
 Lungs are covered with double layered membranous sacs called
pleura.

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INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
 Chest cavity increases Chest cavity decreases
 Diaphragm moves Diaphragm moves upward
downward
 Diaphragm becomes less Diaphragm becomes more
dome-like dome-like
 Intercostal muscles Intercostal muscles relax
contract
 Ribs elevate forward Ribs elevate downward
 Lungs expand Lungs contract
 Volume of lungs increases Volume of lungs decreases
 Pressure decreases Pressure increases

CH 14 Transportation M
 Haemoglobin→purple red colour
 Oxyhaemoglobin→bright red colour
 Haemoglobin can absorb maximum oxygen at the sea level.
 The maximum amount of oxygen which normal blood absorbs
and carries at the sea level is about 20ml/100ml of blood.
 When an oxygen tension is 115mm mercury haemoglobin is 98
percent saturated and therefore 19.6ml of oxygen per 100ml of
blood.
 CO2 increase=O2 decreases
 Rise in temperature=decrease in oxygen carrying capacity
 Blood declines→Ph Declines
 About 20% CO2 is carried as carboxyhaemoglobin.
 Carboxyhaemoglobin is formed when CO2 combines with amino
group of haemoglobin.
 About 70% CO2 is carried as bicarbonate ion combined with
sodium in the plasma.
 Small amount of CO2 is also carried by corpuscles combined
with potassium.
 Each 100ml of blood takes up just 4ml of CO2 as it passes
through the tissues and gives off 4ml of C02 per 100ml of blood
as it passes through the lungs.
 CH 14 Transport
 White blood cells can be distinguished on the basis of:
 Shape of the nucleus
 Density of granules in the cytoplasm
 Granulocytes include:
 Neutrophils
 Eosinophils
 Basophils
 Granulocytes are formed in red bone marrow.
 Agranulocytes are formed in lymphoid tissue such as those of
the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids and the thymus.

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 Monocytes can stay from 10 to 20 hours in the blood, then enter
tissues and become tissue macrophages performing phagocytic
action.
 Lymphocytes have the life spans of months or even years but
this depends on the body’s need for these cells.
 Basophils produce heparin- a substance that inhibits blood
clotting.
 Basophils also produce chemicals such as histamine that
participate in allergic reactions and in responses to tissue
damage and microbial invasion.
 The flow of lymph is towards the thoracic duct.
 The flow of lymph is maintained by:
 Activity of skeletal muscles
 Movement of viscera
 Breathing movements
 The valves, which prevent back flow of lymph
 Several afferent lymph vessels enter a lymph node which is
drained by single efferent lymph vessel.
 Lymph nodes are present in:
 Neck region
 Axilla
 Groin of humans
 Lymph nodes have lymphocytes and macrophages that destroy
bacteria and viruses.
 Composition of lymph:
 Water
 Minerals
 Proteins
 Lipoproteins
 White blood cells
 The component that is added to lymph after passing through
small intestine is fats.
 Immune system is 3rd defense line.
 Physical barriers (skin+mucous membrane) are 1st defense line.
 Phagocytes are 2nd defense line.
 Antibodies are manufactured in B-Lymphocytes.
 An antibody consists of 4 polypeptide chains linked by disulfide
bridges.
 T-cells form cell-mediated response.
 B-cells form humoral immune response.
 Antivenom is used to treat snake bite.

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IMPORTANT POINTS OF MCAT BIOLOGY 2nd Year


CH 15 Homeostasis M
 The protection of internal environment from harms of
fluctuations in external environment is called homeostasis.
 Homeostasis is the central requirement in the maintenance of an
organism.
 Detection of change and signaling for effector’s response to
control system is a feedback mechanism.
 Weight of kidneys accounts for less than 1% of the total body
weight while receive 20% of blood supplied with each cardiac
beat.
 Urine leaves the kidney through a duct ureter.
 The ureters of both the kidneys drain into urinary bladder
through urethral orifice.
 Urine leaves the body during urination from the bladder through
a tube called urethra.
 Juxtamedullary mephrons are specifically instrumental in the
production of concentrated urine.
 The collecting tubules open into pelvis.
 Blood passing through glomerulus is filtered into Bowman’s
capsule.
 All the useful constituents of the glomerular filtrate are
reabsorbed in proximal tubules.
 The reduction in reabsorption causes large volumes of diluted
urine.
 ADH released from posterior pituitary lobe acts to actively
transport water from filtrate in collecting tubules back to kidney.
 Calcium oxalate→70%
 Calcium phosphate→15%
 Uric acid→10%
 Oxalates are present in green vegetables and tomatoes.
 Various factors of pathological and chemical nature may
progressively destroy the nephron particularly its glomerular
part.
Ch 16 Support and Movements M
 The diameter of skeletal muscle fibres is 10-100 micro meter.
 Each muscle fibre is seen to contain a large number of
myofibrils 1-2 micro meter in diameter that run in parallel
fashion and extend entire length of the cell.
 Each dark band is called A band because it is anisotropic i.e. it
can polarize visible light.
 The light band is called I band which is isotropic or non-
polarizing.

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 The thick filament which is about 16nm in diameter is composed
of myosin.
 Thin filaments are 7-8nm thick and are composed chiefly of actin
molecule.
 Troponin is actually three polypeptide complex:
 One binds to actin
 One binds to tropomyosin
 One binds calcium ions
 When the muscle is required to contract, calcium ions bind with
troponin molecule.
 At rest, 1/5 of the lactic acid is broken aerobically.
 Energy is used to change the remaining 4/5 lactic acid into
glucose.
 Belly is thick part between origin and insertion, which contract.
 Ligaments attach bone to bone and are slightly elastic.
 Tendons attach muscles to bones and are non-elastic.
 The biceps bends the arm at the elbow joint.
 Triceps straightens it.
 The brachialis is inserted in the ulna.
 Branchioradialus is inserted in the radius.
CH 17 Coordination and control M
 Neuroglia plays a vital role in the nutrition of neurons and their
protection by myelin sheath.
 Axons are more than a meter long in some neurons.
 Niss’ls granules are groups of ribosomes attached with rough
E.R and golgi apparatus present in the cell body.
 Following are present throughout the axoplasm (cytoplasm of
axon) of the neuron:
 Microtubules
 Neurofibrils
 Rough E.R
 Mitochondria
 The principal effectors are glands, which respond by secreting;
and muscles which respond by contracting.
 Gray matter consists of cell bodies and non-myelinated nerve
fibres or tracts.
 White matter is made up of myelinated nerve fibres or tracts.
 12 pairs of cerebral or cranial nerves.
 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
 Motor neurons form somatic nervous system,
which controls voluntary movements, which are
under the conscious control of the body,
involving skeletal muscles.

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 Motor neurons also form autonomic


nervous system, which controls
involuntary responses by influencing
organs, glands and smooth muscles.
 Onset of Parkinson’s disease is usually in 50’s and 60’s.
 The onset of epilepsy is usually before age 30.
 Electroencephalography is most important test in the study of
epilepsy.
 The sysmptoms of alzheimer’s disease are similar to those
diseases that cause dementia (memory loss).
 High levels of aluminium may contribute to the onset of
alzheimer’s disease .
 Proteins:
 Insulin
 Glucagon
 Amino acids and derivatives:
 Thyroxin
 Epinephrine
 Nor-epinephrine
 Polypeptides:
 Vasopressin or ADH
 Oxytocin
 Steroids:
 Oestrogens
 Testosterone
 Cortisone
 In man, the pituitary gland or hypophysis cerebri is an ovoid
structure about 0.5gm in the adult and is connected to brain
through a short stalk (the infundibulum).
 Anterior lobe→ Master gland
 LH is also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone ICSH, in
the male.
 FSH and LH/ICSH share a common hypothalamic releasing
factor.
 LH works with FSH to stimulate oestrogen secretion and
rupture of mature follicles to release egg or ovum.
 ICSH in the male stimulates the interstitial cells of the testis to
secrete testosterone.
 Excess MSH is secreted in Addison’s disease. One of the
symptoms of which is darkening of the skin.
 Primary action of oxytocin is on smooth muscle, particularly in
the uterus during childbirth, and also causes milk ejection from
mammary glands.

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 Beta cells secrete insulin.
 Alpha cells secrete glucagon.
 Insulin inhibits the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and the
muscles.
 Tumors on the beta cells will cause excess
glucagon secretions and consequently high blood
glucose levels.
 Cortisol is the glucocorticoid.
 Corticosterone is both a glucocorticoid and a mineralocorticoid.
 Aldosterone is a principal mineralo-corticoid.
 Many parts of the gut function as endocrine tissue.
 Gastrin is the hormone produced by mucosa of the pyloric
region of the stomach.
 Secretin is produced from duodenum.
CH 18 Reproductions M
 Progrstrone inhibits further FSH secretion from the pituitary.
 Progesterone suppresses ovulation.
 Progestrone is a major constituent of birth control pill.
 Male copulatory organ is used to transfer the sperms into the
female reproductive tract.
 Each testis consists of a highly complex duct system called
seminiferous tubules.
 Spermatogonia differentiate into primary spermatocytes.
 Spermatids differentiate into mature sperms.
 Fluid secreted by sertoli cells provides liquid medium,
protection and nourishment to sperms while they are in the
tubules.
 Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells which
secrete testosterone.
 A pair of ovaries lies within the body cavity of the female.
 Second meiotic division in the oocyte proceeds as far as
metaphase but is not completed until the oocyte is
fertilized by the sperm.
 The uterine tube opens into the uterus.
 The fertilization of the ovum takes place in the proximal part of
the oviduct.
 Uterus opens into the vagina through cervix.
 Menstrual cycle can be divided into four phases.
 The events of the menstrual cycle involve the ovaries (ovarian
cycle) and the uterus (uterine cycle) and these are regulated by
pituitary gonadotropins.
 The ovary, under the stimulus of FSH, produces estrogen
hormone.

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 Estrogen hormone
 Stimulates the endometrium (inner lining of the uterus wall)
and vascularizes it.
 Inhibits the secretion of FSH from the pituitary gland.
 Corpus luteum (yellowish glandular structure) secrets hormone
called progesterone.
 If fertilization does not occur:
 Corpus luteum starts degenerating.
 Progesterone secretion diminishes.
 Menstruation starts.
 Menstruation usually lasts for 3-7 days.
 The human menstrual cycle generally repeats every 28 days.
 Urinogenital duct is commonly infected in gonorrhea, syphilis
and genital herpes.
 Gonorrhea is caused by a gram positive bacterium Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, mainly affecting the mucous membrane of
urinogenital duct.
 Syphilis is caused by a spirochaete, Treponema
pallidum.
 Genital Herpes is caused by a herpes simplex
type 2 virus.
CH 20 Chromosomes and DNA
 The agent responsible for transforming Streptococcus went
undiscovered until 1944.
 Oswald Avery along with Colin Macleod and Maclyn Mccarty
characterized what they referred to as the transforming
principle.
 Additional evidence supporting Avery’s conclusion was
provided in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase who
experimented the bacteriophages T2.
 Friedrich Meischer discovered DNA in 1869 , only 4 years after
Mendel’s work was published.
 Meischer extracted a white substance from the nuclei of human
cells and fish sperm. He called this substance nuclein because it
seemed to be specifically associated with nucleus.
 In 1920’s , the basic structure of nucleic acids was determined
by P.A Levene, who found that DNA contains three components.
 Purines (adenine+guanine)
 Pyrimidines (thymine+cytosine)
 Regarding amount of DNA , A=T
 Regarding amount of DNA ,G=C
 There is always equal proportion of purine and pyrimidine.
 Rosalind franklin prepared X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA.
 Maurice Wilkins prepared DNA fibers.

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 Diameter of DNA is 2nm and a complete helical turn every 3.4
nm.
 The base pairs are planar (flat) and stack 0.34nm apart.
 Adenine will not form hydrogen bonds with cytosine.
 Guanine will not form hydrogen bonds with thymine.
 The three hypothesis of DNA replication were evaluated by
Matheus Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958.
 DNA polymerase 1 plays a supporting role in DNA replication.
 DNA polymerase 3 is 10 times larger and far more complex in
structure.
 polymerase 3 moves at a rapid rate of 1000 nucleotides per
second.
 An RNA primer , a sequence of about 10 RNA nucleotides
complementary to parent DNA template.
 Replication always proceeds in 5→3 direction.
 Leading strand which elongates towards the replication fork
.(continuously)
 Lagging strand which elongates away from the replication fork
.(discontinuously)
 Okazaki fragments are about 1000-2000 nucleotides long in
prokaryotes.
 Okazaki fragments are about 100-200 nucleotides long in
eukaryotes.
 DNA ligase attaches the fragment to the lagging strand.
 Ribosomal RNA provides the site where polypeptides are
assembled.
 There is only one type of RNA polymerase in prokaryote.
 Transcription starts at the RNA polymerase binding site called
promoter on the DNA template strand.
 In prokaryotes, there are 2 binding sites TTGACA also called -35
sequence and TATAAT sequence also called -10 sequence
which have affinity for RNA polymerase.
 In eukaryotes, these sites are -75 and -25 respectively.
 Sigma factor is responsible for correct initiation of transcription
process.
 The simplest stop signal is the series of GC base pairs followed
by AT base pairs.
 The hairpin causes RNA polymerase to stop synthesis.
 The GC hairpin is followed by 4 or more U ribonucleotides.
 Cap is in the form of 7 Methyl GTP.
 Tail is in the form of Poly A Tail.
 Caps and tails save messenger RNA from variety of nucleases
and phosphatases.
 Genetic code is the combination of three nucleotides.
 There are three nucleotides in a codon.

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 64 codons were tested by Nirenberg,Leader and Khorana.
 UAA,UGA & UAG do not code for any amino acid.
 AUG encodes the amino acid methionine.
 AGA specifies arginine in bacteria.
 UGA is normally a stop codon but in mitochondria it reads as
tryptophan.
 Non-sense codons do not bind to transfer RNA.
 Human cells contain about 45 different kinds of transfer RNA.
 The cells of eukaryotes contain an enormous amount of DNA. If
the DNA in all of the cells of an adult human were lined end to
end,, it would stretch nearly 100 billion kilometer , 60 times the
distance from earth to Jupiter.
 Sickle cell anaemia and phenylketonuria are examples of point
mutation.
 Chromosomal aberrations are megachanges.
 In Phenylketonuria, phenylalanine is not degraded because of
defective enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase.
 Enzymes are responsible for assembly of nucleic acid, protein
and carbohydrates.
 RNA polymerase 1 synthesize ribosomal RNA
 RNA polymerase 2 synthesize messenger RNA
 RNA polymerase 3 synthesize transfer RNA
CH 21 Cell Cycle M
 Chromosome is made of
 Chromatids
 Centromere(primary constriction)
 Secondary constriction
 M-phase of cell cycle involves 2 main processes:
 Karyokinesis
 Cytokinesis
 Interphase is divided into three phases:
 G1
 G2
 S
 G1 is post mitotic phase.
 G2 is pre mitotic phase.
 G1 is the period of extensive metabolic activity in which:
 Cell normally grows in size
 Specific enzymes are synthesized
 DNA base units are accumulated for the DNA synthesis.
 G0 phase remains for days, weeks or in some cases (e.g. nerve
cells and cells of eye lens) even the lifetime of an organism
without proliferating further.
 In S-phase
 DNA is synthesized

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 Chromosome number is doubled
 Average cell cycle is about 24 hours.
 Mitosis takes 30 minutes.
 G1 takes 9 hours.
 S-phase takes 10 hours.
 G2 takes 4.5 hours.
 Full cycle in yeast is only 90 minutes.
 Mitosis takes place both in haploid and diploid cells.
 karyokinesis→ Division of nucleus
 Cytokinesis→ Division of whole cell.
 Early in the mitosis the two pairs of centrioles separate and
migrate to opposite sides of the nucleus, establishing the
bipolarity of the dividing cells.
 Three sets of microtubules (fibers) originate from each pair of
centrioles.
 Microtubules are composed of a protein tubulin and traces of
RNA.
 Secialized microtubule structure containing aster and spindle is
called mitotic apparatus.
 Mitotic apparatus is larger than nucleus.
 The chromatin material gets condensed by folding and the
chromosomes appear as thin threads (0.25 micro meter-50 micro
meter in length) at the beginning of prophase.
 Anaphase is most critical phase of mitosis.
 Telophase is reverse of prophase.
 During late telophase the astral microtubules send signals to the
equilatorial region of the cell, where actin and myosin are
activated which form contractile ring.
 Vesicles originate actually during metaphase, line up in the
centre of the dividing cell, where they fuse to form phragmoplast
at the end of the telophase.
 Following points explain the importance of mitosis:
 Regeneration
 Healing of wounds
 Replacement of older cells
 Development and growth of multicellular organisms
 Tissue culture
 Cloning
 Some tumors are of small size and localized (not transferred to
other parts) called benign.
 Cancer cells exibit the characteristics of rapidly growing cells:
 High nucleus to cytoplasm ratio
 Prominent nucleoli
 Many mitosis
 Cancer is caused by mutations in somatic cells.

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 Cancer results from the accumulation of as few as 3 to as many
as 20 mutations, in genes that regulate cell division.
 Meiosis takes place in diploid cells only.
 Interphase of meiosis lacks G2 stage.
 Synapsis starts in zygotene.
 Synapsis is completed in pachytene.
 Crossing over takes place in pachytene.
 Pachytene may lasts for days, weeks or even years.
 Separation of chromosomes starts in diplotene.
 During diakinesis, the condensation of chromosomes reaches to
its maximum.
 In mitosis 2, there is no replication of chromosomes.
 Formation of chiasmata does not occur in prophase 2.
 Crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes are two
significant happenings of meiosis.
 In chromosome non-disjunction, chromosomes fail to segregate
during anaphase and telophase and do not finish with equal
distribution of chromosome among all the daughter nuclei.
 Following are examples of apoptosis:
 The tail of developing human embryos
 Tissue between developing digits
 Internal programme of events and sequence of morphological
changes by which cell commits suicide is collectively called as
apoptosis.
 In apoptosis, intracellular contents are not released.
 The cell death due to tissue damage is called necrosis during
which
 Typical cell swells and bursts
 Intracellular contents are released
 Intracellular contents can damage neighboring cells and
cause inflammation

CH 22 Variation and Genetics M

 XO-XX Type:
 Present in grasshopper and protenor bug
 Male is heterogametic (X0)
 Female is homogametic(XX)
 Sex of the offspring depends on the kind of sperm that
fertilizes an egg
 Sex ratio 1:1
 XY-XX Type:
 Present in drosophila, man and many other organisms
 Male is heterogametic(XY)
 Female is homogametic(XX)

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 Sex of the offspring depends on the kind of sperm that
fertilizes an egg
 Sex ratio 1:1
 ZZ-ZW Type:
 Present in birds, butterflies and moths
 Male is homogametic(ZZ)
 Female is heterogametic(ZW)
 It is the kind of egg that determines the sex of offspring
 Sex ratio 1:1
 In Humans:
 XO=Sterile female
 XXY=Sterile male
 In Drosophila:
 XO=Sterile male
 XXY=Fertile female
 Haemophilia is rare X-linked recessive trait.
 A woman can suffer from haemophilia A or B when she is
homozygous for the recessive allele, but a man with just one
recessive allele will display the trait.
 Normal trichomatic colour vision is based on three different
kinds of cone cells in the retina.
 The genes for red and green opsins are on X
chromosome.
 The gene for blue opsin is present on autosome 7.
 Protanopia is red blindness.
 Deuteranopia is green blindness.
 Tritanopia is blue blindness.
 A monochromat can perceive one colour. Monochromacy is true
colour blindness.
 Blue cone monochromacy is an X-linked recessive trait in which
both red and green cone cells are absent. That’s why it is also
called red-green colourblindness. It is a common hereditary
disease.
 Testicular feminization syndrome is a rare X-linked
recessive trait. It is an androgen insensitivity syndrome.
Male sex hormone testosterone has no effect on them.
 X-linked dominant trait is more common in females than males.
 Any heterozygous affected mother will pass the trait equally to
half of her sons and half of her daughters.
 SRY gene is male sex switch which triggers developmental
process towards maleness after 6 week pregnancy.
 Pattern baldness is a sex influenced trait.
 A woman can be bald only when she is homozygous recessive.

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CH 23 Biotechnology M
 Restriction endonucleases are natural enzymes of bacteria,
which they use for their own protection against viruses. The
restriction enzyme cuts down the viral DNA, but does no harm to
the bacterial chromosome. They are called restriction enzymes
because they restrict the growth of viruses.
 Bacteria produce a variety of restriction enzymes which cut the
DNA at very specific sites characterized by specific sequence of
4 or 6 nucleotides arranged symmetrically in the reverse order.
Such sequences are known as palindromic sequences.
 EcoR1, a commonly used restriction enzyme, cuts double-
stranded DNA when it has this sequence of bases at the
cleavage site.
 Restriction enzyme EcoR1 cuts this sequence of nucleotides in
such a way that sticky ends are produced.
 EcoR1 attacks on TTAA.
 The single stranded but complementary ends of the two DNA
molecules are called sticky ends because they can bind by
complementary base pairing.
 Plasmids were discovered by investigators studying the sex life
of the intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli.
 For tetracycline→ pSC 101
 For tetracycline as well as ampicillin→ pBR 322
 DNA ligase seals the foreign piece of DNA into the vector.
 Two different pieces of DNA have been joined together, which is
now known as recombinant DNA or chimaeric DNA.
 Bacterial cells take up recombinant plasmid, especially, if they
are treated with calcium chloride to make them more permeable.
 Besides plasmids, the DNA of bacterial viruses (lambda phage)
can also be used as a vector.
 Each virus in bacteriophage clone contains a copy of the gene
being cloned.
 PCR is very specific- the targeted DNA sequence can be less
than one part in a million of the total DNA sample. This means
that a single gene or smaller piece of DNA, among all the human
genes can be amplified using PCR.
 PCR takes its name from DNA polymerase, the enzyme that
carries out DNA replication in a cell.
 PCR does not replace gene cloning.
 The primers are needed because DNA polymerase does not start
the replication process.
 Taq polymerase:

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 DNA Polymerase used is temperature- insensitive
(thermostable) enzyme (commonly this enzyme is called
taq polymerase)
 It is extracted from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus,
which lives in hot springs.
 It is used to separate double stranded DNA.
 Techniques have been developed to insert genes into the eggs
of animals.
 In vortex mixing, eggs are placed in an agitator with DNA and
silicon carbide needles.
 Many types of animal eggs have taken up the gene for bovine
growth hormone.
 The goat is genetically engineered to produce anthrombin 3,
which is secreted in her milk.
 Anthrombin 3, for preventing blood clot during surgery, is
currently being produced by a herd of goats, and clinical trials
have begun.
 Urine is a preferable vehicle for a biotechnology product than
milk because all animals in a herd urinate-only females produce
milk; animals start to urinate at birth- females don’t produce milk
until maturity; and it’s easier to extract proteins from urine than
from milk.
 Cloning is a form of asexual reproduction because it requires
only the genes of that one animal.
 Nerve cells conduct nerve impulse.
 Glandular cells secrete.
 The offspring have the genotype and phenotype of the adult that
donated the nuclei; therefore, the adult has been cloned.
 2n nuclei were taken from cumulus cells.
 Cumulus cells are those that cling to an egg after ovulation
occurs.
 In Ex-vivo gene therapy, SCID is treated. These children lack an
enzyme ADA (adenosine deaminase) that is involved in the
maturation of T and B cells.
 Bone marrow cells are removed from the blood and infected with
a retrovirus (RNA virus) that carries a normal gene for the
enzyme then the cells are returned to the patient.
 Familial hypercholesterolemia is a condition that develops when
liver cells lack a receptor for removing cholesterol from the
blood.
 In a newly developed procedure, a small portion of the liver is
surgically excised and infected with a retrovirus containing a
normal gene for the receptor.
 Cystic fibrosis patients lack a gene that codes for trans-
membrane carrier of the chloride ion.

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 Liposomes-microscopic vesicles that spontaneously form when
lipoproteins are put into a solution have been coated with the
gene needed to cure cystic fibrosis.
 Once the bone marrow cells were protected it was possible to
increase the level of chemotherapy to kill the cancer cells.
 During coronary artery angioplasty, a balloon catheter is
sometimes used to open up a closed artery.
 The balloon is coated with a plasmid that contains a gene for
vascular endothelial growth factor.
 In-vivo therapy is used to cure:
 Haemophilia
 Diabetes
 Parkinson disease
 AIDS
 To cure Parkinson’s disease, dopamine-producing cells could
be grafted directly into the brain.
CH 24 Evolutions M
 According to Lamarck, those parts of the body used extensively
to cope with the environment become larger and stronger, while
those that are not used deteriorate.
 Now we know that acquired characteristics cannot be inherited.
 Darwin observed and collected thousands of specimens of
diverse fauna and flora of South America.
 A particularly puzzling case of geographical distribution was the
fauna of the Galapagos Islands.
 Darwin collected on the Galapagos was 13 types of finches that,
although quite similar, seemed to be different species.
 Origin of species is mainly concerned with how new species
arise.
 In the Darwin view, the history of life is like a tree, with
multiple branching and rebranching from the common
trunk all the way to the tips of the living twigs, symbolic
of the current diversity of organisms.
 Populations of individual species become better adapted to their
environments through natural selection.
 Survival in the struggle for existence is not random.
 Species are products of evolution.
 Modern synthesis or Neo-Darwinism integrated discoveries and
ideas for many different fields including:
 Paleontology
 Taxonomy
 Biogeography
 Population genetics

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CH 25 Ecosystems M

 Armadillos, the armored mammals that live only in America.


 Evidence from biochemistry, molecular biology and cell biology
places prokaryotes as the ancestors of all life, and predicts that
bacteria should precede all eukaryotic life in the fossil record.
 The oldest known fossils are prokaryotes (archaebacteria).
 Fossil fishes, the earliest vertebrates, with amphibians next,
followed by reptiles, then mammals and birds.
 Fossil fishes→ amphibians→ reptiles→ mammals and birds
 Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
 Closely related organisms go through similar stages in their
embryonic development.
 In fish, the gill pouches develop into gills.
 In humans, the Eustachian tubes connect the middle ear with the
throat.
 Biotic components include all living organisms (plants and
animals).
 Biosphere is spread out over the surface of the planet earth
extending 8-10 kilometers to the upper reaches of atmosphere and
also the same distance into the depths of oceans.
 Abiotic components include all non-living components (air,water
and soil).
 An ecosystem is made up of 3 main components:
 Producers
 Consumers
 Decomposers
 Producers are autotrophic organisms.
 Consumers are heterotrophic organisms.
 Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria.
 The main chemical ions are:
 Nitrates
 Ammonia
 Phosphates
 Potassium
 Calcium
 Eagle→ blue bird→ caterpillar→ grass or green leaves
 Food web is combination of food chains.
 All the food chains and food webs begin with a green plant
(producer) and may consist of 3 to 5 links or trophic levels.
 Owls prey on rabbits and mice.
 Succession is a kind of community relay.
 Succession is initiated by a few hardy invaders called pioneers
and it ends with a diverse and relatively stable climax
community.

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 During primary succession, an ecosystem is forged from bare
rock, sand or clear glacial pool where there is no trace of
previous life.
 During secondary succession, a new ecosystem develops after
an existing ecosystem is disturbed as in case of forced fire or an
abandoned farm field.
 Succession starting in a pond is called hydrosere.
 Succession starting on a dry soil or habitat is called xerosere.
 Cacti have water stored in large parenchyma tissue.
 Crusts are quiescent or dormant, normally
desiccated during dry season.
 Examples of foliage lichen stage:
 Dermatocarpon
 Permellia
 Examples of moss stage:
 Polytrichum
 Tortula
 A predator is a consumer.
 Examples of Predation:
 Cat/mouse
 Fox/rabbit
 Seal/fish
 Frog/mosquito
 Hawk/small birds
 Diseases in living organisms which are caused by parasites are
called infestations.
 Fungi causing dandruff in hair are ectoparasites.
 Tapeworm in intestine of man is an example of endoparasite.
 Following are examples of symbiosis:
 Root nodules
 Mycorrhiza
 Lichens
 Lichens between algae and fungi.
 Mycorrhiza between roots of plants and certain fungi.
 Remoras are example of commensalism.
 Following are grazers:
 Rabbits
 Goats
 Sheeps
 Cows
 Buffaloes
 Horses
 The final result of overgrazing is totally barren land.
 Grazing is very important factor in determining the ecosystem.

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 Overgrazing may lead to the transformation of grassland into a
desert.
 The total amount of energy fixed by plants is gross
primary productions.
 The amount of energy left after plants have met their
respiratory needs is net primary production, which
shows up as plant biomass.
 About 1% of the total energy from the sun is trapped by the
producers in an ecosystem.
 The remaining 99% of solar energy is used to evaporate water,
heat up soil and is then lost to the outer surface.
 A short food chain of 2 to 3 links supports a community more
efficiently than a long chain of 5 links.
CH 27 Man and His Environment
 Homo sapiens have been on this earth since 40,000 years.
 Demography is the study of human populations and things that
affect them.
 About 20 years ago, the human population was increasing at a
rate of 2% a year and was doubling every 35 years.
 Clearance of vast areas of forest for procuring lumber, planting
subsistence crops or grazing cattle is called deforestation.
 The destruction of forests leaves the soil barren and this is
called deforestation.
 This reduction has decreased the number of living trees that
through photosynthesis removed carbon as CO2.
 Reforestation is especially important for many of the conifers
species, which often require bare soil to establish.
 Afforestation is establishment of new forests where no forests
existed previously.
 Regions with high rain fall (average 20 inches) are suitable for
tree growth.
 Forest is an environmental buffer.
 The total number of different species with in an ecosystem and
the resulting complexity of interactions among them.
 The befouling of the environment by anything produced by
humans which is or may be harmful to human life and other
living organisms is called environmental pollution.
 Types of pollution are:
 Air pollution or atmospheric pollution
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Radiation pollution
 Noise pollution
 The befouling of the air by anything that may be harmful to living
organisms is air pollution.

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 Following are pollutants:
 Sulphur dioxide
 Carbon monoxide
 Oxides of nitrogen
 Lead compounds
 Chlorofluorocarbons
 Ozone extends from 10-15 kilometers and filters most of UV
radiation and protects us from harmful layers of sun.
 In pure form ozone is bluish, explosive and highly poisonous
gas.
 The decline in the thickness of the ozone layer is caused by
increasing level of chlorofluorocarbons which contains chlorine,
fluorine and carbon.
 As CFSs rise to the atmosphere, UV rays cause chlorine to
release.
 A single chlorine atom can react with UV rays and
destroy as many as one (1) million ozone molecules.
 The CO2 of the atmosphere behaves like glass sheet of
greenhouse.
 UV rays cause skin cancers and cataracts in human.
 Following are causes of green house effect:
 Over urbanization
 Deforestation
 Industrialization
 Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emitted in the air during
the burning of fossil fuels combined with water vapours in the
atmosphere forms acid rains.
 Acid water draining through the soil washes out essential
nutrients such as calcium and potassium.
 Stone monuments like Taj Mahal are being eroded due to stone
cancer by acid rains.
 Certain bacteria cause diseases like typhoid and cholera when
they get into the human intestine.
 Eutrophication is the natural process of excessive enrichment of
water with nutrients by which large amount of living organic
matter grows in the water.
 Human activities have speeded up this natural process of
eutrophication by added mineral and organic nutrients in larger
quantities than nature would provide, as excreta,
 Phosphates from washing powder
 Nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers
 Vast quantities of algae feed and reproduce on these nutrients
causing the water to turn green with algal bloom.
 The dead algae are decomposed by aerobic bacteria.

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 Agrochemicals are used in agriculture. They are commonly
called pesticides and fertilizers.
 Peeling apples and potatoes removes most of the surface
pesticides.
 A pesticide is a chemical, which destroys agricultural pests or
competitors.
 Insecticide kills insects.
 Fungicide kills parasitic fungi.
 Herbicide kills weed plants.
 The chemical waste from industry comprises substances called
effluents.
 Herbicide is used to kill competitors.

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