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Introduction

The "Building Envelope" is the area that separates conditioned space from unconditioned
space or the outdoors.

A building envelope includes all elements of a building that enclose conditioned space.
Building envelope components separate conditioned spaces from unconditioned spaces or
from outside air. For example, walls and doors between living areas are part of the
building envelope; walls separating a garage from the living areas are not. Besides that,
floors of conditioned basements and foundation are technically part of the building
envelope. Roof and ceiling also can consider as building envelope.

You can think of the building envelope as the boundary separating the inside from the
outside and through which heat is transferred. Areas that have no heating or cooling
sources are considered to be outside the building envelope. A space is conditioned if
heating and/or cooling is deliberately supplied to it or is indirectly supplied through not
insulated surfaces of water or heating equipment or through not insulated ducts.

In the graphic, the building envelope is the area surrounded by insulation (red line).

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Foundation

Foundation is one of the important physical components of building envelope

especially for high rise building. Besides, foundation can directly influence the overall
structural integrity of high rise building. Thus, durability of building enclosure systems is
very significant.
A foundation is the base on which a building rests and its purpose is to safely
transfer the load of a building to a suitable subsoil. High rise buildings are much massive
and taller than low-rise building. Therefore, its foundation is necessary to be hard and
stable so that can provide stability to the structure and prevent failure due to unequal
settlement and failure of the subsoil due to shear.
According to Uniform Building By-Law 1984, Section 73, stated that the
foundation of a building shall:
(a) Safely sustain and transmit to the ground the combined dead load, imposed load and
wind load in such a manner as not to cause any settlement beyond the limits designed for
or other movement which would impair the stability of, or cause damage to, the whole or
any part of the building or of any adjoining building or works.
(b) Be taken down to such a depth, or be so constructed, as to safeguard the building
against damage by swelling and shrinking of the subsoil.
(c) Be capable of adequately resisting any attack by sulphates or any other deleterious
matter present in the subsoil.
Types of foundation used for high rise buildings are usually require deep foundations or
thick large mat slab foundations as capable of carrying heavy loads.

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‘

    
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i) Piled Raft Foundation
Piled raft foundation is foundation that combined by 2 types of foundation, as its
named, piled foundation and raft foundation. This type of foundation is a special design
solution for the bad geotechnical conditions, such as soft ground. This concept was
proposed by Burland et al. (1977) and subsequently, various case histories have been
reported (e.g. Love, 2033, Yamashita et al., 1994 and Burland & Kalra, 1989). For
idealized condition of uniform loading, the settlement is the largest in the centre and
smallest at the edge, then a raft foundation will form a ³bowl´ shape. Then, settlement
reducing piles are then introduced in the centre of the raft to reduce raft settlement at the
centre and thus reduce differential settlement.

Thus, piled raft foundation system using friction piles as settlement reducer is a
technically superior foundation system as the bearing capacities of both the raft and piles
are taken into consideration. So, this is an effective way of minimizing both total and
differential settlements, improving the bearing capacity of a shallow foundation and of
reducing in an economic way the internal stress levels and bending moments within a raft.
The position of the piles in piled raft foundation is strategically put in by referring
from the report of borehole investigations. The piles are then interconnected with a rigid
system of strip-raft to ensure uniform settlement profile and distribution of loads. The
stability of this foundation is able use to resist seismic matter. And, this foundation has
been used in Georgia country and proved that this foundation is strong enough to resist

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seismic matter.
Traditionally, piles are the common way to issue the bearing capacity and
excessive differential settlement. Piles are often installed until to the desired stratum that
able to support the entire loads from the piles. But, piled foundation on soft ground is not
an ideal way because reduction of pile capacity is predicted to happen with time due to
negative skin friction and associated voids formation and settlement problems under the
ground floor slab due to long-term settlement.
A simple way to explain that is a big raft or slab is constructed as a foundation.
When raft foundation has become a ³bowl´ shape, this means that defection of the
building is occurred. The defection on any part of the structural members will cause the
unstable of the overall system and thus will lead to collapse, the worst case.
Sometimes, geotechnical engineering is also involved in design of the foundation
as the information from the borehole investigation is crucial. The pile for the use in piled
raft foundation can change due to the superstructure above the ground. The pile types can
be barratte or bored piles and etc.
There are several types of piled rafts analyzes, the most popular analyze was
summarized by Poulos et al (1997). Three broad classes of analysis method have been
identified:
i. Simplified calculation methods
ii. Approximate computer-based methods
iii. More rigorous computer-based methods

The parametric study presented in this research work was carried out with a
computer program ELPLA. ELPLA is a program for analyzing raft foundations or
arbitrary shape with the real subsoil model. The mathematical solution of the raft is based
on the finite element method. This program can analyze different types of subsoil models,
especially the three-dimensional Continuum model that considers any number of irregular
layers. A good advantage of this program is the capability to handle the three analyses of
flexible, elastic and rigid foundations. In addition, the mesh of the rigid and flexible
foundations can be constructed to be analogous to the finite elements mesh of the elastic
foundation.

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Model verification was carried out for the example represented in Figure 1. Figure
2 compares the computed load-settlement relationships (up to a total load of 18MN)
computed from ELPLA with various methods for the centre of the raft with 9 identical
piles (Figure 1-b), one under each column. Variation of maximum positive ending
moments, maximum settlement and differential settlement with raft thickness are
respectively illustrated on Figure 2-b, Figure 2-c and Figure 2-d. there is reasonably good
agreement between the computed results in this research with results obtained from other
researchers (A Report Prepared on Behalf of Technical Committee TC18 on Piled
Foundation).

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ii) Mat slab foundation
Mat (or raft) slab foundation is a continuous footing that supports a reinforced
concrete slab. This slab is cover up at least 75 percent of total area within exterior walls.
It is used to distribute heavy column and wall load, lower the contact pressure compared
to spread footings. Thus, it¶s employed when subsoil is not suitable for spread footings.
Furthermore, Mat slab foundation is another form of shallow foundation which is
commonly used for large scale building.
This type of shallow foundations would need to be significantly reinforced so that
it is suitable when used in high rise building to ensure the even distribution of building
weight towards foundation. In addition, Mat slab foundation can be constructed near to
the ground surface or bottom of basement. It also can be constructed up to several meters
thick that mainly used in high rise building. For example, 12-storey of City Center at
Washington used a reinforced concrete mat slab foundation with 45 feet thick of raft.

Mat Slab Foundation

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© 

i) Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is deep foundation that embedded deep into the ground to transfer
the load to desired stratum from superstructure above. Pile foundation is desired when
meet some special circumstances, such as very large design loads, poor soil at shallow
depth, or site constraints. This is due to inadequate bearing capacity of shallow
foundations and pile foundation can prevent uplift forces and to reduce the excessive
settlement.
Pile foundation has 2 major classifications, which is friction pile and end bearing
pile. Friction pile is the foundation that using friction as load bearing resistance from the
pile skin friction while end bearing pile is using the hard stratum of ground that strong
enough as a base for load bearing resistance.
Nowadays, there is various type of pile available in market. However, what type
of pile is chosen to use is crucial and it is also affected by several factors, such as the
ground condition, the development project, type and magnitude of loading, contractual
requirement and etc. However, the cost is the most affecting factor as cost will decide the
quality and type of pile. Below is showing the classification of pile types:

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Table below is showing the specification of common piles that are using around the world.
TYPE SIZE LENG STRUCTU MATERIAL JOINT INSTALLATI
(mm) TH(m) RAL S ON
CAPACIT METHOD
Y (ton)
R.C Square 150- 3,6,9,1 25 - 185 Grade Welded Drop
Piles 400 2 40MPa Hammer,
concrete Jack-In
Pre-stressed 250- 6,9,12 45-520 Grade Welded Drop
Concrete 1000 (typical 60MPa & Hammer,
Spun Piles ) 80MPa Jack-In
Concrete
Steel H Piles 200- 6,12 40-1000 250N/mm2 to Welded Hydraulic
400 420 N/mm2 Hammer,
Steel Jack-In
Bored Piles 450- Varies 80-2300 20MPa to None Drill then
2000 30MPa Cast-In-Situ
(Tremie)
Micro Piles 100- Varies 20-250 Grade None Drill then
350 25MPa to 35 Cast-In-Situ,
MPa Grout, Percussion
N80 API Then Cast-In-
Pipe as Situ
reinforcemen
t

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R.C Square Piles Pre-stressed Concrete Spun Piles

Steel H piles Bored Piles

Micro Piles

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RC Square Piles are the common piles that using in all construction sites, however,
Spun Piles is better than RC Square Piles. Spun piles have the advantages below compare
to RC Square Piles:
¦ Better bending resistance
¦ Better manufacturing quality
¦ Higher axial capacity
¦ Higher tensile capacity
¦ Able to sustain higher driving stresses
¦ Easier to check integrity of pile
¦ Similar cost as RC Square Piles

Steel H Piles are less preferable for construction if compare to RC Square Piles
because steel has high corrosion rate. Besides, due to its characteristic, steel is easily get
overdriving. Thus, when there is hard rock under the ground, the piles get stuck but the
driving is still undergoing, the piles tend to spoil.
There are a few considerations about bored piles; one of it is bored piles base is
difficult to clean. To construct a bore pile, first thing has to do is drill a hole. To keep the
quality of piles, the base of the hole needs to clean up but it is dangerous. Besides,
bulging or necking can happen and lead to the risk for the sidewall to collapse, it is also
depends on the type of the soil and activities on the ground.

ii) Combined Pile Raft Foundation (CPRF)

Function of combined pile raft foundation is to transfer the high rise building load
into the ground through piles and raft. As compare to pile foundation, combined pile raft
foundation is better; this is because both of the piles and raft transfer the building load
into the ground. Besides, the loads of building are transferred by skin friction, end
bearing and contact pressures of the raft foundation.
Furthermore, combined pile raft foundation is an ideal preference of foundation
for high rise building. This is because both the bearing capacity of raft and bearing
capacity of the piles are fully used. In addition, combined pile raft foundation combines

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c
 
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three bearing elements which are piles, slab and subsoil. The stiffness of the soil will
increases with depth. Therefore, it is low in settlement and economic foundation.
However, combined pile raft foundation is a complex foundation system which would
require eligible understanding of the subsoil interactions.

ii) Caisson/Drilled shaft Foundation

Caisson foundation is a type of deep foundation where it is construct by placing
fresh concrete and reinforcing steel bar into a drilled shaft. It has capable to support high
and concentrated loads and normally used in high rise building, bridge piers and
structural support. Beside, caisson can be in the form of prefabricated hollow box or
cylinder. After depth is being drilled through soil and rock to the desired bearing stratum,
subsequently the reinforced concrete piles are cast in holes of predetermined diameter.
The diameter of drilling shafts can vary from 0.45m to 2.44m and depths of 45m.
Basically caisson foundation is similar in form to pile foundation but they are
installed in different way. Furthermore, it is a type of deep foundation which is
constructed on top of ground level then excavation is required before sunk into ground. In
addition, caisson foundation also comprises concrete column build in the cylindrical
shafts and drilled to bedrock when suitable soil to carry building load is being determined.
Equally important, the advantages of using caisson foundation are high axial and
lateral loading capacity that able to carry high rise building load safely, economic to use
in terms of cost saving and use of pile cap can be minimized. Besides, compare to pile
foundation, caisson foundation create less noise and vibration. Thus, it reduces sound
pollution to environment and less damage to existing structure. In addition, it is also
easier to install in a stiff sandy soils condition than displacement piles.

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Nevertheless, there are also some disadvantages of using caisson foundation.
Drilling shaft is commonly encounter water or sand. Besides, construction industry also
lack of expertise to conduct this kind of foundation and equipment to use also limited.
Furthermore, more time have to spend to wait until concrete is properly cured before
applying any load. Moreover, sloughing soil will become an obstacle during installation.

c    

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c
 Study: Found tion u
d in high ri
 building.

I) X

©
Location New York, USA
Building height 175meters, 40-storey
Foundation used Deep Foundation (Caisson/Drilled Shaft)
Number of caissons used 40
Length/Diameter of the caisson 30´ / 10´-24´
Thickness of the raft -
Time of construction 1999-2002

5 Time square is a 40-storey high rise building or tower located at New York City.
The foundation design for this high rise building was very complicated due to many
subways is around the site. Thus, the foundation system has to avoid from transferring the
high rise building load to the structure. A deep foundation system was used to transfer the
tower load safely from tower columns to the subway structure.
5 Times Square Tower is sat on Manhattan Shist bedrock which is good to form a
structural perspective and is very difficult to excavate. Nevertheless, the closeness of the
site to the subway and a historical land-mark building on the west property line dictated
that blasting could not be used. As a consequence, the foundation design went through
three phases. Initially, it is suggested to use 24 inches diameter caissons due to large
caisson will have adequate capacity.
However, it is difficult to efficiently locate them. Finally, they come out with
another solution which is excavating large concrete piers down to below the bottom of
the underground subway structure. The excavation can be done smoothly without facing
any difficulty of blasting.
At last, 10 inches diameter of mini caissons was used. These caissons consist of
12 inches diameter of steel shell, high strength concrete and a core of reinforcing bars.
The advantages of small caisson is that allowed placement that can minimized the
eccentricity of each caisson group relative to the line of the load from each tower column.
In addition, it also can be installed by using faster drilling equipment which

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creates less energy to the surrounding rock. Besides, due to the high axial loads and its
corner location, a large concrete pier was built to the bottom of the subway, this direct
load path allowed for the tower column load to be transferred below the subway and to
avoid costly project.

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II) c
© 
Location Frankfurt, Germany
Building height 299m
Foundation used Pile Foundation
Number of pile used 111
Length/Diameter of the bored piles 38-46m / 1.8m
Thickness of the raft 2.5m
Time of construction 1995-1997

The Commerz Bank is located at Frankfurt, Germany with a building height of

299 meters. This structure was constructed next to an existing high rise building of 103
meters height on a raft foundation. Thus, a pile foundation was used. It involves a total of
111 piles with diameter of 1.8 meters within the first 20 m below the raft follow by a

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diameter of 1.5 meters.
Besides, all piles were constructed by using jet grouted shaft and jet grouting 10
meters below the piles in the cavernous limestone. Jet grouted shaft involved used of
ultra high pressure fluids into the soil at high
velocities. Normally, it is a construction techniques
used for ground modification and ground
improvement for foundation stability. Furthermore,
at a depth of 5 meters below the surface fillings
were encountered underlying by quaternary sands
and gravels in depth of 10 meters.
In addition, below the ground layer
(Frankfurt clay) was found up to 35-40 meters
depth. The Frankfurt clay consists of clay inter
bedded with sand and limestone. Last, two
groundwater were found at site which is an
unconfined groundwater level in the quaternary
sands and gravels and a confined groundwater level
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circulating in the sands and limestone.

III) 

Location Berlin, Germany
Building height 121m
Foundation used Combined Pile-Raft Foundation
Number of pile used 54
Length/Diameter of the bored piles 15-25m / 1.5m
Thickness of the raft 1.5-2.5m
Time of construction 1995-1998

The Trep Tower is located at Berlin, Germany. It has the height of 121 meters next
to the river Spree. A combined pile raft foundation was used which is involve a total of 54
piles with diameter of 1.5 meters.

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Besides, the length of piles ranges from 15 meters to 25 meters. The bottom of the
raft is up to 8 meters below the surface. Furthermore, the ground and groundwater
conditions were explored by boreholes to a depth of 40 meters. Up to a depth of 4 meters
below the surface fillings and organic soils was encountered underlying by loose sand to
medium dense sands. These sands were found up to a depth of approximately 19 meters
while dense sands were encountered in depth of more than 19 meters. In addition, the
groundwater level is approximately 3 meters to 4 meters below the surfaces.

‘‘      ‘‘ 

IV) r ©



Location Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Building height 452m, 88-storey
Foundation used High strength fly-ash concrete Piled raft
Foundation
Number of pile used 208 barrette piles
Length/Diameter of the bored piles 60m-115m / 2.74m x 1.2m
Thickness of the raft 4.57m
Time of construction 1992-1997

Petronas Twin Tower is located at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It has the height of

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452 meters and 88 stories. The Petronas Twin Tower consists of environmental and
economic benefits in sustainable structural design elements which is involve used of high
strength fly-ash concrete pile foundation.
Fly-ash is generally produced at coal-fueled electric power plants. It is mainly
used to improved concrete performance, make concrete stronger and durable, more
resistances to chemical attack as well as create
significant benefits for our environment. Two raft
foundations were constructed for each tower with
total of 26000 cubic meters of Grade 60 concrete
with 208 barrette piles for both towers.
Besides, barrette piles are rectangular shape
piles 9 X 4 feet and vary from 197 feet to 380 feet
deep. Furthermore, thickness of mat is 4.57 meters
made of fly-ash concrete together with barrette piles
act as friction elements. In the mat, there are also 22
layers of 31.75 mm diameter rebar made from
recycled steel were used to avoid shear force. In
addition, high strength fly-ash concrete can reduce
size and weight of material. Thus, it can reach
material and cost savings.

VI) 
©©
Location Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Building height 828m, 206-storey
Foundation used Piled raft Foundation
Number of pile used 192 concrete podium piles
Length/Diameter of the bored piles 43m / 1.5m
Thickness of the raft 3.7m
Time of construction 2004-2009

Burj Khalifa has become the world¶s tallest building with building height of 828

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meters and more than 160-storey. It holds at least 7 world records which are tallest
building, tallest free-standing, highest number of stories, highest occupied floor, and
world¶s highest observation deck with an outdoor terrace, longest travel distance of
elevator and tallest service elevator in the world.
Therefore, in order to carry the load of this superstructure, the foundation should
be stiffed and well designed. A large reinforced concrete mat is used to support Burj
Khalifa with 192 bored reinforced concrete piles of 43m in length and 1.5m of diameter.
The weight of each pile is 3000 tons and made of high density, low permeability C60
grade self-consolidating (SCC) concrete.
Besides, huge boreholes were dug 50m deep then are filled with viscous polymer
slurry to keep the stability of the hole. When concrete is poured into holes, it replaces the
slurry and subsequently forms a foundation pile when it hardens. Furthermore, the
thickness of the raft is 3.7m and constructed in four separately pours. Then a total of
12500 cubic meters of concrete which is made of C50 grade SCC concrete is being
poured to form foundation. Moreover, a catholic protection system was installed below
mat to minimize any chemical attack which may present in ground water.
In addition, the design was accordance on extensive geotechnical and seismic
(earthquake) studies. Foundation of Burj Khalifa is very important because the location
of this tallest tower is on unstable desert sand and have tendency to sink if not well
designed.

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 ll

For high rise building, the weight of the building is heavy. Some building might be build
using steel frame for building structural and steel frame will reduce a lot of weight that
the building foundation need to carry. But in Malaysia, most of the high rise building¶s
structural frame is composed by reinforced concrete frame and this will exert much
greater force to the building foundation. In order to decreasing the building weight,
external wall of the building will compose by curtain wall. Curtain wall is non structural
member and the weight is much lighter than the brick wall. The major disadvantage for
this curtain wall is it is weak to carry any of the lateral forces that exert by the wind,
earthquake, and the uneven horizontal soil movement of the ground and this has also
increase the burden of the structural frame. This will cause the building tend to tear apart
because of the lateral forces. Therefore, the building is design with the interior wall
which able to increase the rigidity of the entire building structural frame to resist the
lateral load. This system also as know as shear wall system. Wall system is used to
provide enclosure environment for building tenant and also to divide the internal building
to several partition. Besides that, it also used to resist weather and heat insulation and
sound insulation.

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c  
  

A 

©

©
 

[ Because the high rise building may build up to 6th floor or some may even until
100++ floor so the foundation of the building will definitely under a heavy
pressure. We cannot estimate the building weight exactly so it is important for us
to reduce the weight of the building by choosing the suitable and lightweight
material.



  
©©


[ The wall as a façade of the building must able to transfer all the lateral forces to
the nearest structural member. For non-structural wall, it must transfer all load to
the mullion and the mullion will transfer the forces to the structural member. The
wall will tend to buckling or overturning by lateral forces. Sufficient strength of
wall is one of the significant factors for the wall performance.

r


©

©

[ High rise building is high and danger if it is not enclosed. Wall will act as a
protection shield for the street trespasser and building tenant. Especially for
residential high rise building because prevent any unfortunate matter to happen.
[ Provide enclosure environment to limit the vision from the external environment
and to provide privacy for building tenants.


©
©
©

© 


[ In some circumstances, the structural member like column and beam will
overload therefore the wall will act as a secondary structural member to provide
the function of supporting the building load. Of cause not every type of wall can
have such function.

r


©

[ Wall will close the building and form a space like box. With an opening on the
wall, the air from outside will get in the building and accelerate the movement of
air inside the building. This is because the different between the air pressure
outside the building and internal building.

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[ Wall can also act as a decorative function for building but this is depends on the
building purpose. This is 1 of the most important criteria when architect designing
the high rise building because high rise building is mostly for commercial using
sometime it also become the landmark of some region. Most flexible wall system
during designing is curtain wall system because it can combine various kinds of
material and colour.

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¦ Strength
[ Must at least be able to support its own load
[ Able to resist the lateral forces
¦ Stability
[ Resistance to the overturn by the lateral forces and buckling that cause by
excessive slenderness
¦ Weather resistance
[ Provide a shelter to resist the effect precipitation, rain and wind penetration
¦ Fire resistance
[ Can stand for fire burning for a period to allow for escaping during fire
[ To prevent or slowing the fire spreading when fire is happen.
¦ Thermal insulation
[ Maintain the internal environment temperature
¦ Sound insulation
[ Exclude Sound
¦ Security
[ Provide privacy for building tenant
[ Limit the vision of outsider to the building internal

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c‘

‘


  

Sh r w ll
Shear wall is specially design and constructed to resist the gravity forces and the lateral
forces such as wind and earthquake. Wall thickness may vary from 140mm till 500mm
depend on the building purpose. In general, the wall reinforcement consists of 2 layers of
distributed reinforcement. Additional reinforcement will provide near the wall opening.
This kind of structure mostly can found at heavy wind and earthquake prone region. This
wall is place as external wall for high rise building. If the external shear wall is
insufficient strength to resist the lateral forces. An internal shear wall may introduce to
provide extra rigidity. Usually this kind of wall will continuous throughout the building
height and discontinue at ground floor level or basement level for commercial and car
parking purposes. Shear wall is proved having a good performance in seismic resistance.
Because this wall is constructed using 100% concrete therefore the properties of this wall
is almost same with the properties of concrete. No matter the R-value or load bearing
capacity.
curt in  ll
This kind of wall is attaching a large panel onto the
aluminum mullion. Usually this wall will cost a lot
compare to other wall because the aluminum and the
panel is not cheap in prices. The material that uses to
make the panel can be glass, wood, etc. This kind of
wall is ease for penetration of moisture through in
the building therefore proper sealing is important for
curtain wall. Usually silicon will be the most
preferable choice but some of them use rubber to fill the gap between the panels. Besides
that, using silicon and rubber is because to allow the expansion for the panels when the
panels exposed to hot temperature like summer season for season country. The silicon
and rubber can minimize the moisture penetration in to the building because it can fully
fill the gap.

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|rick  ll
Common type of wall use for residential high rise building because it have relatively high
strength compare to other type of walls. This wall is bond the brick with English bond
and finishing with sand cement plastering. But some may finish with facing brick to
provide a nice looking for the entire building. For some building, engineering brick is
preferable because this brick is produce in a precise design and enough burn to achieve
higher compression strength.

Engineer Brick Multiple choice of facing brick

P nl  ll
Panel wall is a wall that attach a panel to the frame that formed by aluminum or stainless
steel.

Example of panel wall

The frame is design with a stud standing on the runner through the entire wall length. The
panel will attach on the wall by nailing. The material of the panels can be gypsum,
aerated concrete block, wood, glass and plaster board. Because the panel is mostly made
by soft material therefore it has very good sound insulation.

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indow
Windows have long been used in buildings for daylighting and ventilation. Many studies
have even shown that health, comfort, and productivity are improved due to well-
ventilated indoor environments and access to natural light. However, windows also
represent a major source of unwanted heat loss, discomfort, and condensation problems.

The following describes commonly used window and frame options:

Perhaps the most important consideration is to understand whether the window system is
a rain screen or barrier system. A rain screen system provides internal drainage for water
that infiltrates into the glazing pocket. A barrier system assumes that no water will ever
infiltrate the perimeter seals and thus does not provide internal drainage.

High-performance, energy-efficient window and glazing systems are now available that
can dramatically cut energy consumption and pollution sources: they have lower heat loss,
less air leakage, and warmer window surfaces that improve comfort and minimize
condensation. These high-performance windows feature double or triple glazing,
specialized transparent coatings, insulating gas sandwiched between panes, and improved
frames. All of these features reduce heat transfer, thereby cutting the energy lost through
windows.

Window units can be fixed, operable, or a combination of the two. Fixed windows
generally offer better air infiltration and water penetration resistance, and require less
maintenance, than operable windows. On the other hand, operable windows allow for
natural ventilation. Fixed windows typically consist of frame with an infill that are sealed
together. Operable windows consist of a frame and sash that are weathersealed by
weatherstrips in addition to the infill being sealed to the sash.

There are many configurations of operable window, broadly classified as sliding seal
windows or compression seal windows. Compression seal windows generally provide
better long-term air infiltration and water penetration resistance than sliding seal
windows because they reduce friction and wear on the weatherstripping. Since they can

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be fully opened, compression seal windows also provide better ventilation potential.

Compression seal windows include the following:

¦ Awning (Top hinged, project out bottom)

¦ Hopper (Bottom hinged, project in top)
¦ Casement (Side hinged, project in or out)
¦ Vertically or horizontally pivoted windows

Sliding seal window types include the following:

¦ Hung windows
¦ Horizontal sliding windows

Pivot windows, jal-awning, and jalousie windows generally offer the poorest resistance.

Window systems are comprised of glass panes, structural frames, spacers, and sealants. In
recent years, the variety of glass types, coatings, and frames available for use in window
systems has increased dramatically, as has the opportunity to fine-tune and optimize
window selection on a project-by-project basis.

Window and glazing choices should be considered holistically. Once the design team and
owner agree on the design problem, window and glazing options can be evaluated. Issues
to consider include:

¦ Heat gains and losses

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¦ Visual requirements (privacy, glare, view)
¦ Shading and sun control
¦ Thermal comfort
¦ Condensation control
¦ Ultraviolet control
¦ Acoustic control
¦ Color effects
¦ Daylighting
¦ Energy requirements

Ultimately, the optimum choice of window and glazing systems will depend on many
factors including the building use type, the local climate, utility rates, and building
orientation.




U-value indicates the rate of heat flow due to conduction, convection, and radiation
through a window as a result of a temperature difference between the inside and outside.
The higher the U-factor the more heat is transferred (lost) through the window in winter.

¦ The units of U-value are: Btus per hour per square foot per °F (Btu/hr · ft² · °F)
¦ U-factors usually range from a high of 1.3 (for a typical aluminum frame single
glazed window) to a low of around 0.2 (for a multi-paned, high-performance
window with low-emissivity coatings and insulated frames).
¦ A window with a U-factor of 0.6 will lose twice as much heat under the same
conditions as one with a U-factor of 0.3.
¦ Total (or net) window U-factors can be considerably higher than the center-of-
glass U-factors.

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Thermal Performance (Conduction, Solar Radiation, Thermal Break, Comfort)

Overall window thermal performance is a function of the glazing frame and perimeter
details. Typically, the overall goal is to achieve the best possible daylight transmission at
cost of the least heat transmission.

Glazing thermal performance mostly depends on how well it can control radiative heat
transfer. Radiative heat can be transferred through long-wave infrared radiation and
through solar radiation. Either kind of radiation can be minimized by low-E coatings on
the glass, which are one of the most effective means of improving window thermal
performance.

Window frame conductivity is a function of the frame material, geometry and design.
Wood has low (better) thermal conductivity and inherently provides good thermal
performance. Steel has higher (worse) thermal conductivity than wood.

PVC and fiberglass have lower (better) conductivity than the other materials.

It is common practice to incorporate thermal breaks of low thermal conductivity materials,

traditionally polyurethane, polyamide or nylon I beam separators, for improved thermal
performance. Disadvantages of thermal breaks include reduced frame strength and
stiffness.

Proper placement of insulation in the voids at the window perimeter and maintaining
continuity of the façade functional layers improves performance including reduction of
drafts and energy loss around windows.

Moisture Protection (Water Penetration, Condensation Resistance)

Water penetration resistance is a function of glazing details, frame drainage details,

weatherstripping (for operable windows) and perimeter details.

Key frame drainage features include slope to the exterior at surfaces that collect water
(sloped glazing pocket sill), large (3/8 by 1 in. long) slot holes, two per sill minimum, and

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drainage at every horizontal frame (i.e. do not use vertical frames to drain past horizontal
frames). Design the drainage system to handle condensation as well as rain where
condensation is likely. Provide water baffles, insect protection and check for air and
water tightness ratings before you start messing with drainage holes. These items affect
each other.

High performance windows will generally include dual weather stripping for improved
air/water penetration performance.

Window perimeters should have flashings (sill, jambs and head) that are integrated with
the waterproofing at adjacent walls. Slope head and sill flashings to the exterior for
prompt drainage. Do not penetrate the horizontal portion of the sill flashing with window
fasteners. Instead, where attachment of the sill frame is required, provide an attachment
angle inboard of the window sill and fasten through the upturned leg of the sill flashing
into back of the sill frame.

Perimeter sealants are useful for limiting air and water penetration through the outermost
plane of the wall, but should not be relied upon as the sole air/water penetration barrier.

Visual (Daylighting, Aesthetics)

Key visual features of windows include glazing appearance and window frame sightlines.
Sightlines are a function of both the width and depth of the window frame. Where narrow
sightlines are desired, the strength and stiffness of steel frames permits the use of
relatively slender frames compared with aluminum or wood.

Sound (Acoustics)

The acoustic performance of windows is a function of framing, glass and joinery. Sound
insulation of windows can be improved by increasing the mass of the frames and
perimeter infill, improving the air tightness of the perimeter construction, placing sound
absorptive materials or high mass materials at the perimeter of the windows, increasing
the insulating glass (I.G.) unit airspace, using heavy gas infill, using laminated glass,

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acoustic laminates, and using I.G. units with different glass thicknesses. Providing sound
isolators (such as rubber shims) at window attachments is a measure generally reserved
for applications such as sound studios.

Safety

A primary factor in window choice is a design wind pressure that is specific for each
window location.

Verify your local building code for safety requirements. List the requirements in
specifications for comparable bids.

Always consult a structural engineer to obtain information about wind pressures, window
support, feasibility of safe installation, and separation of supporting function from other
facade functions (weatherproofing, soundproofing, etc.)

Whenever a window is supported indirectly on other cladding systems, consult the

structural engineer and specify the reactions and anchorage for both trades.

An important design consideration for operable windows is resistance to wind loads in

the open position. Unfortunately, the industry provides little guidance on this issue.
Sliding seal windows are always supported on two sides whether open or closed.
Projecting windows rely on operating hardware for support against wind loads. The
operating hardware for projecting windows may not be adequate for severe exposures.

Impact resistant rated products are deemed necessary by certain authorities having
jurisdictions in zones prone to windborne debris; these products are certified as tested
following procedures set by a jurisdiction, they should be clearly identified together with
the design pressures on the construction drawings.

Fenestration often comes as a design-build (DB) product designed by the manufacturer.

In such cases, the design data, performance data, and interface drawings need to be
provided to the DB engineering team as a very minimum to assure a proper product

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engineering. Verify how the fenestration is provided in your project prior to the design.
Keep your design within your scope of responsibility (e.g. detail the interfaces among
adjacent systems, don't modify the manufacturer's details of an already engineered system,
unless you take responsibility for engineering of the system).

3 
 

¦ For fenestration in fire-rated walls, provide fire-rated steel frames with suitable
glazing (wired glass or fire-rated ceramic "glass").
¦ Provide knock-out glazing panels (typically fully tempered to reduce shards) for
venting and emergency access from the exterior.
¦ Emergency egress requirements frequently dictate the geometry and size of
operable sash.

3
  

¦ Limit stops on operable sash, or approved window guards over window openings
are used to prevent children from falling out of windows. Insect screens do not
provide fall-out protection. Use laminated glass in hazardous locations as opposed
to fully tempered glass.

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M

In general, door is providing people to go in and go out. A structure will only
consider as a complete structure with the existing of door. A door is a moveable barrier
used to cover an opening. Similar to window, door also a kind of opening of a structure;
therefore, it can provide well ventilation to the interior of structure.
The history of door is not by today or yesterday or even the day before yesterday,
it does exist in long time ago. Traditionally, doors are named in accordance with their
form of construction, their position within the building, or both. A door might be
described as being a ledged, ledged and braced, framed and paneled, or paneled main
entrance door, a framed and glazed side door, a ledged shed door, an exterior door, a
high-security door, and so forth. Doors are much more than physical barriers. They are
the first things that strike visitors¶ eyes when they see a building.
Among all architectural work, door making is one of the most taken for granted,
most necessary, and the most complicated forms of construction. This is because we open
doors, we slam doors, we beat on them, and we generally use and abuse them to the
extent that we forget they are there. The only time most of us give any though to the
doors in our homes is during they refuse to work efficiently. Therefore, we have to take
good care to doors as well as we can.

c 
  
Before we construct or determine a door for a structure, we have to do certain
survey about the structure. This can help to longer the life span of doors or even the
whole structure. In addition, it can improve the out looking of the structure.
The considerations before we built or choose a door are:
1. The building¶s use
2. Occupancy loads
3. Type of doors
4. Aesthetics
5. Type of structure

According to the first and second considerations ± the building¶s use, which mean the

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building purposes, whether the building is for industrial use, or commercial use or even
residential purpose. The occupancy loads of industrial and commercial are more hardly
predictable, because the visitors might be out of expectation sometimes. In contrast, for
the residential, the occupancy loads are much easy to predict, because there is always a
range between the visitors or residents.
Besides, before we construct or determine doors for a structure, we always have to
choose better selection for it. The selection must be according to the use of the structure.
For example, in factory, always the first choice come to our mind is industrial doors. Why?
As we know, industrial doors are usually made up by metal material, with that, it can
provide a very strong and high secure to people. Same case to hospital door, hospital
required a ease in cleaning door and fire-proof door, therefore, GRP (Glass Reinforced
Polyester) door is the best option, because it is high durability and extremely strong. Not
only that, it has others more advantages such as it does not harbor bacteria easily, it can
be water-proof and etc.

Aesthetic also can be a very important concern to people nowadays, especially rich
people. For example, a thousand million ringgit bungalow, of cause they require a better
or look luxury door for their structure, else, the structure would not be fully well done. It
is really not match if install an ordinary plastic door in a thousand million ringgit
structure.
However, the amount of opening such as windows and doors are directly related with
the type of structure, whether the structure is framed structure or load bearing structure. If
the structure is framed structure, the amounts of doors are not really important, because
all the building¶s upper loads are transmit through the columns but not the walls. But, if
the structure is load bearing structure, the amounts of doors are restricted, because load
bearing structure encourage least opening, so that, the upper loads can transfer to ground
efficiently without cause any cracking to the wall.

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3   

Doors can be a very good device to fit the structure to complete form, because the
size of door is flexible in change. However, the functions of doors generally are not
others than:
1. Egress & Accessibility
2. Safety
3. Visual purpose
4. Thermal performance
5. Acoustic purpose
6. Maintain better health & Good indoor air quality

First, as all of we know, the main purpose of door for sure is egress and
accessibility. Egress mean exit or go out, while accessibility mean entrance or go in. The
door allows people to pass trough or else, the structure is incomplete.
Second, door can provide safety to users. In this case, we are more concern to the
industrial purpose. For instance, factory required a strong in physical durable and work
efficiently door to protect their properties in the structure.
Third, the door also can provide better visual purpose to people. People is concern
to the out looking of the door because some people treat the design of door as an art or
people choose the luxury door to indicate their level of standard living.
Besides that, the door also can help to maintain the thermal performance such as
conduction and thermal break. For example, in Malaysia, well known as a warm
temperature country, to maintain the indoor temperature as cooler than outdoor, door can
reduce the heat from go in to the structure, this process is known as thermal break.
According to second law of thermo, the heat will transfer from the higher temperature
place to lower temperature place; therefore, the exterior or hotter place will transfer the
heat to the interior or cooler place to achieve balance in temperature. With that, door is
used to block the process. Similar to western country, they are facing frost attack every
year, therefore, doors can help them from keeps the interior structure warmer.
In addition, door can prevent noise pollution as they can dilute or block noise
from go in to the structure. This is usually occurring in cinema or karaoke center, so that

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special door is always installed in cinema and karaoke center to prevent the sound
pollution.
Last but not least, door can maintain better health and good indoor air quality.
Generally, water leakage through or around windows frequently contributes to indoor air
quality problems by supplying moisture for microbial growth. This leakage can often
remain concealed within the wall system and not become evident until concealed wall
components experience significant deterioration and microbial growth requiring costly
repairs. On the other hand, excessive air tightness may require provision of additional
ventilation, due to build-up of excessive relative humidity on the interior of structure.

!
"    

To improve the efficiency of the doors, we suggest that

1. Laminate the glass doors
2. Use hardwood instead of softwood
3. Use cavity sliding doors

According to the first suggestion, use laminated glass doors, this step can help to
keep the interior structure cooler, because laminated glass can block the heat from go
through it, but only allow light to pass it. Thus, the advantages of laminated glass door is
to maintain the interior in cooler temperature and energy saved, because with the exterior
light, we can use less energy current in artificial light.
Secondly, use hardwood instead of softwood. This is because the content of
hardwood is very compact and strong; thus, it is stronger in physical and not easy to
break. As well as sound, the hardwood can block noise from go through it.
Next, use cavity sliding doors can help in save spaces. The concept of cavity
sliding doors is very simple, instead of open the door with swing to inside or outside, the
cavity sliding door is open the door to beside, just like normal sliding door; but, cavity
sliding door is slide to behind of wall, therefore, spaces required is reduce.

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c
  

Half-height swing door

1) Swing door is generally serving entrance or exit purposes. The image above
shown half-height swing door, which is the swing door, is only half height of
normal people height. This is greater than full height swing door, because half-
height swing door allow people to see the opposite side easily. This can prevent
collision between two parties.

Revolving door

2) Similar to swing door, revolving door also serving entrance or exit functions. But
the different between these two types of doors are revolving door can use to
control the population flow and it can minimize the heating and air conditioning
loads. Basically, the door is constructed by using glass and it¶s always closed,
therefore, heat cannot pass through easily. There is another type of revolving door
that we can often see in subways and other rapid transit facilities, known as
turnstile. The turnstile out looking design is very simple; it is about half height of

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size and usually works mechanically with the door panels. The turnstile is used to
prevent people from avoiding a fare to pass through a certain place.

Industrial door

3) The image above showed a type of industrial door. The industrial door usually
uses for serving material handling and security functions. This is because the
industrial door normally built up by using metal material, thus, it is very durable
and strong. The concept of industrial door is also concern to save spaces. The
metal cladding is been pull to top of the door in horizontal way, therefore, it can
provide more activity space in the ground. With the strong material made up,
industrial door is not easy to break by thief and can withstand to exterior exposure.

‘ 

 
   
#

1) GRP also known as Glass

Reinforced Polyester door. The GRP
is a composite material made of a
plastic matrix reinforced by fine fibers
made of glass. Also, it does not
contain any organic material. The
advantages or the good of the GRP
doors are it is easy to clean, does not
GRP door
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harbor bacteria and it is unaffected by water, steam and most chemical or cleaning
agents. GRP doors are extremely strong and very durable, yet light and easy to
operate. Not only that, the built-in colour of GRP doors is aesthetically pleasing
and required almost no maintenance. If compare with timber doors or metal doors,
GRP doors will not surface peel, warp rust or even wrap although in the most
arduous conditions.

Foldaway door

2) The image showed above is a foldaway door. The foldaway door is concern to
spaces saving as when the metal cladding open, it will pleat to the top. The
foldaway door is operate if the counter weight is been pull down, then it will
connect to the pulley and pull the pulley along downward. With that, it will send a
message to link arm and link arm will pull the metal cladding. Between the metal
cladding, there are hinges installed there to ease the performance of pleating

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together. Usually foldaway door is using power to operate it, because it is quite
difficult to handle if using manpower.

Automatic door

3) The image showed above is an automatic door. The automatic door usually can be
found in hypermarket, commercial building or office building. Basically, the
automatic door is controlled by an infrared sensor. The infrared sensor consists of
two devices which is a sensor to emit infrared signal and another is receiver.
When there is objects moving in the infrared zone, then the sensor will emit a
signal to the receiver, and then the receiver will pass a signal to the door, then the
door will open. This is the more economical option. We can improve the
efficiency of the door by install another sensor called ³microwave sensor´. The
different between infrared sensor and microwave sensor is infrared sensor can
detect the objects within a smaller zone, while the microwave sensor can detect
larger zone. For instance, if a person is running from a distances place toward the
door, with microwave sensor, it can detect the person and open the door before
the runner reaches the door.

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conclu
ion

A building in made up of several system and subsystem. For example, structure system;
system that support and transmit applied gravity and lateral loads safely to the ground,
envelope system; shell and enclosure of a building, mechanical system; system that
provide essential services to a building and etc.

Thus the systems and assemblies of the building envelope are one of the four main parts
of the building both in terms of their physical existence and in their contribution to
overall building performance. The envelope protects the other systems from harsh aspects
of the outside. It also works in conjunction with the other systems to ensure a safe
environment for the building occupants. Thus the envelope is a gatekeeper, allowing
certain aspects of the exterior into the building, rejecting some and changing the nature of
others.

In conclusion, the design of the envelope is very complex and many factors have to be
evaluated and balanced to ensure the desired levels of thermal, acoustic and visual
comfort together with safety, accessibility and aesthetic excellence.

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rnc
:
 

Alan. (n.d.).   
 
$  $
  %. Gill Bridgewater

Creative International. (n.d.). ‘ 
    ! !

   . Creative
International

Eric, F. (2007). c  ‘  

 
    

Jack, S. F., & Raymond, H. (2007).  &   

 3
  $
'$( .
Mitchell's

Jack, S. F. (2000).  &   

 3
  $
)$* . Mitchell's

   

Deep foundation. (n.d.). 
3
. Retrieved June 9, 2010, from The engineers
register website: http://www.engineersregister.com/pages/foundations

GRP Doors. (n.d.).  +     . Retrieved June 25, 2010, from Dortek
website: http://www.dortek.com/products/cat_listing/category/grp_doors/

 
 
. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2010, from springerlink website:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/r777258r1lj11087/

Standard Specification and Design. (n.d.). 3

!
  
 . Retrieved June 18,
2010, from xenac website: http://xenac.com/product1.html

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‘
  

. (n.d.). Retrieved July 18, 2010, from
http://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/foundations/Fountype.htm#RAFT

      
!. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13, 2010, from Scribd website:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/28196942/13282147-Uniform-Building-by-Laws



 
. (n.d.). Retrieved June 14, 2010, from
http://www.braymanconstruction.com/capabilities/caissons.php

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