2.basics of Hydraulics PDF

01: Basics of Hydraulics
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SUMITOMO (S.H.I.) CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY CO., LTD.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles
hydraulics
Principles

01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 01: What is hydraulic pressure?
hydraulics
■ What is Hydraulic Pressure?
Hydraulic pressure = Pressure the fluid exerts to itself and to other objects
The fluid is used as a media to transmit energy.
<Characteristics of the hydraulic pressure>
• You can obtain a large force with a small force.
• You can freely adjust the size of force and its speed.
• By installing a relief valve that prevents an excessive pressure, you can easily avoid overloading.
• The power generating device (pump) and the driving device (actuator) can be freely arranged 3
01‐01‐01
What is Hydraulic pressure?
The hydraulic pressure is what the fluid exerts to itself and to other objects in it, and it can be used to
transmit energy.
The characteristics are:
<Characteristics of the hydraulic pressure>
• You can obtain a large force with a small force.
• You can freely adjust the size of force and its speed.
• By installing a relief valve that prevents an excessive pressure, you can easily avoid overloading.
• The power generating device (pump) and the driving device (actuator) can be freely arranged.
3
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 01: What is hydraulic pressure?
hydraulics
■ What is Hydraulic Pressure? (Advantages and disadvantages of the oil)
Leakage due to
low viscosity
Causing rusting
Compressed
= Transmission
efficiency low
Oil Water Air

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01‐01‐01
What is Hydraulic pressure?
Advantages and disadvantages of the oil
Hydraulic excavator use the hydraulic oil as a medium to transmit power. This is because there are
numerous advantages for using the hydraulic oil.
<Advantages>
• Hydraulic oil can prevent rusting and corrosion of the devices and it also has a lubricating effect.
• Volume change due to temperature change is small and it can be used in a wide range of temperature.
• As viscosity is high, it has a high sealing property.
• The oil used in a hydraulic system is incompressible* and the energy transmission efficiency is high.
*Incompressible = Hardly any volume change caused by pressure
<Disadvantages>
• Flammable. Precautions to prevent fire risk are required.
• Leakage and waste oil disposal may have adverse effect on the global environment.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 02: What is pressure?
hydraulics
■ What is Pressure?
Pressure = Force that applies to an object per unit area.
Force
(kg or N)
Force (kg)
Pressure (kgf/cm2) =
Area where force is
applied (cm2)
Area where force is applied
(cm2 or m2)
For ISO, the pressure is indicated in Pa (Pascal).
Force (N)
Pressure (Pa) =
Area where force is applied (m2)
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* 1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa (= N/m2)
01‐01‐02
What is Pressure?
The pressure is the force that applies to an object per unit area.
The pressure that applies to an object can be obtained with the following formula.
Pressure (kgf/cm2) = Force (kg) ÷ Area where the force is applied (cm2)
When the force of 1 kg is applied per 1 cm2, the pressure is indicated as 1 kg/cm2.
For ISO, the pressure is indicated in Pa (Pascal).
Pressure (Pa) = Force (N) ÷ Area where force is applied (m2)
1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa (= N/m2)
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 03: Flow rate
hydraulics
■ Flow Rate
Flow rate = The volume of fluid that passes through the cross section of the
flow per unit of time
Cross sectional area (A)
Flow velocity (V)
Flow rate (Q) = Flow velocity (V) x Cross sectional area (A)
01‐01‐03
Flow rate
The flow rate is the volume of fluid that passes through the cross section of the flow per unit of time.
Flow rate (Q) can be obtained with the following formula.
Fowl rate (Q) = Flow velocity (V) x Cross sectional area (A)
For example, when 100 Litre (L) flows per minute, the flow rate will be indicated as 100 L/min.
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 03: Flow rate
hydraulics
■ Flow Rate
10 cm2
5 cm2
01‐01‐03
Flow rate
In this example, a pump that can discharge oil at 100 L/min, and a cylinder is connected to it.
Assume that the capacity of the above cylinder to be 10 L. Then, 10 L ÷ 100 L/min = 0.1 min, which
means 6 seconds. It takes 6 seconds for the cylinder to expand from the shortest position to the longest
position.
Next, when the pump capacity is increased to 200 L/min, you'll get 10 L ÷ 200 L/min = 0.05 min, which
means 3 seconds. It takes 3 seconds for the cylinder to expand.
When the flow rate doubles, the cylinder speed doubles as well proportionally.
Next, when the pump capacity is 100 L/min and the area of the piston that receives the pressure is half
and its capacity is 5 L, you'll get 5 L ÷ 100 L/min = 0.05 min, which means 3 seconds. Thus, when the area
of the piston that receives the pressure decreases, the cylinder speed increases inversely.
Summary
When the pump capacity doubles, the cylinder speed doubles.
When the area of the piston that receives the pressure becomes half, cylinder speed doubles.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 04: Pascal's law
hydraulics
■ Pascal's Law
"The pressure of unmoving fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions and it exerts at the right
angle anywhere in the vessel."
1,500 kgf
30 kgf
1 cm
50 cm
1 cm2 50 cm2
01‐01‐04
Pascal's law
Pascal's law states
"The pressure of unmoving fluid is transmitted equally in all directions and it exerts at the right angle
anywhere in the vessel."
In the left diagram, when a force is applied from above to the vessel filled with the fluid, the force is
equally transmitted to all areas including the cubic section, the cylindrical section, and the spherical
section.
Using this principle, pressure can be transmitted to a remote point via fluid. You can also obtain a large
force with a small force.
In the right diagram, when the smaller piston whose cross sectional area is 1 cm2 is pressed down with a
force of 30 kgf, a pressure of 30 kgf/cm2 is created in the fluid.
When this pressure applies to the larger piston whose cross sectional area is 50 cm2, a force of 1,500 kgf
applies to push it up. The generated force is proportional to the ratio of cross sectional areas where the
pressure applies.
The multiplying factor (ratio of areas) of the force is inversely proportional to the distance of movement.
When a small piston is pressed down for 50 cm with a force of 30 kgf, the large piston moves up for 1 cm
with a force of 1500 kgf.
30 (kgf) x 50 (cm) = 1500 (kgf) x 1 (cm) = Same amount of work
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 05: Units of the hydraulic pressure
hydraulics
■ Units of the Hydraulic Pressure
Force (N)
1 N = 1 kg•m/s2
Pressure: Pascal [Pa]
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Work: Joule [J]
1J = 1N•m
Power: Watt [W]
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N•m/s
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01‐01‐05
Units of the hydraulic pressure
When you measure physical quantities such as movement and force, a standard value is determined for
each quantity respectively, and the measurement is compared against it.
These standard values are called units or basic units.
Units commonly used in relation to the hydraulic pressure are
N (Newton) as the unit to indicate force,
Pa (Pascal) as the unit to indicate pressure,
J (Joule) as the unit to indicate work, and
W (Watt) as the unit to indicate power.
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 06: Bernoulli's > 01: Relationship between flow
hydraulics theorem velocity and flow rate
■ Relationship between Flow Velocity and Flow Rate
Cross section A1 "Point where the
cross sectional area is large"
Cross section A2 "Point where the
cross sectional area is small"
Flow velocity V2 "Flow
velocity is fast"
Flow velocity V1 "Flow velocity is slow"
"When a fluid flows in a pipe line, the amount of flow rate at a cross sectional point is constant at
any cross sections along the streamline."
Q = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2 = Constant
"When the flow rate is constant, the flow velocity becomes slow where the cross sectional area is
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large while it becomes fast where the cross sectional area is small."
01‐01‐06‐01
Relationship between flow velocity and flow rate
The flow rate and the flow velocity are closely linked. "In a steady flow*, when a fluid flows in a pipe line,
the amount of flow rate at a cross sectional point is constant at any cross sections in the streamline."
This is called the "law of continuity."
Suppose the flow velocity to be V1 at the cross section A1 and V2 at the cross section A2 in the diagram.
You can obtain the formula Q = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2. From this formula, you can see "When the flow rate is
constant, the flow velocity becomes slow where the cross sectional area is large while it becomes fast
where the cross sectional area is small."
* Steady flow: The flow whose properties at a point in the system do not change over time.
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 06: Bernoulli's > 02: Relationship between flow
hydraulics theorem velocity and pressure
■ Relationship between Flow Velocity and Pressure
<Point where the cross sectional area is large> <Point where the cross sectional area is small>
• Flow velocity: Slow • Flow velocity: Fast
• Pressure: High • Pressure: Low
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01‐01‐06‐02
Relationship between flow velocity and pressure
The fluid has three types of energy: "pressure energy," "kinetic energy," and "potential energy."
Bernoulli's theorem states that, in a steady flow*, the sum of these three types of energy is constant at
any cross sections in the streamline.
When you consider the relationship between the flow velocity and pressure, you can conclude that the
pressure becomes lower at the point where the flow velocity is fast while it becomes higher at the point
where the velocity is slow in the horizontal pipe line (no change in potential energy).
* Steady flow: The flow whose properties at a point in the system do not change over time.
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 07: Definition of an orifice and a choke
hydraulics
■ Definition of an Orifice and a Choke
<Choke> <Orifice>
"Choke = Pipe line resistance" "Orifice = Restrictor"
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01‐01‐07
Definition of an orifice and a choke
Both the orifice and choke are categorized as a "restrictor." They create internal resistance and are used
to control the flow rate or the pressure of the fluid.
<Choke>
A choke is a long narrow pie, whose length is great compared to its diameter.
Piping and hoses that constitute a hydraulic system are chokes.
Generally, a choke is called a "pipe line resistance" rather than a "restrictor." The pipe line resistance is a
major factor of energy loss, which is a weakness of the hydraulic system.
<Orifice>
An orifice is a piece of pipe whose cross sectional area is small, whose length is small compared to the
diameter of the surrounding sections.
Generally, an orifice is called a "restrictor."
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 08: Pressure loss
hydraulics
■ Pressure Loss
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01‐01‐08
Pressure loss
<External resistance>
When there is a resistance to a movement of a hydraulic device, pressure is generated.
For example, while the oil discharged from the pump tries to expand the cylinder, pressure is generated in
the hydraulic circuit if the external force stops the movement or if a load is applied.
The sliding resistance of the cylinder/piston and the piston weight are also the sources for generating
pressure.
If the pump simply discharges the fluid, there is no pressure generation. Yet, if there is a resistance in a
cylinder, pressure is generated.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 08: Pressure loss
hydraulics
■ Pressure Loss
<Spot where the curvature <Spot where the path expands <Spot where the path narrows

is high> abruptly> abruptly>
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01‐01‐08
Pressure loss
<Internal resistance>
The fluid in the hydraulic devices and the hydraulic circuit generates resistance when it flows.
If there is a spot in the path, where "the curvature is high," "the path expands abruptly," or "the path
narrows abruptly," a spot where the flow velocity is fast and a spot where it is slow are created.
If a vortex is generated due to the difference in velocity, energy is further used up. This internal resistance
hinders the flow of the fluid and decreases the pressure (loss).
In addition, this pressure loss converts energy into heat, raising the fluid temperature.
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 09: Amount of work
hydraulics
■ Amount of Work
Work: Joule [J]
1J = 1N•m
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01‐01‐09
Amount of work
The amount of work is what an object receives when it is moved.
"J (Joule)" is used as the unit. The work is stated in the following formula: Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance
of movement (m).
For instance, the excavator lifting up sand is a work, and lifting up a load using fulcrum in the drawing to
the right is a work as well.
In both of these cases, the product of the force (N) and the distance of movement (m) is the work (J).
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01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 10: Hydraulic leak > 01: Volumetric efficiency
hydraulics
■ Volumetric Efficiency
Actual discharge (L/min)
Volumetric efficiency (%)= ×100
Theoretical discharge (L/min)
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01‐01‐10‐01
Volumetric efficiency
When oil is discharged from the hydraulic pump, there is always a leak from a gap between the
component parts (internal leak).
This leakage provides lubrication for the components.
The volumetric efficiency indicates the extent of the leak of a hydraulic pump.
Volumetric efficiency (%) = Actual discharge / Theoretical discharge x 100
Generally, when the pressure rises, the leakage increases, and the volumetric efficiency drops.
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01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena
hydraulics
Specific Phenomena
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01‐02
Specific phenomena
In the hydraulic device, which uses oil, various phenomena may occur due to the characteristic of
hydraulics.
These may lead to the device being damaged unless you take preventive measures such as designing the
device so that the phenomena be avoided and operating it to minimize these problems.
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 01: Cavitation
hydraulics
■ Cavitation
Explosion and erosion
Causing bubbles
High Low High

pressure pressure pressure
section section section
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01‐02‐01
Cavitation
Air dissolves in oil very well. In the atmospheric condition, air of 5 to 10% of the volume of oil can dissolve
in the oil. This limit of dissolution is called the saturation limit. The saturation limit is proportional to the
hydraulic pressure. The higher the pressure, the more air dissolves.
When the pressure drops at a point due to the suction of the hydraulic pump or due to the shape of the
oil path, the saturation limit drops making the dissolved air create bubbles in the oil.
This phenomenon is called cavitation.
The bubbles created by the cavitation flow in the oil stream, and when they reach the high pressure
section, they are squashed.
At this time, the oil that squashes the bubbles crashes in generating locally high pressure spots, which
generate noise and shock waves.
As these shock waves erode the metal surfaces of the hydraulic devices and pipe lines, a failure may occur.
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01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 02: Surge pressure
hydraulics
■ Surge Pressure
Shock waves
Causing
damages
Pump
Cylinder
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01‐02‐02
Surge pressure
When you switch the direction switching valve abruptly, or when the piston stops abruptly in the cylinder,
an abnormal high pressure may occur due to the inertia of the moving components or the operation delay
of the pressure regulator valve. This high pressure is called surge pressure.
The impact caused by surge pressure is greater for the high‐pressure/large flow rate circuit. The impact
may damage the hydraulic device.
To protect the hydraulic device from surge pressure, an accumulator should be installed in the circuit.
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01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 03: Chattering
hydraulics
■ Chattering
Pulsation
Spring
Hydraulic Vibration
pressure and noise Poppet
meter
Leaking
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01‐02‐03
Chattering
In a relief valve, high pressure applies to the poppet to compress the spring opening the oil path.
When oil flows at high sped, the pressure around the valve seat suddenly drops and the poppet swiftly
closes. As the oil pressure still remains high, the valve immediately opens again. This repeated opening
and closing of the valve in a short period of time is called chattering, which generates vibration, pulsation,
and noise.
When this is repeated, the seat of the poppet valve is damaged degrading the sealing capability so that it
cannot maintain the required oil pressure.
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01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 04: Hydrolock
hydraulics
■ Hydrolock
hydrolock
Body Body
Grooves on the
periphery
Spool Spool
<No grooves> <Grooves on the periphery of the spool>
Grooves on the
periphery
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01‐02‐04
hydrolock
There is a clearance between the spool and the body for the sliding movement and lubrication. If the oil
flow becomes uneven in the clearance, the pressure distribution becomes uneven causing the spool to be
pushed against the body so that it cannot be moved. This phenomenon is called hydrolock.
To prevent hydrolocking, multiple grooves are created on the periphery of the spool. These grooves
prevent breakage of the oil film and they maintain the pressure that applies to the periphery of the spool
constant.
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01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 05: Flow force
hydraulics
■ Flow Force
Hydraulic motor
Oil flow
Spool
Direction of the
spool going back
22
01‐02‐05
Flow force
Flowing liquid has a force to wash away an object in it. This is called flow force (fluid force). The greater
the flow, the greater the flow force.
In the circuit in the diagram, the spool tries to move in the direction to close the circuit (to the left). As
there is a large quantity of oil from the motor flowing, a large force applies to the spool to push it to the
right.
Even if the spool tries to close the circuit slowly, the flow force hinders the spool to move smoothly. Thus,
a strong force is required, and it quickly moves the spool to close the circuit.
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01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 06: Heat shock
hydraulics
■ Heat Shock
Main path
Body
Pilot
Spool
pressure
Main path
Spool expands
Spring
Heat is generated
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23
01‐02‐06
Heat shock
If the spool is moved without warm‐up when the temperature is low and the flow rate is large, the spool
may thermally expand locally to get stuck. This is called local heat shock.
Normally, this can be prevented by warming up the equipment.
At the moment when the main path is just opened as the spool moves due to the pilot pressure, the path
where oil flows is narrow and the temperature of oil that goes through it becomes hot.
Due to this heat, the spool locally expands (the diameter increases). The body has a large volume and it
does not expand right away.
Normally, there is a clearance between the spool and the body, but if the diameter of the expanded spool
exceeds that of the body, the spool temporarily may get stuck so that the actuator does not stop.
02: Principles and construction of
hydraulic devices

02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump
of hydraulic devices
Pump
25

External
Hydraulic pump Gear pump
contact type
Internal
contact type
Vane pump
Swash
Piston pump Axial pump plate type
Inclined shaft
Symbols type
Radial pump
Piston pump
Variable Fixed 26
capacity capacity
02‐01
Pump
Hydraulic pumps are categorized into the types in the figure.
Graphic symbols used in the hydraulic circuit diagram are shown in the figure. For a variable capacity
pump, an arrow is added. ▲ in the circle is facing outward.
Engine
Engine
Hydraulic pump
Hydraulic pump
Gear pump
Axial pump
Gear pump
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02‐01
Pump
In general, an axial pump is used for a excavator. The oil discharged from the pump drives hydraulic
motors and cylinders.
A gear pump is also installed. The oil from this pump is used to operate control valves.
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 01: Gear pump > 01: Internal contact type
■ Internal Contact Type Gear Pump
Outer rotor
External gear wheel (Internal gear wheel)
Discharge Discharge port
Suction port port
Suction
port
Internal
gear wheel
Partioning Inner rotor
plate (External gear
wheel) <Trochoid type>
<Crescent shaped partioning pate is used>
28
02‐01‐01‐01
Internal contact type gear pump
■ Construction
The internal contact type gear pump consists of a pair of an external gear wheel and an internal gear
wheel.
The external gear wheel is eccentrically located in the internal gear wheel. When the external gear wheel
is rotated by the engine, the internal gear wheel also is rotated.
The trochoid type uses a trochoidal curve for the tooth shape. The inner rotor has one tooth less than the
outer rotor. In the lower part of the drawing, the gear wheels are meshed, while in the upper part only
the tips of the teeth contact against each other to form a space.
■ Operation
As the gear wheels are eccentrically arranged, the spaces created by the two gear wheels expand and
shrink. As they expand, oil is sucked in, and as they shrink, oil is discharged.
In the type with a partioning plate, the oil sucked in as the space between the gear wheels expands is
transferred in the space between the partioning plate and the gear wheels. As the space becomes smaller
at the discharge port, oil is discharged.
■ Characteristics
• The construction is simple and they can be manufactured cheaply.
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02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 01: Gear pump > 02: External contact type
■ External Contact Type Gear Pump
Casing
Driven gear
Suction port Discharge port
Drive gear
29
02‐01‐01‐02
External contact type gear pump
■ Construction
The external contact type gear pump consists of a casing and two gear wheels.
One of the gear wheels is linked to an engine or a motor. As it is rotated, the other is rotated since they
are meshed.
■ Operation
As the gear wheels rotate, oil in the space between the teeth and the casing is transported from the
suction port to the discharge port.
As this process is performed continuously, the mechanism functions as a pump.
The discharge capacity is proportional to the rotational speed of the gear wheels.
■ Characteristics
• The construction is simple and they can be manufactured cheaply.
• Not suitable for a high‐pressure or large capacity pump.
■ Types
Various types of gear are used. As this type cannot be made to be variable in capacity due to its
mechanical construction,
the external contact type gear pump is fixed in capacity.
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02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 02: Vane pump
■ Vane Pump
Cam ring Cam ring
Vane
Discharge
Discharge port
port Suction
Suction port
port
Rotor
Discharge Suction
port port
Shaft Vane
Rotor
<Non‐equilibrium type vane pump> <Equilibrium type vane pump>
30
02‐01‐02
Vane pump
■ Construction
The vane pump consists of the shaft, rotor, vanes, cam ring, and housing. The shaft is linked to an engine
or a motor and is attached to the rotor.
Vanes are inserted in the grooves on the rotor and they can freely move in them. When the rotor rotates,
the vanes move outward until they contact the cam ring due to the centrifugal force.
■ Operation
Since the cam ring is attached to the housing, the areas surrounded by the rotor, vanes, and cam ring
expand and shrink as the rotor rotates.
When the spaces expand, oil flows in through the suction port. Oil flows out through the discharge port as
they shrink. As this process is performed continuously, the mechanism functions as a pump.
■ Characteristics
• The construction is relatively simple and they can be manufactured cheaply.
• The efficiency does not drop significantly if the cam ring and vanes wear out.
• Less pulsation and noise
• Not suitable for high pressure
■ Types
There are two basic types: the equilibrium type and the non‐equilibrium type.
There is also a variable capacity type, which allows adjustment of the discharge.
In the non‐equilibrium type vane pump, pressure is generated only in one side of the rotor. A strong force
that tries to bend the shaft downward applies to the shaft, a failure may occur more easily.
On the other hand, in the equilibrium type, pressure is generated on both sides of the rotor. As the force
bending the shaft is small, there is less possibility of failure.
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02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 01: Axial > 01: Swash plate
of hydraulic devices pump pump type
■ Swash Plate Type Axial Piston Pump Operation on the Operation on the

suction side discharge side
Piston shoe Piston
Swash plate
Shaft
Valve
Cylinder block plate
31
Suction port
Discharge port
02‐01‐03‐01‐01
Swash plate type axial piston pump
■ Construction
The swash plate type axial piston pump consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, swash plate, and
valve plate.
This pump is characterized with the swash plate and the fact that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are
all aligned in parallel.
The shaft is linked to an engine or a motor and is attached to the cylinder block inside the pump.
Several pistons are inserted in the cylinder block, and each of them is connected to a piston shoe
individually with a ball joint.
The piston shoes are arranged so that they are pushed against the swash plate.
■ Operation
When the shaft is rotated, the cylinder block and pistons rotate together. Since the pistons' ends are
pushed against the swash plate, the pistons reciprocate in the cylinder block along the swash plate as they
rotate around the shaft.
As a piston is pulled out, oil is sucked in, and as it is pushed in, oil is discharged. With this reciprocal
movements of the pistons and the function of the valve plate attached to the pump, oil is discharged from
the pump.
By changing the angle of the swash plate, you can change the strokes of the pistons. By changing this
angle, you can change the discharge capacity even with the constant rotational speed of the pump.
■ Characteristics
• High pressure can be obtained
• Efficiency is high
• Structurally, variable capacity type can be easily achieved
• Construction is complicated with a large quantity of components; expensive
31
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 01: Axial > 02: Inclined shaft
of hydraulic devices pump pump type
■ Inclined Shaft Type Axial Piston Pump
Piston
Suction port
Discharge
port
Shaft
Cylinder block
Valve plate
32
02‐01‐03‐01‐02
Inclined shaft type axial piston pump
■ Construction
The inclined shaft type axial piston pump consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, and valve plate.
This pump is characterized with the fact that the rotational axis of the cylinder block is angled against the
drive shaft and that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are all aligned in parallel.
The shaft, which is linked to an engine or a motor, is attached to the cylinder block using a ball joint.
Several pistons are inserted in the cylinder block, and each of them is connected to the shaft individually
with a ball joint.
■ Operation
When the shaft is rotated, the cylinder block and pistons rotate together. Since the pistons' ends are
connected to the shaft, the pistons reciprocate in the cylinder block as they rotate around the shaft.
As a piston is pulled out, oil is sucked in, and as it is pushed in, oil is discharged. With this reciprocal
movements of the pistons and the function of the valve plate attached to the pump, oil is discharged from
the pump.
By changing the angle between the shaft and the cylinder block, you can change the strokes of the
pistons. By changing this angle, you can change the discharge capacity even with the constant rotational
speed of the pump.
■ Characteristics
• Structurally, variable capacity type can be easily achieved
• Construction is complicated with a large quantity of components; expensive
32
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 02: Radial piston pump
of hydraulic devices pump
■ Radial Piston Pump
Discharge stroke
Piston
Cylinder block
Discharge stroke Suction stroke
Eccentric cam
Shaft
Suction stroke 33
Suction stroke
02‐01‐03‐02
Radial piston pump
■ Construction
The radial piston pump consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, and valve mechanism.
This pump is characterized with the fact that the cylinder block and pistons form a right angle against the
shaft. There are various types and the drawing illustrates the one with eccentric cam in the center.
The shaft, which is linked to an engine or a motor, is attached to the eccentric cam.
The eccentric cam has a pentagonal shape around it, and a piston is attached onto each face of the cam.
■ Operation
As the shaft rotates, the eccentric cam rotates orbital as well, and the pistons reciprocate in the cylinder
block. With this reciprocal movements of the pistons and the function of the valve mechanism, oil is
discharged from the pump.
■ Characteristics
• Relatively simple construction among the piston pumps
33
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 03: Reciprocating piston pump
of hydraulic devices pump
■ Reciprocating Piston Pump
Piston
Cylinder
Discharge
port
Check valve Connecting rod
Shaft
Suction port
34
02‐01‐03‐03
Reciprocating piston pump
■ Construction
The reciprocating piston pump consists of the shaft, connecting rod, piston, cylinder, and check valve.
As an engine or a motor rotates the shaft, the piston reciprocates in the cylinder via the connecting rod.
■ Operation
As the piston reciprocates in the cylinder, the volume inside the cylinder expands and shrinks providing
the pumping function of suction and discharge.
During the suction stroke, only the check valve on the suction port opens, while during the discharge
stroke, only the check valve on the discharge port opens to discharge oil from the pump.
34
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor
Motor
35

External contact
Hydraulic motor Gear motor
type
Internal
contact type
Vane motor
Swash
Piston motor Axial motor
plate type
Inclined shaft
Symbols type
Radial motor
Variable Fixed 36
capacity capacity
02‐02
Motor
Hydraulic motors are categorized into the types in the figure.
Graphic symbols used in the hydraulic circuit diagram are shown in the figure. For a variable capacity
pump, an arrow is added. ▲ in the circle is facing inward.
Swing motor
Swing motor Axial piston motor
Travel motor
Travel motor
Axial piston motor
37
02‐02
Motor
A excavator is equipped with the swing motor to swing the upper body and the travel motor to make the
shovel run.
In general, an axial pump is used for a excavator.
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 01: Gear motor > 01: Internal contact type
■ Internal Contact Type Gear Motor
Outer rotor
(Internal gear wheel)
油圧KOmA.pdf
Left on page 24
Use the right side of the internal contact type gear pump.
Change colors.
Pressurized oil Discharge
Inner rotor
(External gear wheel)
Output shaft
38
02‐02‐01‐01
Internal contact type gear motor
■ Construction
The internal contact type gear motor consists of a pair of an external gear wheel and an internal gear
wheel.
The external gear wheel is eccentrically located in the internal gear wheel.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters into the space created between the two gear wheels. The
force to expand the space starts the rotation of the motor.
As the motor rotates, the space moves. When it reaches the discharge port, the oil is discharged. As this
sequence of actions is repeated, the mechanism generates power.
38
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 01: Gear motor > 02: External contact type
■ External Contact Type Gear Motor
Gear Casing
Pressurized oil Discharge
Gear
39
Output shaft
02‐02‐01‐02
External contact type gear motor
■ Construction
The external contact type gear motor consists of a casing and two gear wheels.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump applies to the face of the teeth. It generates power to rotate the
gear wheels.
By supplying oil from the opposite port, reverse rotation is possible.
39
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 02: Vane motor
■ Vane Motor
Rotor
Cam ring
Pressurized Discharge
oil
Output shaft
Spring
Vane
40
02‐02‐02
Vane motor
■ Construction
The vane motor consists of the shaft, rotor, vanes, cam ring, and housing.
The basic construction is the same as that of the vane pump, but for the motor, there are springs installed
to push the vanes against the cam ring.
This is because the centrifugal force is not available for the motor at a startup, in contrast to the case of
the pump. Thus, a mechanism to make the vanes closely contact the cam ring is necessary.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump flows in and the vanes receive the pressure starting the rotor to
rotate.
The space created with the vanes, rotor, and cam ring moves toward the discharge port. When it reaches
the discharge port, the oil is discharged.
As this sequence of actions is repeated, the mechanism generates power.
40
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 03: Piston > 01: Axial piston > 01: Swash plate
of hydraulic devices motor motor type
■ Swash Plate Type Axial Piston Motor
Operation of Piston 1 Operation of Piston 2
Pressurized Discharge
oil
Cylinder Valve plate
Chamber A block
Chamber B
Piston 1
Piston 2
Piston
shoe
Swash plate
Output shaft
41
02‐02‐03‐01‐01
Swash plate type axial piston motor
■ Construction
The swash plate type axial piston motor consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, swash plate, and
valve plate.
This motor is characterized with the swash plate and the fact that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are
all aligned in parallel.
■ Operation
In principle, the operation of this motor is the reverse of the pump. Pressurized oil from the hydraulic
pump rotates the cylinder block to generate power.
Oil sent from the hydraulic pump enters Chamber A of the motor and tries to push out the piston 1 from
the cylinder block. Since the piston 1 is pushed out against the swash plate, this movement makes the
cylinder block rotate. At this time, the piston 2 moves against the opposite side of the swash plate,
discharging the oil in Chamber B. Repeating this cycle, the motor rotates.
In addition, by reversing the direction of the oil flow, the motor can be rotated in the opposite direction.
Furthermore, by increasing or decreasing the oil supply or by changing the angle of the swash plate to
change the piston stroke, the speed of the motor can be adjusted.
41
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 03: Piston > 01: Axial piston > 02: Inclined
of hydraulic devices motor motor shaft type
■ Inclined Shaft Type Axial Piston Motor
Piston 2
Chamber B
Valve plate
Discharge
Output shaft
Pressurized oil
Piston 1
Chamber A
Cylinder block
42
02‐02‐03‐01‐02
Inclined shaft type axial piston motor
■ Construction
The inclined shaft type axial piston motor consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, and valve plate.
This motor is characterized with the fact that the rotational axis of the cylinder block is angled against the
drive shaft and that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are all aligned in parallel.
The shaft is attached to the cylinder block using a ball joint.
■ Operation
In principle, the operation of this motor is the reverse of the pump. Pressurized oil from the hydraulic
pump rotates the cylinder block to generate power.
Oil sent from the hydraulic pump enters Chamber A of the motor and tries to push out the piston 1 from
the cylinder block. Since the piston 1 is connected to the output shaft with a ball joint, it rotates it as well
as the cylinder block. At this time, the piston 2 is pushed in with a ball joint on the opposite side of the
output shaft, discharging the oil in Chamber B. Repeating this cycle, the motor rotates.
In addition, by reversing the direction of the oil flow, the motor can be rotated in the opposite direction.
Furthermore, by increasing or decreasing the oil supply or by changing the angle of the inclined shaft to
change the piston stroke, the speed of the motor can be adjusted.
42
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 03: Piston > 02: Radial piston motor
of hydraulic devices motor
■ Radial Piston Motor
Discharge
Piston
Cylinder block
Connecting rod
Discharge Pressurized oil
Eccentric cam
Output shaft
Pressurized oil Pressurized oil 43
02‐02‐03‐02
Radial piston motor
■ Construction
The radial piston motor consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, connecting rods, and valve
mechanism.
This pump is characterized with the fact that the cylinder block and pistons form a right angle against the
shaft. There are various types and the drawing illustrates the one with eccentric cam in the center.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump is distributed with the valve mechanism entering the cylinders. It
pushes the pistons making the output shaft rotate via the eccentric cam.
After being fully pushed in, the pistons return and the oil is discharged through the valve mechanism.
Repeating this cycle, the motor rotates.
43
02: Principles and construction > 03: Cylinder
Cylinder
44

02: Principles and construction > 03: Cylinder > 01: Single‐acting cylinder
■ Single‐acting Cylinder
Cylinder tube Cylinder head
Air vent
<Extension action>
Bottom end Rod end
Piston rod
Piston Spring
Pressurized oil
Air vent
<Contraction action>
Discharge 45
02‐03‐01
Single‐acting cylinder
This is an actuator that converts hydraulic pressure into a linear movement.
Pressurized oil moves the piston in the cylinder. The rod connected to the piston performs mechanical
work by being pushed out or pulled in.
■ Construction
The ports for the fluid are only on one end of the cylinder (the rod end or the bottom end). After the
piston is moved by the hydraulic pressure, it returns by the force of a spring, its own weight, or the load.
The figure illustrates the one with a spring.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters the cylinder tube to act on the piston causing the rod to
extend. As the pressure drops, the piston returns by the force of a spring or a load.
45
02: Principles and construction > 03: Cylinder > 02: Double‐acting cylinder
■ Double‐acting Cylinder
Discharge
Area to be
Cylinder tube acted on: large Cylinder head
<Extension action>
Bottom end Rod end
Piston rod
Piston
Pressurized oil
Pressurized oil
<Contraction action>
Area to be acted
on: small
46
Discharge
02‐03‐02
Double‐acting cylinder
This is an actuator that converts hydraulic pressure into a linear movement.
Pressurized oil moves the piston in the cylinder. The rod connected to the piston performs mechanical
work by being pushed out or pulled in.
■ Construction
The cylinder has the fluid ports on both ends. By changing the direction of the fluid supply with the
switching valve, this can be either extended or contracted.
The cylinder illustrated in the figure is called "double‐acting single rod cylinder," in which the area to be
acted on of the piston of the bottom end is greater than that of the rod end.
Thus, the cylinder is arranged to be used in the direction in which the greater force required can be
exerted on the extension rather than contraction.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters the bottom end of the cylinder tube to act on the piston
causing the rod to extend. The oil in the rod end of the cylinder tube is discharged.
In the same fashion, pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters the rod end of the cylinder tube to act
on the piston causing the rod to contract.
46
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve
Valve
(Hydraulic pressure control valve)
47

Hydraulic pressure control valve
Directional control valve Pressure control valve Flow control valve
Direction switching valve Relief valve Throttle valve
Shuttle valve Pressure reducing valve
Check valve Proportional valve
Safety valve
Unloading valve
Counter‐balance valve
Suction valve
48
02‐04
Valve (Hydraulic pressure control valve)
Valves that control hydraulic pressure are categorized into the types in the figure.
The directional control valve controls the direction of the flow of the oil.
The pressure control valve controls the pressure generated in the hydraulic circuit and prevents an
abnormal high pressure and negative pressure.
The flow control valve controls the flow rate in the hydraulic circuit.
Relief valve
Control valve
Control valve
Safety valve
49
02‐04
Valve (Hydraulic pressure control valve)
The largest valve in a excavator is the control valve, which distributes hydraulic oil from the hydraulic
pump to various actuators.
Combining various different types of valves allows the excavator to perform powerful and yet delicate
operation.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 01: Directional
of hydraulic devices control valve switching valve
■ Direction Switching Valve (control valve) Symbol
B
A B C
C A
D
Spool
D
Rotor
A B C
B
C A
D
D
50
<Sliding type> <Rotary type>
02‐04‐01‐01
Direction switching valve (Control valve)
■ Purpose
This is used to switch the direction of the oil.
For example, this is used to switch the rotational direction of a hydraulic motor or to switch expansion and
contraction of a hydraulic cylinder.
■ Construction
The direction switching valve consists of the body that has a complicated oil path and the spool (or rotor).
When the spool is moved by a human force, a hydraulic force, or with a electromagnetic solenoid, the
positional relationship between the body and the spool is changed, switching the oil path.
In terms of the construction, there are two types: the sliding type and the rotary type. For the sliding type,
the component that switches the oil path is called a spool, while for the rotary type, it is called a rotor.
For the sliding type, the spool moves in the direction of its axis to switch the oil path, while for the rotary
type, the rotor rotates around its center axis to switch the oil path.
■ Operation
For the sliding type in the illustration above, oil flows from the port D to the port B, but the ports A and C
are not connected.
When the spool is moved toward left (diagram below), the ports D and A become connected via the
groove on its periphery. At the same time, the port B is disconnected from the port D, and it is connected
to the port C.
In this manner, a stepped groove, an internal path of the spool, or a path of the body switches the
direction of the oil flow.
In the rotary type above, the port A is connected to the port B via a path in the rotor. It is disconnected
from other ports by the rotor.
Turning the rotor (the figure below) disconnects the ports A and B and connects the ports A and C.
In this manner, turning the rotor switches the direction of the oil flow.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 01: Directional
of hydraulic devices control valve switching valve
■ Direction Switching Valve (control valve)
51
02‐04‐01‐01
Direction switching valve (control valve)
The control valve used for a excavator has several direction switching valves put together in stages, and
each stage is connected to a cylinder or a motor individually. A single stage control a single actuator.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 02: Shuttle valve
of hydraulic devices control valve
■ Shuttle Valve Symbol
Steel ball
Inlet Inlet
Outlet
52
02‐04‐01‐02
Shuttle valve
■ Purpose
This is used to switch the actuator between the low and high pressures or to ensure the pilot pressure
continuously.
■ Construction
The shuttle valve has two inlets and one outlet with a steel ball inside it.
The steel ball can freely move left and right in the illustration.
■ Operation
When the pressure to the right is higher than that to the left, the steel ball is pushed in to the left closing
the left path.
As a result, the oil from the right can flow through the center path.
When the pressures to the right and left are reversed, the steel ball is pushed in to the right, and the oil
from the left can flow through the center path.
If the oil is forced to flow from the bottom (outlet), the movement of the steel ball is not determined
depending on the position at that time. Thus, this is not used in such a fashion.
52
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 03: Check valve
of hydraulic devices control valve
■ Check Valve Symbol
Spring
Valve seat Poppet
53
02‐04‐01‐03
Check valve
■ Purpose
This is used to make the oil flow in one direction.
This may be used by itself or may be installed in another type of valve.
■ Construction
The construction of a check valve is very simple. It consists of the poppet and the spring that pushes it
against the valve seat.
■ Operation
When the hydraulic pressure of the oil flowing from left to right in the drawing becomes greater than the
spring force, the poppet is pushed open and the oil can flow to the right. If the hydraulic pressure of the
oil to the right of the poppet becomes high, it pushed the poppet against the valve seat, and the oil
cannot flow to the left.
53
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 01: Relief valve
of hydraulic devices valve
■ Relief Valve Symbol
Pilot poppet Pilot spring
Adjusting screw
Spring
C
Main
spring
To the
tank B
Adjusting
Main screw
Poppet
Pressurized poppet
oil A
To the Valve seat
tank T
A
Pressurized oil
<Direct action type> <Equilibrium piston type> 54
02‐04‐02‐01
Relief valve
■ Purpose
The relief valve protects the pump and other hydraulic devices from excessive pressure. It is also used to
control the pressure of the hydraulic system to be constant.
■ Types
There are two types of relief valves: the direct action type and the equilibrium piston type.
The direct action type has a simple construction with the excellent follow‐up capability.
On the other hand, the equilibrium piston type has a complicated construction but can maintain the
circuit pressure more stably.
■ Construction
The relief valve consists of the poppet, spring, and adjusting screw.
The oil path that is opened/closed with the poppet valve is connected to the main pipe line and the other
is connected to the pipe line connected to the tank.
Normally, the path is closed as the poppet is pushed by the spring.
■ Operation
In the direct action type, when the pressure at the port A increases and the force greater than the spring
force applies to the poppet, the poppet is pushed open and the oil escapes to the port T lowering the
pressure in the path.
In the equilibrium piston type, the ports A and T are shut off with the main poppet. The pressure at the
port A applies to the pilot poppet via the path B and the chamber C. The main poppet is pushed up by the
pressure of the port A, but the pressure of the chamber C (same as the port A) and the spring force are
stronger and it stays closed.
When the pressure at the port A rises and pushes the poppet open, the pressure of the chamber C drops.
Then, as the force to push down the main poppet is reduced, the main poppet is pushed up letting the oil
escape through the port T reducing the pressure in the path.
The operation is the same as that of the relief valve, but for the safety valve, the direct action type valve,
which is simple in construction with the excellent follow‐up capability, is used.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 02: Pressure reducing
of hydraulic devices valve valve
■ Pressure Reducing Valve Symbol
To the tank Needle valve
Spring Adjusting screw
Spool
Primary
pressure
Spring
Secondary
pressure
55
02‐04‐02‐02
Pressure reducing valve
■ Purpose
The pressure reducing valve is used to create a pressure lower than the main path pressure.
■ Construction
The pressure reducing valve consists of the spool, needle valve, spring, and adjusting screw.
As the spool is pushed down by the spring force, the path from the primary line to the secondary line is
open.
■ Operation
Since the channel from the primary line to the secondary line is narrow, the pressure in the secondary line
becomes lower than that in the primary line.
This pressure in the secondary line applies not only to the secondary line itself but also to the needle valve
located at the top, flowing through the spool from the bottom of the spool.
When the pressure in the secondary line becomes higher than the setup value, the needle valve opens
letting the oil above the spool flow to the tank, lowering the pressure above the spool.
As a result, the spool is pushed up making the channel from the primary line to the secondary line
narrower, reducing the pressure in the secondary line.
Repeating this cycle, the pressure in the secondary line is kept constant.
55
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 03: Proportional valve
■ Proportional Valve Symbol
Spool
Coil Spring
Movable iron core Port P Port T

Yoke
56
02‐04‐02‐03
Proportional valve
■ Purpose
This is used to adjust the flow and pressure of a oil that requires finer control or remote control.
■ Construction
The proportional valve consists of the solenoid section, which contains the coil, yoke, and movable iron
core, the spool, and the spring.
The proportional valve is also called the proportional electromagnetic valve. This is characterized by the
fact that the opening and closing of the valve are electrically controlled.
Unless the coil is energized, the spool is pushed to the left in the drawing by the spring force, and the
ports P and T are connected.
■ Operation
When the coil is energized, the magnetic force is generated to push out the movable iron core.
As the movable iron core is attached to the spool, the spool is pushed to the right making the channel
between the ports A and T narrow or fully closed.
The travel of the spool is proportional to the current which goes through the coil. And hence, the opening
of the channel can be variably and freely adjusted.
The pressure is adjusted with the contraction of the spring in the pressure reducing valve and relief valve,
but combining this function, the pressure can be adjusted electrically in this type of the valve.
56
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 04: Safety valve
■ Safety Valve Symbol
Poppet
Abnormal
high pressure
Spring Adjusting screw
<Direct action type safety valve>
To the tank
57
02‐04‐02‐04
Safety valve
■ Purpose
The safety valve is used to prevent a breakage in a pipe line and a damage of a hydraulic device due to an
abnormal high pressure in the circuit.
■ Construction
The safety valve consists of the poppet, spring, and adjusting screw.
The oil path that is opened/closed with the poppet valve is connected to the main pipe line and the other
is connected to the pipe line connected to the tank.
Normally, the path to the tank is closed as the poppet is pushed by the spring.
■ Operation
When the pressure in the hydraulic circuit rises and the pressure greater than the spring force applies to
the poppet, the oil path is opened to release oil to the tank.
The basic construction is the same as that of the relief valve, but for the safety valve, the direct action
type valve, which is simple in construction with the excellent follow‐up capability, is used.
57
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 05: Unloading valve
■ Unloading Valve Symbol
Pilot pressure
Spring
From
the
pump
Spool
Spring
chamber
To the tank To the tank
<When the actuator is working> <When the actuator is stopped>
58
02‐04‐02‐05
Unloading valve
■ Purpose
The unloading valve lowers the pressure in the oil path to reduce energy consumption when the actuator
is stopped.
■ Construction
The construction of the unloading valve is basically the same as that of the relief valve. It consists of the
spool and spring.
In the one illustrated in the drawing, the pilot pressure is connected to the spring chamber.
■ Operation
When the actuator is working with the hydraulic pressure from the pump, the pilot pressure applies to the
spring chamber. The pressure and the spring force are combined to push the spool to the right.
In this state, the paths from the pump and to the tank are closed, and the hydraulic oil from the pump all
goes to the actuator.
When the actuator is stopped, the pilot pressure to the spring chamber is lost. The hydraulic oil from the
pump pushes the spool to the left in spite of the spring force.
Then the oil path to the tank is opened and the oil from the tank all goes back to the tank, eliminating the
load.
58
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 06: Counter‐balance
of hydraulic devices valve valve
■ Counter‐balance Valve Symbol
Adjusting screw
Spring
From the To the
direction Check direction
switching valve switching
valve valve
To the From the
actuator actuator
Spool
<Flow in the forward direction> <Flow in the reverse direction> 59
02‐04‐02‐06
Counter‐balance valve
■ Purpose
The counter‐balance valve is used to create a back pressure so that the actuator does not run faster than
the controlled speed.
■ Construction
There are various types of the counter‐balance valves. The one illustrated is a basic one that consists of
the spool, check valve, spring, and adjusting screw. The paths from the pump (switching valve) and to the
actuator are shut off with the spool and the check valve.
■ Operation
When the oil flows from the pump (switching valve) to the actuator (forward direction), the spool is
pushed downward by the spring, and the path from the pump to the actuator is closed.
However, as the oil from the pump can push open the check valve, it flows to the actuator through the
check valve.
On the other hand, when the oil returns from the actuator to the tank (switching valve) (reverse
direction), it cannot go through the check valve as the flow closes the check valve.
Then, the return oil from the actuator, whose pressure rises as it is enclosed, flows underneath the spool
pushing it up.
Then, finally, the path to the tank is opened letting the return oil go back to the tank.
In this fashion, this creates a resistance (back pressure) only for the return oil from the actuator.
59
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 07: Suction valve
■ Suction Valve Symbol
Suction valve closed Suction valve opened
Up Up
Down Down
Hydraulic Cylinder Hydraulic

Cylinder
pump pump
Tank Tank
60
<Cylinder moving up> <Cylinder moving down>
60
02‐04‐02‐07
Suction valve
■ Purpose
This prevents a negative pressure from being generated in the circuit when the actuator moves exceeding
a limit because of an external force.
■ Construction
The construction of the suction valve is basically the same as that of the check valve. It consists of the
poppet and the spring that pushes it against the valve seat.
■ Operation
The oil going upward in the illustration can push the poppet open to flow upward, while the downward
flow pushes the poppet against the valve seat to shut it off.
In the illustration, for example, the hydraulic cylinder is supposed to contract because of the oil from the
pump. But the external force which applies to the cylinder is so great that it contracts by itself.
If this happens, a negative pressure would be created in the path between the pump and the hydraulic
cylinder, causing an adverse effect on the circuit.
To prevent this, a suction valve is installed in the circuit. When a negative pressure starts to be created, oil
from the tank is sucked into the circuit to eliminate the potential problem.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 03: Flow control > 01: Throttle valve
■ Throttle Valve Symbol
Adjusting screw
Needle valve
Inlet Outlet
61
02‐04‐03‐01
Throttle valve
■ Purpose
The throttle valve is used to prevent spilling when a pipe line is to be replaced by fully closing it as well as
to adjust the flow of the oil.
■ Construction and operation
There are various types of the throttle valves. The one illustrated is of the most simple construction
consisting of the adjusting screw and the needle valve.
By making the path from the inlet narrow or fully closed with the needle valve, the flow of the oil is
controlled.
61
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices
Auxiliary devices
62

02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 01: Accumulator
■ Accumulator
Delivery valve
Nitrogen Piston
Delivery valve
O‐ring
Diaphragm
Pressurized oil
Nitrogen Nitrogen
<Piston type>
Pressurized Delivery valve
oil
Bladder
Nitrogen
Poppet valve
Oil inlet/outlet Oil inlet/outlet
<Diaphragm type>
Oil <Bladder type>
63
02‐05‐01
Accumulator
■ Roles
The accumulator is used to store pressure and to absorb impacts.
Storing pressure allows you to obtain large power by releasing the stored oil when a large quantity of flow
is temporarily required or to respond to the change in the amount of oil due to a leakage in the circuit.
As it also absorbs the fluctuation of the hydraulic pressure, it absorbs the pulsation generated by the
pump, reducing noise. When a surge pressure occurs, it absorbs it to protect the devices.
■ Construction
In terms of the construction, the accumulators are categorized into three types: the diaphragm type, the
bladder type, and the piston type.
<Diaphragm type>
Generally, this is used for small capacity pressure storage and to absorb pulsation. It is considered to have
an excellent responsiveness to the change in pressure.
The pressure vessel is charged with nitrogen. A rubber diaphragm is used to separate the nitrogen from
the oil.
<Bladder type>
This type is used for a relatively large capacity. It has an excellent responsiveness just like the diaphragm
type.
In the pressure vessel is housed a bladder, which is similar to a rubber balloon, to separate the nitrogen
from the oil.
<Piston type>
Its responsiveness is inferior to the other types, but it has a higher reliability as there is no rubber part
that gets broken which makes it impossible to be used.
A metal piston is used to separate the nitrogen from the oil in the pressure vessel. To prevent leakage,
multiple O‐rings are installed.
■ Operation
When the pressurized oil is connected, the nitrogen chamber is compressed to a higher pressure, storing
the energy.
When the pressure of the circuit becomes lower, the energy of the charged gas pushes out oil,
compensating the drop in pressure.
* Rubber parts such as diaphragms are not completely gas tight. Nitrogen goes through them gradually. In
an extended period of time, nitrogen gas may be gone.
63
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 02: Oil cooler
■ Oil Cooler
High
temperature
oil
Wind from the fan
<Liquid cooling system> Cooled down oil
Coolant inlet
<Air cooling system>
Cooled
down oil
High
temperature Coolant outlet
oil
64
02‐05‐02
Oil cooler
■ Roles
When a hydraulic device is operated, the oil temperature gradually rises. When it becomes too hot, the
leakage amount may increase or the lubrication may become faulty.
When the oil is left in a high temperature for a long period of time, oxidization of the oil advances,
shortening the service life of oil.
Thus, it is necessary to remove heat from the oil via an oil cooler to maintain the oil temperature in a
certain range.
■ Construction
<Liquid cooling system>
The one in the left illustration is a liquid cooling type oil cooler. The high temperature oil flows through
the center pipe. The coolant around it cools down the oil. The liquid cooling type oil cooler is common as
the engine oil cooler.
<Air cooling system>
The one in the right illustration is an air cooling type oil cooler. This is of the same construction as the
radiator. Oil is cooled down while it flows through the oil path in the cooler with the wind blown by the
fan.
The air cooling type oil cooler is common as the hydraulic oil cooler for a excavator.
64
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 02: Oil cooler
■ Oil Cooler
Oil inlet Oil inlet
Wind from the fan
Wind from the fan
<Plate fin type> <Corrugated fin type>
65
02‐05‐02
Oil cooler
■ Construction
In the air cooling type oil cooler, the hydraulic oil flows through the oil cooler tubes. Fins made of copper
or steel whose heat conductivity is high are attached around the tubing to obtain high radiation efficiency.
When the fin has a plate shape, the cooler is called the plate fin type, while when it has a corrugated
shape, it is called the corrugated fin type.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 03: Hoses
■ Hoses
Reinforcement layers
Inner rubber layer
Intermediate Outer rubber layer
rubber layer
66
02‐05‐03
Hoses
■ Roles
The hoses are used as movable pipes.
Nylon hoses are used for non‐high pressure areas. In the high pressure areas, the hydraulic hoses which
can withstand the high pressure are used.
■ Construction
The hydraulic hoses have multiple layers, and depending on the purposes and pressures, the material and
the thickness of a layer vary.
The drawing shows a sample of a common hydraulic hose.
• Inner rubber layer
This is made of artificial oil resistant rubber to prevent leakage of oil flowing through the hose.
• Reinforcement layer
This is made of hard steel wires or nylon fibers weaved into meshes. This has pressure‐proof capacity to
prevent expansion and breakage due to the internal pressure of the hose.
• Intermediate rubber layer
This is made of artificial wear‐proof rubber. This is positioned between the reinforcement layers to
prevent them from contacting each other becoming worn out.
• Outer rubber layer
This is made of artificial wear‐proof, weather‐resistant rubber. It protects the reinforcement layers from
physical or chemical damages.
66
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 03: Hoses
■ Hoses
Band Hose
Fittings
67
02‐05‐03
Hoses
■ Joints
Fittings (Joints) for connecting the hose are attached on both ends of the hose so that the hose can be
easily installed or detached.
A fitting is inserted in the hose and a band is crimped on it to securely fasten it.
The end of the fitting is not structurally strong. Connect the hose so that no twisting, pulling, or bending
occurs in that region.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 04: Swivel joint
■ Swivel Joint
Oil path Oil path
Spindle
Body
Body
O‐ring
Oil
paths
68
68
02‐05‐04
Swivel joint
■ Roles
The swivel joint is also called the rotary joint. It connects the hydraulic circuits in the upper swing body
and in the lower body of a excavator.
These joints allow the upper swing body to swing with no limit on the rotational angle.
The spindle is inserted in the cylindrical body, supported with O‐rings and seals, making 360 degree free
rotation possible.
Multiple oil paths are created in the spindle parallel to its axis and they are connected to the paths on the
side at different distances from one end.
The body has grooves inside it corresponding to the oil paths on the side of the spindle. The ports
connected to these respective grooves are created on the outside of the body. A seal is installed between
the grooves to prevent leakage.
When the spindle turns inside the body with a swing of the upper swing body, each oil path remains
securely connected.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 05: Joint
■ Joint
<Screw (tapered screw) type> <ORS type>
Thread seal tape O‐ring
O‐ring
Tapered
<Flared type>
<Flanged type> 69
02‐05‐05
Joint
There are several types of joints to connect hydraulic hoses depending on the pressure.
<Screw (tapered screw) type>
This joint is for low pressure, which uses a tapered screw whose diameter is smaller at the tip. To ensure a
good seal at the thread, thread seal tape is wrapped around the male thread before installation.
<Flared type>
This joint is for high pressure. The mating surfaces are tapered to provide a good seal by pressing against
strongly to each other.
<ORS type>
This is similar to the screw type, but the screw section has a normal thread. This has a groove for an O‐ring
at the end, and the O‐ring provides a good seal.
<Flanged type>
The mating surfaces of the joints are flanged. They are secured with multiple sets of bolts and nuts
arranged in the circumference. One flange has a groove for an O‐ring, which provides a good seal of the
joint.
69
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 06: Tank
■ Tank Symbol
Return filter
Air breather
Hydraulic oil tank
From actuators
and valves
<Location of the hydraulic oil tank>
Suction strainer
70
To the hydraulic pump
02‐05‐06
Tank
■ Roles
The tank is a place to store the hydraulic oil as its name suggests, but it also has other roles:
• Diffuses heat in the hydraulic oil generated in the system.
• Precipitates dirt and rust.
The tank generally has two filters installed.
One is the suction strainer that prevents the pump from sucking up dirt in the tank.
The other is the return filter that entraps contaminants in the oil returned from the actuators.
The tank has the air breather on its top panel to maintain the pressure of the tank constant. This pressure
is slighter higher than the atmospheric pressure to make it easier for the pump to suck the oil.
70
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 01: O‐ring
■ O‐ring
O‐ring
<Before installation>
<When installed>
71
02‐05‐07‐01
O‐ring
■ Roles
There is always a minute clearance between the mating surfaces of the hydraulic devices and pipe lines.
An O‐ring is used to seal off these clearances to prevent oil leakage.
■ Types
An O‐ring is a seal in the shape of torus with a round cross section. It can be use either for a static
application or a dynamic application, and various materials such as rubber and Teflon are used.
A type suitable for the conditions should be selected to prevent breakage, swelling, and brittle cracking.
71
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 01: O‐ring
■ O‐ring
Generation of repulsive force
As deformation increases, repulsive force increases as well
High pressure
72
02‐05‐07‐01
O‐ring
■ Principles of sealing
When the O‐ring installed in the groove is squeezed, the repulsive force is generated to provide seal.
When pressure applies to the O‐ring, the O‐ring is deformed further. This makes the repulsive force
stronger resulting in a better seal.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 02: Oil seal
■ Oil Seal
Metal ring Spring
Rotating/Sliding shaft
Low High
pressure pressure
side side
73
02‐05‐07‐02
Oil seal
■ Roles
This is used to prevent leakage on the rotating shaft such as the motor output shaft and on the sliding
shaft such as the cylinder rod.
■ Construction
The oil seal is generally made of rubber or plastics, and it touches the shaft with no clearance. The seal has
a direction for installation as it uses the pressure in the high pressure side to increase its sealing capacity.
73
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 03: U‐packing
■ U‐packing
U‐packing Backup ring
74
02‐05‐07‐03
U‐packing
■ Roles
The U‐packing is a radial shaft seal with U‐shaped cross section. It is commonly used on a shaft that moves
in the axial direction, such as a hydraulic rod and a piston.
This has a good seal performance with less sliding resistance. By selecting an appropriate material, this can
be used under various conditions.
However, it may be deformed under high pressure, and a backup ring should be used with it under such
circumstances.
74
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 04: Backup ring
■ Backup Ring
Backup ring
75
<Endless> <Spiral> <Bias‐cut>
02‐05‐07‐04
Backup ring
■ Roles
This is installed on the low pressure side of an O‐ring or a U‐packing, to prevent the seal from being
deformed and pushed out through the clearance due to the pressure.
■ Materials
Depending on the applications, the materials for the backup rings include:
• Teflon (fluoroplastic)
Currently the most common material
• Nylon (polyamide resin)
This has stronger pressure resistance than Teflon, but its thermal resistance is inferior to Teflon.
• Light metal
This has stronger pressure resistance than Teflon, but it may damage the O‐ring or the seal.
• Hard rubber
• Leather
Currently not commonly used.
■ Shapes
There are three shapes of the backup rings:
• Endless
• Spiral
• Bias‐cut
The effectiveness decreases in this order, but the endless type cannot be used in some cases, and the
other types, the spiral and bias‐cut, are provided.
75
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 08: Filter > 01: Return filter
■ Return Filter Symbol
Return filter
Filter element
Hydraulic oil tank
Enlarged image of the filter element surface Suction strainer
76
02‐05‐08‐01
Return filter
■ Roles
The return filter catches dirt and particles when hydraulic oil discharged by the hydraulic pump activates
the actuators and returns to the tank.
■ Construction
The one in the illustration is installed in the return filter chamber inside the hydraulic oil tank. There is
another type that is installed outside the tank.
The filter has fine porosity with a large size (filtering area).
The filter element that entraps contaminants is made of paper or plastic fibers.
As the filter entraps contaminants in the hydraulic oil that may have adverse effect on the actuators, it
may eventually become clogged with the entrapped contaminants. As the filter is designed to be suitable
for construction machinery, non‐genuine filters may be inferior in its filtering performance resulting in a
failure of an actuator.
The filter should be replaced at specified intervals with a genuine filter.
76
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 08: Filter > 02: Suction strainer
■ Suction Strainer Symbol
Guide holder Return filter
Center bolt
Hydraulic oil tank
Filter element
Suction strainer
77
O‐ring
02‐05‐08‐02
Suction strainer
■ Roles
The suction strainer is installed on the suction side of the hydraulic pump in the hydraulic oil tank. It
catches relatively large particles so that they be not sent to the pump.
■ Construction
The one in the illustration has a rod extending upward from the strainer unit, which allows maintenance
of the filter irrespective to the level of oil in the tank.
77
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 08: Filter > 03: In‐line filter
■ In‐line Filter
Oil inlet Oil outlet
Filter element
78
02‐05‐08‐03
In‐line filter
■ Purpose
Due to the issue of suction resistance of the hydraulic pump, the filtering accuracy of the suction strainer
cannot be made high.
(A negative pressure may be generated by the hydraulic pump if it is set too high, causing cavitation in
the system.)
Thus, a much finer in‐line filter is installed on the discharge side of the hydraulic pump to catch any
contaminants in the oil.
■ Construction
The illustration shows the basic construction. This is installed in the middle of the pipe line.
As the filter element, notched wire, metal mesh, sintered metal, or paper is used. Depending on the
circumstances, a suitable material and mesh size should be selected.
The filter element can be replaced with the filter unit left installed in the pipe line.
When the filtering accuracy is high, the filter tends to be easily clogged. Hence, some filters have a gauge
indicating the difference in pressure between the inlet and outlet, and some have a bypass valve which
opens a bypass path when they become clogged.
78
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 09: Hydraulic oil
■ Hydraulic Oil
Mineral hydraulic oil Aqueous hydraulic oil Synthetic hydraulic oil
Wear‐ Water‐ Aqueous‐ Phosphate Fatty acid

Universal High VI glycol solubilized
hydraulic resistant hydraulic ester ester
hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic
oil oil oil oil
oil oil oil
Viscosity index
Low‐temperature
performance
Wear resistance
Oxidation stability
Hydrolysis stability
Rust resistance /
Decay resistance
Compatibility with
seals
Compatibility with
paints
Fire resistance
Waste oil disposal /
Drainage treatment
79
02‐05‐09
Hydraulic oil
■ Roles
The hydraulic oil is pressurized by the pump and it transmits power to the actuators while lubricating the
sliding components.
■ Required properties
The following properties are required of the hydraulic oil.
• Has an appropriate level of viscosity, which does not significantly change by temperature,
• Has oility at low temperature,
• Is hard to be transformed even when used at high temperature,
• Has an excellent oxidation stability,
• Is not corrosive to metals,
• Has an excellent rust resistance,
• Does not erode rubber and paint,
• Has an excellent antifoaming performance, and
• Is hard to burn.
■ Types
There are numerous types of hydraulic oils, but they can be categorized into three major groups:
• Mineral hydraulic oil
• Aqueous hydraulic oil
• Synthetic hydraulic oil
The table summarizes characteristics of each type.
Generally, in the excavator, a mineral hydraulic oil is used.
79
03: Basic Hydraulic
Circuits
80
80
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 01: Cylinder circuit
■ Cylinder Circuit
Cylinder
<Flow control valve>
Variable throttle
valve Controls the operational speed of
an actuator.
<Direction switching valve>
Control valve
Controls the operational direction
of an actuator.
Relief valve
<Pressure control valve>
Restricts the maximum pressure
of the system.
Pump Electric motor
81
Tank
03‐01‐01
Cylinder circuit
The drawing illustrates a basic circuit for a double‐acting cylinder.
An electric motor drives the hydraulic pump and the oil is sucked up from the tank to be delivered to the
circuit.
Hydraulic oil performs "work" by going to the cylinder and coming back. During this process, it receives
three types of controls (adjustments).
■ Maximum pressure of the system is restricted
The maximum oil pressure created by the pump is controlled with the pressure control valve (relief valve).
This process prevents the circuit and the hydraulic devices from an abnormal high pressure.
■ Control of direction
The control of direction means the control of the direction in which the actuator is operated.
The direction switching valve (control valve) switches the direction of work by switching the direction of
the flow of the oil to extend or contact the cylinder.
■ Control of flow rate
The control of flow rate means the control of the speed at which the actuator is operated.
The oil controlled by the direction switching valve enters in one end of the cylinder. Then, the oil in the
other end of the piston is pushed out. In the return path of this oil is installed a flow control valve (variable
throttling valve in this case) which adjusts the velocity of the return flow to control the speed of the
movement of the piston.
81
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 02: Motor circuit
■ Motor Circuit
Hydraulic motor
Brake mechanism
<Pressure adjusting valve>
Counter‐ Counter‐
balance valve balance valve Adjusts the operational speed of
an actuator.
<Direction switching valve>
Control valve Controls the operational direction
of an actuator.
<Pressure control valve>
Relief valve Restricts the maximum pressure
of the system.
Hydraulic pump Engine
82
Tank
03‐01‐02
Motor circuit
The drawing illustrates a basic circuit for a hydraulic motor.
An engine drives the hydraulic pump and the oil is sucked up from the tank to be delivered to the circuit.
Hydraulic oil performs "work" by going to the motor and coming back. During this process, it receives
three types of controls (adjustments).
■ Maximum pressure of the system is restricted
The maximum oil pressure created by the pump is controlled with the pressure control valve (relief valve).
This process prevents the circuit and the hydraulic devices from an abnormal high pressure.
■ Control of direction
The control of direction means the control of the direction in which the actuator is operated.
The direction switching valve (control valve) switches the direction of work by switching the direction of
the flow of the oil so that the rotational direction of the motor is switched.
■ Adjusting the pressure
The oil controlled by the direction switching valve enters in one port of the motor. Then, oil is discharged
from the other port of the motor. In the return path of this oil is installed a pressure adjusting valve
(counter‐balance valve in this case) which generates back pressure to prevent excursion of the motor due
to an external force.
82
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 03: Series circuit
■ Series Circuit
Tank Tank
Control valve B Control valve B
Cylinder B Cylinder B
Tank Tank
Control valve A Control valve A
Cylinder A Cylinder A
From the pump From the pump
<Only Control valve A is operated> <Both Control valves A and B are operated>
83
03‐01‐03
Series circuit
The series circuit has two actuator circuits connected in series.
When the upstream actuator is operated, its return oil operates the downstream actuator.
■ Characteristics
When the two actuators are operated simultaneously, the full amount of discharged oil flows into both
actuators, and hence the efficiency is good.
However, in the cylinder circuit in the illustration, when the upstream cylinder (cylinder A) comes to the
end of the stroke, no oil is delivered to the downstream cylinder (cylinder B) any more.
■ Operation
<Only Control valve A (or B) is operated>
When the control valve A (B) is operated, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder A (B)
and the oil on the right side is pushed out. It returns to the tank through the control valve A (B).
<Both Control valves A and B are operated>
Going through the control valve A, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder A and the oil
on the right side is pushed out to go into the control valve B.
Having entered into the control valve B, the oil goes into the left side of the cylinder B and the oil on the
right side is pushed out to return to the tank.
83
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 04: Parallel circuit
■ Parallel Circuit
Tank Tank
Control valve B Control valve B
Tank Tank
Tank Tank
<Only Control valve A is operated> <Both Control valves A and B are operated>
84
03‐01‐04
Parallel circuit
The parallel circuit has two actuator circuits connected in parallel.
■ Characteristics
As the actuator circuits are independent from each other, they can be independently operated
individually.
However, when both are operated simultaneously, the total flow from the pump is distributed between
the two actuators according to their loads. Thus, the actuator with a lighter load moves faster.
In addition, if the difference in the loads is too great, the actuator of the larger load may not move.
■ Operation
<Only Control valve A (or B) is operated>
When the control valve A (B) is operated, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder A (B)
and the oil on the right side is pushed out. It returns to the tank through the control valve A (B).
Pressurized oil from the pump is also supplied to the control valve B even when the control valve A is
operated. Thus, oil goes into both cylinders and the oil which is pushed out returns to the tank through
the respective pipe lines.
84
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 05: Tandem circuit
■ Tandem Circuit
Tank Tank
Control valve B
Control valve B
Tank Tank
Tank Tank
Path downstream open Path downstream closed
<Only Control valve B is operated> <Both Control valves A and B are operated>
85
03‐01‐05
Tandem circuit
The tandem circuit is also called the priority circuit. When the upstream actuator is operated, no oil is
delivered to the downstream actuator.
■ Characteristics
The upstream actuator has priority over the other actuator, but each of them can be operated
individually.
However, when both are operated simultaneously, the path from upstream to downstream is closed and
the downstream cylinder B does not operate.
■ Operation
<Only Control valve B (A) is operated>
When the control valve B (A) is operated, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder B (A)
and the oil on the right side is pushed out. It returns to the tank through the control valve B (A).
Pressurized oil from the pump is not supplied to the control valve B when the control valve A is operated.
Thus, oil goes only into the cylinder A and the oil which is pushed out returns to the tank through the
control valve A, only operating the cylinder A.
85
04: Actual hydraulic
circuits
86
04
Actual hydraulic circuits
This section describes how to read the diagrams of the actual hydraulic circuits used for excavator.
86
04: Actual hydraulic > 01: Symbols
circuits
■ Symbols
Electric motor Solenoid valve In‐line filter Outlet
Connection
Engine Relief valve Oil cooler
symbol
Fixed capacity
Check valve Swivel joint Accumulator
hydraulic motor
Variable
capacity Shuttle valve Rotary joint Pressure switch
hydraulic motor
Variable
capacity Stop valve Open type tank Pressure gauge
hydraulic pump
Electromagnetic
Fixed capacity proportional Pressurizing
pressure reducing Cylinder
hydraulic pump tank
valve
Main
Pressure source Spool
pressurized line
Remote control Pilot pressurized
Suction filter
valve line
87
04‐01
Symbols
The symbols used in the hydraulic circuit diagram are established in "JIS ( Japanese Industrial Standard )"
based on "ISO," which is the international standard.
The table shows the major symbols.
87
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 01: Main line
circuits
■ Main Line
Hydraulic
motor
Main line
(drawn in a solid line)
Control valve
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 88
Tank
04‐02‐01
Main line
The line that starts at the hydraulic pump and goes to the actuator through valves such as the control
valve is called the "main line."
JIS states that this should be marked in a solid line in the circuit diagram.
This is in red in the illustration.
88
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 02: Pilot line
circuits
■ Pilot Line
Hydraulic
motor
Pilot line
(drawn in a short dash line whose
width is one‐fifth of the length of a
short dash)
Control valve
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 89
Tank
04‐02‐02
Pilot line
The signal line that activates a spool is called the "pilot line."
JIS states that this should be marked in a short dash line whose width is one‐fifth of the length of a short
dash in the circuit diagram.
This is in green in the illustration.
89
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 03: Return line
circuits
■ Return Line
Hydraulic
motor
Return line
Control valve (drawn in a solid line)
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 90
Tank
04‐02‐03
Return line
The line that goes back from the actuator to the tank is called the "return line."
Both this line and the "drain line" are called low pressure lines.
JIS states that this should be marked in a solid line in the circuit diagram.
This is in blue in the illustration.
90
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 04: Drain line
circuits
■ Drain Line
Hydraulic
motor
Drain line
(drawn in a long dash line whose
Control valve width is one‐tenth of the length of a
long dash)
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 91
Tank
04‐02‐04
Drain line
Hydraulic devices always have internal leak because of their construction. The "drain line" returns this
leaked oil back to the tank.
Both this line and the "return line" are called low pressure lines.
JIS states that this should be marked in a long dash line whose width is one‐tenth of the length of a long
dash in the circuit diagram.
This is in orange in the illustration.
91
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve
circuits
Control valve
92
04‐03‐01
Control valve
This section describes the oil flow in the control valves in the hydraulic circuit diagram.
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 01: Spool
circuits
■ Spool
Neutral position To the tank
(not operated)
From the pump
Moved to the right
To the cylinder
From the cylinder
From the remote
control valve
(Pilot pressure)
To the tank
From the pump
Moved to the left
From the cylinder
To the cylinder
From the remote
control valve
(Pilot pressure) To the tank
93
From the pump
04‐03‐01‐01
Spool
The spool switches the oil path by moving inside the control valve in the axial direction.
The arrows in the spool indicate the direction of the oil flow.
Note that the actual spool does not have three different blocks (left, center, and right). The blocks are
used to indicate the oil flow for convenience.
■ Neutral position
When the pilot pressure, which switches the spool, is not applied, the oil goes through the center block
circuit of the spool and returns to the tank.
■ Moved to the right
When the control lever is moved, the pilot pressure from the remote control valve starts to apply to the
right side of the spool. Then, the spool moves to the right and lets the oil go through the left‐side block of
the spool.
■ Moved to the left
On the other hand, when the pilot pressure applies to the right side, the spool moves to the left and lets
the oil go through the right‐side block of the spool. As the connected paths differ from those connected
when the spool moves to the right, the cylinder moves in the opposite direction.
93
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 02: Load hold valve
circuits
■ Load Hold Valve
When holding the load Release spool
Poppet
Cylinder
Poppet
close
When the boom is getting lowered
Release spool
To the tank Poppet
Cylinder
Pilot pressure
Poppet To the tank
open
Moved to the right
Release spool
Poppet
Cylinder
Poppet From the
open pump 94
Pilot pressure
04‐03‐01‐02
Load hold valve
As the spool can move axially in the body to switch the oil flow, there is always a clearance between the
spool and the body. Because oil leaks through this clearance, the cylinder gets lowered as time passes.
The load hold valve stops this leakage by shutting off the path before the poppet to prevent the
spontaneous lowering of the cylinder.
■ When holding the load
The hold pressure of the cylinder applies to both the bottom face of the poppet and the top face of the
poppet through the release spool. Therefore, the pressures on the top and bottom faces are the same,
but as the top area is greater than the bottom area, the poppet is pushed down to seal off the path.
■ When the boom is getting lowered
In order to let oil return from a cylinder by opening the poppet when you want to lower the boom, the
pilot pressure from the remote control valve moves the release spool.
The return oil from the cylinder does not apply to the top face of the poppet any more, and the poppet is
pushed up letting the return oil from the cylinder go back to the tank.
■ When the boom is getting raised
When you want to raise the boom, the poppet should be opened as well, but since the high pressure from
the pump applies to the bottom face of the poppet, the poppet is pushed up to open the path to the
cylinder.
94
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 03: Regeneration circuit
circuits
■ Regeneration Circuit
When the boom is getting lowered
Check valve opened
To the tank Cylinder
From the pump
When the boom is getting lowered to dig
Check valve closed
To the tank Cylinder
From the pump
95
04‐03‐01‐03
Regeneration circuit
In this circuit, in order to increase the operational speed of the cylinder and to prevent cavitation, part of
the return oil from the cylinder is sent back to the supply line without being returned to the tank, and the
amount greater than supplied by the pump is provided to the cylinder.
■ Oil flow
As the supply pressure to the cylinder becomes lower than the return pressure from the cylinder when,
for instance, the boom is getting lowered, the check valve in the spool opens and the return oil is sent to
the supply line (Upper diagram).
However, as the supply pressure to the cylinder is high when, for instance, lowering the boom for digging,
the check valve does not open and the regeneration is not performed (Lower diagram).
95
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 04: Negative control
circuits
■ Negative Control
Without the negative
control circuit
To the tank
(Full amount of the maximum flow)
From the pump (maximum flow)
With the negative Pump regulator Pump regulator

control circuit
Negative control relief valve Negative control
relief valve
To the tank To the
tank
Orifice Orifice (minimum flow)
From the pump (maximum flow) From the pump (minimum flow) 96
04‐03‐01‐04
Negative control
When the generated pressure is low, for instance, as the remote control valve is not operated, the
hydraulic pump discharges the maximum flow.
As this would waste the engine power, the discharged amount of the hydraulic pump is switched to the
minimum in the negative control.
There is a system in which no negative control pressure is generated in the control valve by combining
another negative control circuit.
■ Oil flow
When the remote control valve is not operated, the discharged oil from the pump goes into the return
path to the tank through the center bypass of the control valve.
As there is an orifice in the return path, pressure is generated here (The pressure is controlled with the
negative control relief valve).
Sending this pressure to the negative control section of the pump regulator switches the pump flow to
minimum.
96
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 05: Bleed‐off
circuits
■ Bleed‐off
Without the bleed‐off circuit
To the cylinder
(Maximum flow at no‐load operation)
From the pump
With the bleed‐off circuit
Pump regulator Pump regulator
To the To the
cylinder cylinder
(Less flow at
Orifice Orifice no‐load
operation)
From the pump From the pump 97
04‐03‐01‐05
Bleed‐off
Normally, when the spool is switched, the full amount of the flow from the pump goes to the actuator,
and the negative control pressure is eliminated.
However, when the actuator is moved with no load, the maximum flow of the pump makes the actuator
move too fast.
The bleed‐off circuit lets part of the oil go to the negative control system through the center bypass when
the spool is switched, generating the negative control pressure to reduce the pump discharge when the
load is small.
97
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 02: Travel motor
circuits
Travel motor
98
04‐03‐02
Travel motor
This section describes the oil flow in the travel motor.
circuits
■ Travel Motor: 1/2
Start travelling
Check valve closed Parking brake release port released
To the control
valve
From the From the
control valve control valve
Counter‐balance valve Counter‐balance valve
Motor stopped Motor started
99
04‐03‐02
Travel motor: 1/2
The travel motor is driven with the pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump when the control valve is
switched.
When the travel lever is at the neutral position, the counter‐balance valve is at the neutral position too,
and the circuit in the travel motor is closed with the check valve. Therefore, the motor cannot be forced
to run by the external force.
■ Start travelling
When the travel lever is operated and the pressurized oil comes from the control valve, the check valve in
the counter‐balance valve is opened to open the path to the motor.
However, as the check valve of the return line is closed, oil does not flow and the motor does not run (left
illustration).
When the pressurized oil further comes in increasing the pressure of the circuit, the pressure applying to
the end of the counter‐balance valve (bottom face in the illustration) rises sliding the counter‐balance
valve and opening the motor drive circuit.
At the same time, the pressure also applies to the parking brake release port. The brake is released and
the motor starts to run (right illustration).
99
circuits
■ Travel Motor: 2/2
High speed travel High speed to Low speed
Dual‐speed switching spool: Dual‐speed switching spool:
High speed position Low speed position
Pilot pressure Dual‐speed switching piston: Pilot pressure Dual‐speed switching piston:

High speed position Low speed position
To the control To the control
valve valve
From the From the
control valve control valve
To the tank
Motor running at Motor running at
High speed Low speed
100
04‐03‐02
Travel motor: 2/2
■ High speed travel
When the speed switch is turned to High speed position, the pilot pressure applies to the end of the dual‐
speed switching spool (Upper face in the illustration) to switch the spool to the High speed position. Then,
the driving pressure applies to the dual‐speed switching piston, to shift the angle of the swash plate of the
motor to the high speed position. As a result, the motor shifts from low speed to high speed.
■ High speed to Low speed
When the pressure rises, for instance, because of a hill, while traveling at high speed, the driving pressure
that applies to the end of the dual‐speed switching spool (lower face in the illustration) becomes greater
than the force from the pilot pressure to switch the dual‐speed switching spool to low speed. Then, as the
line from the dual‐speed switching piston to the tank gets connected, the swash plate angle of the motor
returns to the low speed position. As a result, the motor shifts from high speed to low speed.
100
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 03: Hydraulic pump
circuits
Pump
101
04‐03‐03
Hydraulic pump
This section describes the oil flow in the hydraulic pump.
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 03: Hydraulic pump > 01: Negative control
circuits
■ Negative Control: 1/3
Negative control pressure from the control Negative control pressure from the control
valve negative control relief operation valve negative control relief operation
Spool Spool
Pilot piston
Pilot piston
Pump 1 Pump 2
102
04‐03‐03‐01
Negative control: 1/3
When the control lever is not operated, the pump would run at the maximum flow wasting the energy of
the system.
To save energy, the pump discharge is made to be minimum when nothing is operated, by sending a signal
to the pump.
■ Oil flow ‐ 1
When the control lever is at the neutral position, the negative control pressure from the control valve
negative control relief valve applies to the negative control port of the pump pushing the pilot piston.
Since the spool is attached to the pilot piston, the spool moves too.
102
circuits
Spool Spool
Servo piston Servo piston
103
04‐03‐03‐01
■ Oil flow ‐ 2
When the spool moves, the controlled pressure applies to the large diameter end of the servo piston. The
pump discharge pressure applies to the small diameter end. When the servo piston moves, the feedback
lever, which is linked to the servo piston, also moves and the line to the large end of the servo piston gets
closed stopping the servo piston.
103
circuits
Servo piston Pump 1 Pump 2 Servo piston
104
04‐03‐03‐01
■ Oil flow ‐ 3
The servo piston is linked to the swash plate of the pump. The angle of the swash plate changes in
accordance with the movement of the servo piston reducing the pump discharge.
104
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 03: Hydraulic pump > 02: Power control
circuits
■ Power Control
Basic operation Control pressure of the Control pressure of the
electromagnetic electromagnetic
proportional valve proportional valve
Other pump discharge Other pump discharge
pressure pressure
Own discharge Own discharge
pressure pressure
Compensation Compensation To the large end of the servo piston

Spool
piston piston
Operation of the electromagnetic proportional valve
Electromagnetic proportional valve
(1) Current to the electromagnetic proportional valve: small (1) Current to the electromagnetic proportional valve: large
↓ ↓
(2) Pressure that applies to the end of the compensation piston: high (2) Pressure that applies to the end of the compensation piston: low
↓ ↓
(3) Pump discharge flow: less (3) Pump discharge flow: more 105
04‐03‐03‐02
Power control
If the engine that drives the hydraulic pump is big, you could get large power, but it would be heavy and
consume a lot of fuel. The excavator is equipped with an engine minimum for the specification, and its
power should be used efficiently. The power control function provides this feature on the pump side.
In order to use the engine power efficiently without causing the engine to fail, the discharge flow rate is
reduced when the pump discharge pressure rises, while it is increased when the pressure becomes low.
■ Basic operation
When the discharge pressure of a pump rises, the compensation piston moves to push the spool. The
pressure controlled with the spool applies to the large end of the servo piston making the servo piston
move in the direction of the small end. The swash plate linked to it changes its angle to reduce the flow.
The two pumps are controlled not only with their own discharge pressure but also with the pressure of
the other pump. When only one of the pumps has load (when the pressure of only one pump rises), the
discharge flow of both pumps reduces at the same rate.
■ Operation of the electromagnetic proportional valve
The control system based on the discharge pressures of the pumps in the system maintains the engine
power constant at a high level. For a light work and slow work, for which fuel consumption becomes more
critical, the engine power is controlled further more to keep it low.
When the light work mode is selected with the controller, the specified current goes to the
electromagnetic proportional valve. The pilot pressure reduced at the electromagnetic proportional valve
applies to the compensation piston. When the current is small, the discharge pressure of the proportional
valve becomes high, while the current is large, the pressure becomes low. Therefore, when the current is
0 mA, the discharge flow of the pump becomes minimum (within the range of the proportional valve
control).
105
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices
circuits
Remote control valve Solenoid valve
106
04‐03‐04
Small hydraulic devices
This section describes the oil flow in the remote control valve, solenoid valve, shuttle valve, and relief
valve.
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 01: Remote control
circuits valve
■ Remote Control Valve
Lever at Neutral position
Pilot pressure
Plunger
Lever operated Pilot
pressure
Lever
operated
Plunger
107
To the control valve
04‐03‐04‐01
Remote control valve
The remote control valve controls the pilot pressure to activate the spool in the control valve.
■ Lever at Neutral position
When the lever is at the neutral position, the pilot pressure in the remote control valve is not discharged.
■ Lever operated
The lever switches the plunger in the remote control valve to discharge the pilot pressure to the control
valve.
107
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 02: Solenoid valve
circuits
■ Solenoid Valve
No power supplied Power supplied
Power
supply
Pilot Pilot
pressure pressure
108
04‐03‐04‐02
Solenoid valve
The solenoid valve electrically controls the flow of the pilot pressure.
■ No power supplied
The sample illustrates a five stack solenoid valve.
When power is not supplied to the solenoid, oil lines are open.
■ Power supplied
When power is supplied to the solenoid, the plunger in the valve is switched changing the oil flows.
108
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 03: Shuttle valve
circuits
■ Shuttle Valve
To open the line from the port A
Port A
Pilot pressure Port C
Ball
Port D
Port B Port E
To open the line from the port B
Port A Port C
Port D
Ball
Pilot pressure Port E
Port B
109
04‐03‐04‐03
Shuttle valve
The shuttle valve lets the pilot pressure entering from a different port go through one identical port but
does not let it go through the other port.
Nothing is discharged from the port closed with the ball. As the position of the ball is not fixed, the flow
cannot be controlled if it comes in from the port D. Thus, the port D cannot be used as an inlet.
■ To open the line from the port A
The pilot pressure entering through the port A is discharged from the port C. At the same time, it pushes
the ball in the valve to close the lines to the ports B and E, but oil is discharged through the port D.
■ To open the line from the port B
The pilot pressure entering through the port B is discharged from the port E. At the same time, it pushes
the ball in the valve to close the lines to the ports A and C, but oil is discharged through the port D.
109
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 04: Relief valve
circuits
■ Relief Valve
Below the setup pressure
Spring
To the tank
Above the setup pressure
To the
tank
110
04‐03‐04‐04
Relief valve
The relief valve is a safety device to protect the hydraulic devices from an abnormal high pressure.
■ Below the setup pressure
When the pressure in the circuit is below the setup pressure, the spring force that applies to the top of
the relief valve is stronger than the force that applies to the bottom of the relief valve, and the line is
closed.
■ Above the setup pressure
When the pressure in the circuit becomes above the setup pressure, the force from the pressurized oil
becomes stronger than the spring force, pushing the relief valve to open the line. As oil goes through the
opened line, the pressure in the circuit drops. When it becomes below the setup pressure, the line is
closed.
110

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01: Basics of Hydraulics

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Oil Water Air

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<Spot where the curvature <Spot where the path expands <Spot where the path narrows

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High Low High

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■ Swash Plate Type Axial Piston Pump Operation on the Operation on the

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Directional control valve Pressure control valve Flow control valve

Direction switching valve Relief valve Throttle valve

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Movable iron core Port P Port T

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Hydraulic Cylinder Hydraulic

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