International Journal of Remote Sensing

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An integrated approach to map certain

palaeochannels of South India using remote
sensing, geophysics, and sedimentological
techniques

C.V. Nandini , S. Sanjeevi & Aparna S. Bhaskar

To cite this article: C.V. Nandini , S. Sanjeevi & Aparna S. Bhaskar (2013) An integrated
approach to map certain palaeochannels of South India using remote sensing, geophysics, and
sedimentological techniques, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 34:19, 6507-6528, DOI:
10.1080/01431161.2013.803629

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2013.803629

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International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2013
Vol. 34, No. 19, 6507–6528, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2013.803629

An integrated approach to map certain palaeochannels of South India

using remote sensing, geophysics, and sedimentological techniques
C.V. Nandini*, S. Sanjeevi, and Aparna S. Bhaskar

Department of Geology, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India

(Received 28 July 2011; accepted 29 December 2012)

Palaeochannels are important sources of groundwater, economic minerals, and placer

deposits. They are also good repositories of palaeoclimate data. To exploit such
resources, the first essential step would be to identify and map palaeochannels. This
article presents a study in which multi-sensor (optical, thermal, and microwave) image
data and satellite-derived digital elevation models (DEM)s of the northern coastal
region of Tamilnadu state, south India, were analysed visually and digitally to rec-
ognize exposed and buried palaeochannels. Image-enhancement techniques such as
linear contrast enhancement of optical data and fusion of microwave and optical image
data brought out more information about the palaeochannels. Hill-shading techniques
applied to the satellite-derived DEM, further added to the information content on the
existence of the palaeochannels. The existence of the newly identified palaeochannels
was verified by ground-based techniques such as field checks, sedimentological analy-
sis, and electrical resistivity surveys. The presence of well sorted and rounded grains in
the sediment samples and high apparent electrical resistivity values for the thick sandy
subsurface strata in these locations confirmed the existence of palaeochannels which
were interpreted from the images.

1. Introduction
Palaeochannels are old rivers which had dried up due to various geological and climato-
logical factors in the past. Palaeochannel studies are important since such features can host
economic deposits of uranium, lignite, precious metals, high-grade silica sand, heavy min-
erals, and placer minerals. Palaeochannels are also the sites of good groundwater potential
(Parry 2006).
Paleochannels also preserve sedimentary records useful to understand the palaeocli-
matic conditions. Though studying palaeochannels is important, a precise methodology
has not been developed for mapping and identification of palaeochannels. Hence, there
is a need to develop a precise methodology for their identification and mapping. Since
palaeochannels are sometimes wide, are hundreds of kilometres long, and are covered with
natural vegetation or agricultural lands, it becomes difficult to visualize their presence in
the field. Satellite imaging offers the advantage of synoptic view along with multispectral
and multi-temporal data set to overcome these limitations and study palaeochannels. The
application of remote-sensing data to palaeochannel delineation is based on three broad
principles:

*Corresponding author. Email: nandini.viswa@gmail.com

© 2013 Taylor & Francis

6508 C.V. Nandini et al.

• spatial and genetic relationships between surface materials and surrounding terrains;
• physical and spectral contrast between palaeochannel fills and surrounding terrains;
and
• the nature of palaeo-river dynamics (Sinha 2006).

Although there are certain approaches for palaeochannel identification and mapping using
remote sensing, namely visual interpretation of false colour composites (FCCs) using the
standard interpretation keys, it is not possible to identify all palaeochannels. This is perhaps
due to lesser moisture content and absence of vegetation in certain palaeochannels, which
makes them difficult to identify in a FCC. To overcome these limitations and to pick out all
of the palaeochannels that exist in an area, this study aims to:

• develop a remote-sensing-based methodology for the identification and mapping of

all of the palaeochannels not identifiable in an FCC;
• evaluate the potential of image-processing techniques (such as enhancement and
image fusion) to bring out more information about palaeochannels; and
• validate the presence of palaeochannels by sedimentology and geophysical methods.

Many studies have been attempted on palaeochannel mapping, river migration, etc. It is
known that the mighty river Cauvery in south India has shifted its northeasterly course
along Hogenekkal–Chennai and later migrated southwards due to tectonic movements
or Holocene block-faulting in the Bilgirirangan hill ranges (Ramasamy et al. 1992).
Because of such a migration of Cauvery river, there is a possibility of the existence of
palaeochannels in the region. Kar (1989) identified palaeochannels of the Saraswathi and
Drishavadi river system in parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan states in India and in
Pakistan using Landsat Multispectral Scanner or Thematic Mapper (MSS/TM) data and
aerial photographs. The author used the geophysical resistivity method for the validation
of the palaeochannels inferred from image analysis. In another study on the evolution
of the palaeochannel of the Leitha river, characteristic morphometric parameters such as
stream slope and palaeochannel slope were calculated using a digital elevation model by
Zámolyi et al. (2006). Hou and Mauger (2005) tried to delineate the palaeochannels in the
Harris Greenstone belt of South Australia using various remote-sensing data. Both a dig-
ital elevation model (DEM) and sedimentological analysis were used for this study. The
authors assessed the potential of DEM to help the interpretation of palaeo-drainage land-
form characteristics. Sedimentological analysis of sand samples obtained from the mapped
palaeochannels indicated transportation and depositional environments.
Based on our experience and taking a clue from the above-listed literature, an integrated
approach to palaeochannel mapping in the northeastern part of Tamilnadu state, southern
India, has been attempted and presented in this article.

2. Study area
The study area (Figure 1) is located in the northeastern part of Tamilnadu state, southern
India, extending from Muttukadu lagoon in the north to Coleroon estuary in the south.
The Bay of Bengal lies on the east of the study area. Subrahmanya (1996) suggested that
the Indian peninsula is undergoing deformation which has resulted in buckling and uplift
along a near E–W trending line. This line is located in the northern part of our study area,
parallel to the northern boundary. Because of this uplift, streams on either side of the line
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6509

79° 0′ 0″ E 79° 30′ 0″ E 80° 0′ 0″ E

KARNATAKA
R. Palar

12° 30′ 0″ N
12° 30′ 0″ N
R. Ponnayar
Kuvathur

SOUTH
INDIA R. Coleroon

L
GA
KERALA

EN

12° 0′ 0″ N
B
12° 0′ 0″ N

OF
R. Cauvery

Y
BA
Pondicherry
TAMIL NADU

Bay of Bengal

11° 30′ 0″ N
11° 30′ 0″ N
Pichavaram
5
0 100 km 0 5 10 20 30 40 km

79° 0′ 0″ E 79° 30′ 0″ E 80° 0′ 0″ E

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Map showing (a) the location of the study area and (b) the corresponding false colour
composite, (Landsat ETM+ R = 5, G = 4, B = 3).

have been migrating in opposite directions, giving rise to palaeochannels. The major rivers
draining this area are the Palar, Ponnaiyar, Vellar, and Coleroon, which have associated
palaeochannels. The rock types encountered in the study area are principally hard rock and
sedimentary formations, which include charnockite, gneiss, granite, dolerite, pegmatite,
limestone, sandstone, and alluvium (Geological Survey of India 1995).
The geomorphology of the area can be described by the denudational, fluvial, coastal,
and aeolian landforms. These include the uplands, coastal plain, palaeochannels (exposed
and buried), lagoons, coastal dunes and slacks, strandlines, mud flats, beach, marsh, and
pediments.

3. Methodology
The methodology adopted for the study is outlined in Figure 2. It involves two compo-
nents: (1) image analysis and image interpretation and (2) validation by sedimentological
and geophysical techniques. The first step involves the identification of the study area and
collection of satellite image data such as LANDSAT Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus
(ETM+), LANDSAT TM, Radarsat, and DEM acquired by the Shuttle Radar Topographic
Mission (SRTM). The characteristics of these image data are listed in Table 1. The raw
satellite images contain a variety of errors in their geometry and radiometry. These errors
were reduced and digital processing techniques (enhancement), DEM analysis (shaded
relief, spatial profiling), and multi-sensor image fusion techniques (Brovey, principal com-
ponent analysis, and intensity–hue–saturation method) were applied for the delineation of
palaeochannels.
Synoptivity, combined with specific image characters of the palaeochannels in the
enhanced images, fused images, and the shaded relief image has helped in identifying
most of the palaeochannels in the study area. The image signatures of palaeochannels
which aided in interpreting them are (1) sinusoidal pattern, (2) associated water bodies,
6510 C.V. Nandini et al.

Remote sensing images & DEM

Enhancements: multisensor image fusion & hill shading

Interpretation

Palaeochannel map

Validation

Sedimentological Electrical resistivity Spatial profiling

Environment of deposition Evidence of thick sandy strata The broad U-shaped

depressions are clear
indications of palaeochannels

Validation of presence of palaeochannel

Figure 2. Outline of the methodology adopted in this study.

and (3) high reflectance in the near-infrared (NIR) band due to abundant vegetation in cer-
tain palaeochannels. Since ground truth surveys and validation are necessary, they were
also carried out in the form of field visits, sedimentology, and electrical resistivity surveys.
The results of such analyses, and the significance of an integrated approach is discussed in
Section 4. The list of satellite images used is given in Table 1.

3.1. Preprocessing of image data

Since the LANDSAT ETM+ and TM images contain radiometric errors due to factors such
as atmosphere, sun elevation, aerosol, moisture, etc., these images have to be corrected for
scene radiometry. Many algorithms and approaches exist to carry out these radiometric
corrections (ERDAS Field Guide 1999; Mather 1987). However, it is seen that the US
Geological Survey (USGS) and NASA have performed the preprocessing exercises and the
correct radiance values are now displayed in the images. Hence, radiometric correction was
not necessary for images used here. Accordingly, the images can be directly used for further
analysis, interpretation, and classification.

3.2. Image enhancement

Image enhancement is the process of making an image more interpretable for a particular
application. Enhancement techniques are often used instead of classification for extract-
ing useful information from images (ERDAS Field Guide 1999). Although there are many
enhancement techniques available, such as contrast stretching, principal component anal-
ysis, band ratioing, histogram equalization, etc, in the present context of palaeochannel
Table 1. Image data and their specifications.

Landsat TM Landsat ETM+ Radarsat-1 SRTM DEM

Wavelength Resolution Wavelength Resolution Resolution 30 m resolution

Band (µm) (m) Band (µm) (m) Band Wavelength (m) (resampled)

1 0.45–0.52 30 1 0.45–0.52 30 C 5.6 cm 11

2 0.52–0.60 30 2 0.53–0.60 30 Frequency: 5.3 GHz
3 0.63–0.69 30 3 0.63–0.69 30
4 0.76–0.90 30 4 0.75–0.90 30 Swath: 35–500 km
5 1.55–1.75 30 5 1.55–1.75 30
6 10.4–12.5 120 6 10.4–12.5 30 Look angle: 20–50◦
7 2.09–2.35 30 7 2.09–2.35 60 Polarization: HH
8 0.52–0.90 15
International Journal of Remote Sensing
6511
6512 C.V. Nandini et al.

mapping, linear contrast stretching, and histogram equalization were the primarily used
enhancement operations.
In contrast stretching, we usually follow the process of reassigning the range of pixel
values to another range, usually according to a linear function. This is performed on each
pixel of the image on a multi-band basis (also see Lillesand and Kiefer 2000). The products
of such contrast enhancement and their significance in palaeochannel mapping is discussed
in Section 4.

3.3. Multisensor image fusion

The aim of image fusion is to integrate complementary data to obtain more information
than can be derived from single sensor data alone (Pohl 1996). Fused images provide
increased interpretation capabilities and more reliable results, since data from sensors
with different characteristics are combined. Pohl (1996) discussed the various aspects of
multispectral image fusion. The different image fusion techniques used in this study are
principal component analysis (PCA), the intensity–hue–saturation (IHS) approach, and the
Brovey method.

3.3.1. Principal component analysis approach

The PCA technique is a statistical technique that transforms a multivariate intercorrelated
data set into a new uncorrelated data set (Zhang 2002). PCA is useful for image encod-
ing, image data compression, image enhancement, digital change detection, multitemporal
dimensionality studies, and image fusion. In PCA-based fusion, the first prinicipal compo-
nent of the multispectral bands is replaced by the high-resolution panchromatic data and a
reversed PCA is performed to convert the replaced component back to the original image
space. The PCA method is found to be good for visual interpretation of data at high scales,
giving a high-resolution image of clear spectral values and making feature identification
very easy (Pohl 1996). PCA-based fusion can be carried out in two ways, standard and
optional. In the standard method, all available bands participate in the fusion process. But
in the optional PCA, group of bands are combined based on the correlation matrix. In the
present study, the optional PCA was used and fusion was attempted and the results are
presented in Section 4.2.

3.3.2. Intensity–hue–saturation approach

The IHS colour transformation effectively separates the spatial (I) and spectral (H, S) infor-
mation from a standard RGB image. It has become a standard procedure in image analysis
and has been recommended for different spatial and spectral resolution data. IHS has the
most effective and controlled visual presentation of the data, since other techniques produce
images which are difficult to interpret quantitatively and qualitatively (Pohl 1996).

3.3.3. Brovey method

The Brovey Transform method uses a ratio algorithm to combine information in the multi-
sensor images. This method was developed to visually increase contrast in the low and
high ends of an image’s histogram (i.e. to provide contrast in shadows, water, and high-
reflectance areas such as urban features). It is good for producing red–green–blue (RGB)
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6513

images with a higher degree of contrast in the low and high ends of the image histogram
and for producing visually appealing images (Pohl 1996).
Each of these (PCA, IHS, and Brovey) methods was used in this study. After evaluation,
the fused images with maximum information on palaeochannel was used for mapping.

3.4. Hill shade analysis

Analysis of DEM includes hill shading and spatial profiling. Hill shading is used in this
study as an enhancement technique, while spatial profiling is used as a validation tool. Hill
shading is a method of representing relief on a map by depicting the shadows that would be
cast by high around if light was incident from a certain direction. Li, Zhu, and Gold (2005)
describe hill shading as one of the widely used techniques for visualization of a digital
terrain model. A shaded relief image enhances the topographic structure in the image data
and is very useful for extracting spatial information dealing with surface fractures, faults,
drainages, linear and curvilinear depressions, and palaeodrainages.
A shaded relief image provides an illustration of variations in elevation. Based on a
user specified position of the sun, areas that would be in sunlight are highlighted and areas
that would be in shadow are shaded. Shaded relief images are generated from an eleva-
tion surface, alone or in combination with an image file draped over the terrain (Li, Zhu,
and Gold 2005). In the present study, hill shading of SRTM DEM has highlighted certain
palaeochannels due to the elevation difference between the centre of the channel and its
banks. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) is an international research effort
that obtained DEMs on a near-global scale from 56◦ S to 60◦ N, to generate the most com-
plete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth to date. SRTM consisted of a
specially modified radar system that flew onboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour during the
11 day mission in February 2000 (NASA 2005). Section 4.3 discusses the result of the Hill
shade relief images obtained from analysis of SRTM DEM.

3.5. Interpretation of the processed images and DEM

The results of contrast stretching, multi-sensor image fusion, and hill shade analysis
of DEM is a new set of images that are better interpretable than the original images.
Palaeochannels and their associated features/phenomena are clearly depicted in these new
outputs. Synoptivity, combined with the specific image characters of palaeochannels in the
fused images, enhanced images, and the shaded relief image has helped in identifying most
of the palaeochannels in the study area. The image signatures of palaeochannels which
aided in their interpretation are:

• usually vegetated regions (even during summer) with high reflectance in the NIR
band;
• low values in the IR bands wherever moisture was present;
• a sinusoidal pattern;
• associated water bodies, varying in size and distribution;
• well-defined connectivity with an existing river channel;
• a shape like a drainage channel;
• a region normally associated with fluvial landforms;
• associated with lineaments; and
• absence of drainage lines on topographical map.
6514 C.V. Nandini et al.

The palaeochannels in the map were prepared from various images by applying the above-
mentioned image-processing techniques and validated using a sedimentological approach,
electrical resistivity surveys, and by spatial profiling of the DEM.

3.6. Sedimentological analysis

It is logical to believe that the sediments present below the surface, but belonging to the
older course of a river, should exhibit characters typical of a fluvial environment. In certain
locations where the coastal dunes make their presence across the palaeochannels, there is
definitely a need to carry out sediment grain analysis, primarily to differentiate between
marine and fluvial sediments, apart from confirming the presence of a river channel. With
this in mind, an attempt was made to study the depositional environment of sediment
samples collected from the interpreted palaeochannels.
Cores were drilled up to 1.5 m and the collected core samples and surface samples were
subjected to grain size analysis. Each core was sliced into subsamples at 5cm intervals and
each subsample was coned-and-quartered, until the desired sample size was obtained (a lit-
tle above 50 gm). About 20 samples were obtained from each core. From each subsample,
exactly 50 g was taken after drying the samples in an oven at 50◦ C. This was followed by
sieve analysis (dry method) and statistical analysis to establish the depositional environ-
ment (fluvial or marine). The method involved identification of grain-size distribution for
a known weight using sieves of ASTM sizes 18, 30, 60, 120, 230, and finer. A detailed
description of the results of sieve analysis, and the various statistical parameters such as
standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis is given in Section 5.1.

3.7. Electrical resistivity surveys

The result of remote-sensing studies to identify palaeochannels can be supplemented by
ground checks such as electrical resistivity surveys. The electrical resistivity method is
one of the most useful techniques in palaeochannel identification, because the resistivity
of rocks and soil is very sensitive to its water content. In general, this method is able to
map different stratigraphic units in a geologic section as long as the units have a resistivity
contrast. By electrical resistivity surveys, we can locate buried features by mapping the
differences in the way soil conducts an electric current. Using a resistivity meter, a con-
trolled electric current is passed through the soil between four electrodes. One pair of
electrodes carries the current while the second pair measures the voltage passed through
the ground. The resistance (in ohms) is determined and recorded. Dobrin (1976) and
Rao (1975) describe the detailed procedure for electrical resistivity surveys for subsurface
investigation.
In the resistivity method, various arrangements of electrodes are possible. It is classified
broadly into two categories: (1) Wenner arrangement and (2) Schulmberger arrangement.
In the Wenner array, the electrode spacing ‘a’ is equal between the electrodes, while in
the Schulmberger array, the electrode spacing ‘a’ is unequal between the electrode. All
geological formations have a property called electrical resistivity which determines the ease
with which electric current flows through them. This resistivity is expressed in the units of
ohm metres (m) and is indicated by the symbol ρ. Table 2 lists the electrical resistivity
values of some common minerals and rocks. The various geological factors which influence
the electrical resistivity of a formation are: mineral content (i.e. rock type), compactness,
moisture content, salinity of moisture, and texture of the rock. Moisture may occur in rocks
either as groundwater or simply as moisture.
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6515

Table 2. Electrical resistivity values of some common minerals and rocks.

Mineral/Rock Resistivity (m)

Quartz 1014 −1016

Feldspar 1010 −1012
Mica 1010 −1015
Calcite 107 −1012
Sandstone 10−103
Clay, shale 1−103
Marble 104 −108
Limestone 102 −103

Frequently, rocks, which are not good conductors by themselves, contain moisture in
the pore spaces, when the resistivity decreases considerably. But this change is not of the
same order in all formations. In igneous rock, which is hard and dense, even if the mois-
ture content is less than 2% by volume, the resistivity may come down by several orders.
On the other hand, porous formations like sand or sandstone exhibit a steady decrease in
the resistivity as the moisture content increases (Chennakesavulu 1993).
In this study, a Wenner array is used to decipher the existence of palaeochannels and
to know the stratification and thickness of the lithounits (sand body). In this configuration,
the outer electrodes, C1 and C2, are used to send current into the ground and the inner
electrodes, P1 and P2, are used to measure the potential. The important feature of this
set-up is that the distance between any two successive electrodes is equal. The apparent
resistivity (ρ a ) is measured with the Wenner array and is given by:

ρa = 2πa [(v)] /I, (1)

where a is the electrode separation, v is the potential difference measured, and I is the cur-
rent sent into the ground (Chennakesavulu 1993). We conducted a series of four-electrode
experiments, with both the potential electrodes centred between the current electrodes.
Initially, the current electrodes were placed close together and the current and voltage
were measured, from which the apparent resistivity was computed. Then we repeated the
experiment by systematically increasing the current-electrode and potential-electrode spac-
ing. The resistivity values were obtained for three points in each channel, i.e. the centre
of the palaeochannel, the northern flank, and southern flank (see Figures 9 and 10). The
observations and results of the resistivity surveys are discussed in Section 5.2.

3.8. Spatial profiling

It is obvious that palaeochannels are old river courses which were once regular drainage
systems and also had well-defined valleys. However, after losing their status as drainage
channels, perhaps due to river piracy or tectonism, the valleys became filled by sediments
gradually. Despite the filling, the palaeochannels could still retain the valley like configura-
tion. Steep-sided palaeochannels have been reported by Lawrie et al. (1999) in New South
Wales, Australia. Similarly, palaeochannels have been described as depressions between
two major alluvial terraces in the plains near the Lachian valley, New South Wales (Justine
2001). In the present study also, palaeochannels are seen as low-lying linear sinuous
depressions. Field visits have indicated that wherever palaeochannels are present, either
6516 C.V. Nandini et al.

waterlogging is observed or relatively lower elevation along the palaeochannel, compared

to the adjacent sides, is observed. These channels consist of unconsolidated alluvial and
colluvial materials filled by streams and rivers in the depression. Thus, in the spatial profile
derived from the DEM, we can identify the highs and lows between two points (across the
opposite banks), and thus interpret the existence of a palaeochannel.
In DEMs, the spatial profile highlights the highs and lows between the two selected
points in the image. In a spatial profile, the x-axis represents the distance, and the y-axis rep-
resents the elevation. In an FCC, a palaeochannel is visualized by crop-marks, soil-marks,
enhanced moisture content, and excessive natural vegetation. However, the depressions
along the course of the palaechannel cannot be visualized in the FCC. On plotting a spatial
profile across the two banks of the interpreted palaeochannel, the palaeo-river bed can be
visualized in the form of a U-shaped profile. Thus, spatial profiling has helped in validating
the presence of palaeochannels which were earlier interpreted from the FCC.
The SRTM DEM is a 3 arc second (90 m) data set where the height information
obtained is of moderate to low resolution. However, to obtain better information about
topography, the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (USA) used a sub-sampling
method to produce 1 arc second data from the 3 arc second DEM data. Following the same
bicubic interpolation, Keeratikasikorn and Trisirisatayawong (2008) converted the 90 m to
a 30 m resolution DEM. The same methodology was used in this study also to generate
a 30 m DEM for the study area. The accuracy of the height has been checked by field
surveys.

4. Results and discussion

Certain significant observations have been made with regard to palaeochannels in the study
area by application of image-processing techniques to satellite images, analysis of DEM,
sedimentological approaches, and electrical resistivity surveys. These observations and
their significance are discussed in Sections 4 and 5.

4.1. Palaeochannel identification and mapping by image enhancement

Certain enhancements applied to the multispectral images resulted in better identification
of the palaeochannels. Some of the image-enhancement techniques used in this study are:
linear contrast stretching, nonlinear (piece-wise) contrast stretching, Gaussian stretching,
histogram equalization, etc. Of these, histogram equalization and linear contrast stretching
gave better outputs compared to other enhancement techniques.
In the northern part of the study area, river Palar, during its migratory episode, has left
behind many traces of its stream courses. Similarly, in the central part of the study area,
the rivers Ponnaiyar and Malattar have left behind their palaeocourses. In the southern part
of the study area, the presence of a large expanse of loose, unconsolidated Mio-Pliocene
sandstone (Neyveli basin) has made it impossible for present-day streams or palaeocourses
to exist there. However, a couple of small palaeostreams are observed to the west of the
Neyveli basin. The presence of moisture and vegetation within the palaeochannels and the
absence (or less abundance) of the same in the adjacent areas is the reason for improvement
of contrast when contrast stretching is applied to the images. From these enhanced images
(Figure 3), palaeochannels were mapped. The palaeochannels which were not visible in the
ETM+ image (Figure 1(b)) have been enhanced due to increase in contrast of vegetation in
Figure 3(a) and due to increase in contrast of moisture in Figure 3(b).
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6517

(a) (b)

Bay of Bengal

Bay of Bengal

Figure 3. Image enhancement (a) histogram equalization stretching and (b) equalization stretching.

Similarly, in the histogram-equalized stretch (Figure 3(a)), certain of the

palaeochannels are very well highlighted (see enlarged picture in box), because the image
contains pixels of vegetation, wet areas (palaeochannel), and dry areas which are distinct
groups but have digital number (DN) values over a wide range. The nonlinear stretch
resulting due to histogram equalization redistributes the pixel values in such a way that there
is approximately the same number of pixels within a given range. Accordingly, contrast is
increased at the peaks of the histogram and lessened at the tails. Thus, the palaeochannels,
namely wet/dry areas, are clearly visible and are highlighted.
An explanation for better display of the palaeochannel in contrast-stretched images is
as follows. Sediments along the palaeochannel contain relatively higher moisture content
compared to the areas adjacent to the palaeochannels. In addition to excess moisture con-
tent, there is also a higher amount of vegetation growth along the palaeochannels compared
to the adjacent areas. In single-band images (B, G, R, and NIR) there is not much contrast
between the palaechannels and the adjacent areas, because the range of DN values is lim-
ited to a small portion within the whole range (0–255). By contrast stretching, the narrow
range of grey levels is altered so as to fit the full length of the black and white range, i.e.
0 to 255. Consequently, the contrast between the dark (moist and vegetation-rich area in
6518 C.V. Nandini et al.

palaeochannels) and light (dry and barren) areas of the image is improved, while maintain-
ing the relative distribution of grey levels (Mather 1987). ERDAS Field Guide (1999), gives
a detailed explanation of contrast stretching and its significance. When applied in the multi-
band domain, contrast stretching results in clear differentiation between the palaeochannels
and the adjacent areas. Figure 6 shows the palaeochannels that have been extracted from
one such contrast-stretched image.

4.2. Multisensor image fusion

Three approaches of image fusion (PCA, IHS, and the Brovey method) mentioned in
Section 3 have been used in this study of palaeochannel mapping using the panchro-
matic, multispectral, and microwave images. The fused images (Figure 4(a)–(c)) give better
information for identification and mapping of palaeochannels. Fusion using microwave
and optical images (Figure 4(b)) resulted in clear depiction of the palaeochannels. This
is because the information about moisture in the palaeochannels is available in the radar
image, while the information on the spatial context is available in the optical image.
Fusion of such complementary information makes the depiction of the palaeochannels bet-
ter. The resultant image was again fused with thermal and panchromatic (PAN) images
to give a hybrid fused image (Figure 4(c)), which provided better information about the
palaeochannels. Table 3 lists the observations about palaeochannels from various fused
images.

4.3. Hill-shade analysis

The hill-shade images obtained with various sun elevation and azimuth combinations
resulted in valuable information about the existence of palaeochannels. Channels of
present-day rivers may be deep or shallow, depending on the degree of incision by the river
occupying the channel, or the stage of the river course (young, mature, or old). In the study
area, it was observed that the depth of the Palar river channel ranged from 2.0 m to 7.5 m;
for Ponnaiyar it ranged from 3.0 m to 8.5 m; and for Coleroon, it ranged from 2.5 m to
12.0 m. The exposed palaeochannels however, had a depth range of 0.5 m to 1.5 m. Buried
palaeochannels, when seen in the field, were sinusoidal shallow depressions with vegeta-
tion, moisture, or sandy soil present in them. Thus, when the hill-shading technique was
applied with low sun elevation input, the exposed and buried channels with very shallow
channel depth also were highlighted due to the shadow cast by the sun at an azimuth perpen-
dicular to the direction of flow of these channels. Consequently, all of the present-day river
courses and most of the palaeo-river courses were clearly highlighted by the hill-shading
technique. A few examples of hill shade images are shown in Figure 5.
The various outputs of image enhancement, image fusion, and hill shading (from DEM)
were used to arrive at a palaeochannel map (see Figure 6). Locations of samples for sedi-
mentology, resistivity surveys, and transect for spatial profiling are also shown in the same
figure.

5. Validation
Validation of the existence of palaeochannels identified from the various satellite images
and DEM is done by

• sedimentological analysis;
• electrical resistivity survey; and
• spatial profiling.
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6519

(a)

Uplands

Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal

(b)

Uplands

Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal

(c)

Uplands
Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal

Figure 4. (a) ETM + PAN and multispectral image fused using the PCA method; (b) ETM +
multispectral and Radarsat image fused using the HIS method; and (c) ETM + multispectral,
Radarsat, thermal, and PAN image fused using the Brovey method.
6520 C.V. Nandini et al.

Table 3. Observations about palaeochannels from various fused images.

Observation from fused

Approach Input images images Remarks

PCA ETM + PAN + Vegetation along • High information content

multispectral palaeochannels is of moisture, vegetation,
highlighted. Small sand and soil available in the
pockets in the exposed PC1 image made the
palaeochannels are interpretation of the PCA
highlighted. fused image easier.
IHS Multispectral + radar Improved contrast between • Appropriate radar
buried river bed and wavelengths and
surrounding features. polarization are
responsible for
improving the contrast
(Dan et al. 2004).
• Diffuse backscatter from
surroundings and
specular response from
alluvial fill in the
palaeochannel result in
the contrast.
Brovey Multispectral + radar + Palaeochannels with Synergetic effect of:
thermal shallow water table are • High NIR reflectance by
highlighted. vegetation and sand (in
multispectral image).
• Specular backscatter
microwave image from
alluvial fill.
• Cool signature in thermal
image of damp
palaeochannel (Rajawat,
Verma, and Nayak 2003).

These are discussed in the following sections.

5.1. Sedimentological analysis

It is logical to believe that the sediments present below the surface, but belonging to the
older course of a river, should exhibit characters typical of a fluvial environment. With this
in mind, an attempt was made to study the depositional environment of samples collected
from the interpreted palaeochannel.
Based on the statistical parameters, it is possible to determine the depositional environ-
ment of the samples. Friedman (1961) attempted to distinguish between beach and river
sands by plotting skewness against standard deviation. It is considered as the standard
curve, which helps to delineate river sand from beach sand and confirms the deposi-
tional environment. Miola and Weiser (1968) substantiated Freidman’s conclusions, and
attempted to distinguish between beach and river sands by plotting the mean against stan-
dard deviation. This is also considered as a standard approach to decipher the depositional
environment.
The results of the same are shown in Figures 7 and 8. From the figures it is seen that
most of the samples fall in the region meant for riverine/fluvial environment. Further, the
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6521

Uplands Uplands Uplands

Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. (a) DEM (SRTM resampled) of study area, (b) hill shade image obtained with sun
elevation 45◦ and sun azimuth 60◦ , and (c) hill shade with sun elevation 45◦ and sun azimuth 10◦ .
Note: The present-day river channel and the palaeochannels with an E–W flow are enhanced in (b)
while palaeochannels with NE–SW flow are enhanced in (a).

79° 30′ 0″ E 80° 0′ 0″ E 17

(a) C6 (b) (i)

16
Elevation (m)

C5
15
C2
12° 30′ 0″ N
12° 30′ 0″ N 14
C12
C4 2 4 6 8
Uplands Distance along profile (m)

C3
20 (ii)
Bay of Bengal

Elevation (m)

19

18
(i) C1
12° 0′ 0″ N
C7 12° 0′ 0″ N 17

16
C8 S1
(ii) 15
Legend 2 4 6 8 10
Distance along profile (m)
C9 Present channels
Palaeochannels
Vaanch (iii)
S2 Coastal plain 16
C10 Resistivity survey
Core samples C1 to C12
15
Elevation (m)

Spatial profile
11° 30′ 0″ N
11° 30′ 0″ N
14
(iii)
C11 13
0 5 10 20 30 40
km 1 2 3 4 5 6
79° 0′ 0″ E 79° 30′ 0″ E 80° 0′ 0″ E
Distance along profile (m)

Figure 6. (a) Palaeochannel map prepared by analysing satellite data (image and DEM) and (b) (i),
(ii), (iii) spatial profiles from DEM across certain inferred palaeochannels as in (a). Note: Vaanch is
a local term to denote freshwater ponds that occur near the coast.
6522 C.V. Nandini et al.
3.0 3.0 3.0
C1 C2 C3
2.6 2.6 2.6

2 3
2.2 5 2.2 2.2
4 2
3 2
1
1.8 1.8 1 1.8
Graphic mean

Graphic mean

Graphic mean
Miola and Weiser (1968) Miola and Weiser (1968) Miola and Weiser (1968)

1.4 1.4 1.4

Coastal dune Coastal dune Coastal dune

1.0 River River 1.0 River
1.0
River River River
Beach Beach Beach
0.6 0.6 0.6

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
Standard deviation Standard deviation Standard deviation
4 4 4
3 Friedman (1961) 3 Friedman (1961) 3 Friedman (1961)
2 2 2
1 1 4 1 4 32 1
3 5 2
Skewness

Skewness

Skewness
0 2 0 1 0 1 3
–1 –1 Beach sand –1 Beach sand 4
Beach sand River sand River sand
River sand
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4
–5 –5 –5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Standard deviation Standard deviation Standard deviation
3.0 3.0 3.0

C4 C5 C6
2.6 2.6 2.6

2.2 4 2.2 2.2

3
1 2
1.8 1.8 1
1.8
Graphic mean

Graphic mean

Graphic mean

Miola and 3
Miola and Weiser (1968) Miola and Weiser (1968) Weiser (1968) 4
5
2
1.4 1.4
1.4 1
Coastal dune Coastal dune
Coastal dune 1.0 River 2 1.0 River
1.0 River
4 3
River River
River Beach Beach
Beach 0.6
0.6
0.6

0.2 0.2
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
Standard deviation Standard Deviation
Standard deviation
4 4 4
3 Friedman (1961) 3 3
Friedman (1961) Friedman (1961)
2 2 2
1 1 1
Skewness

Skewness

Skewness

0 0 0
Beach sand River sand Beach sand River sand –1 Beach sand River sand
–1 –1
–2 –2
–2
–3 –3
–3
–4 –4
–4
–5 –5
–5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation

Figure 7. Miola and Weiser plots (standard deviation vs. graphic mean) and the corresponding
Friedman curve (standard deviation vs. skewness) for core samples 1–6.

individual grains of the sediment samples are rounded in nature. Hence, we may infer that
the locations where the core samples were collected are certainly along palaeochannels.

5.2. Electrical resistivity surveys

As mentioned in Section 3, as an additional tool, electrical resistivity surveys, were carried
out in two sites to confirm the presence of palaeochannels mapped using remote sens-
ing. Figures 9 and 10 are the resistivity curves obtained for two different palaeochannels
interpreted from satellite imagery. The locations (site 1 and site 2) are marked in the final
palaeochannel map (Figure 6) as S1 and S2.
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6523
3.0 3.0 3.0

C7 C8 C9
2.6 2.6
2.6

2.2 2.2
2.2

1.8 1.8
Graphic mean

Graphic mean

Graphic mean
Miola and Weiser (1968) Miola and Weiser (1968) 1.8 Miola and Weiser (1968)

1.4 13 1.4
2 1.4
6
Coastal dune 4 5 Coastal dune Coastal dune
1.0 River 1.0 River River
1.0
River River River
Beach Beach Beach
0.6 0.6
0.6

0.2 0.2
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
Standard deviation Standard deviation Standard deviation
4 4 4
3 Friedman (1961) 3 Friedman (1961) 3 Friedman (1961)
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2 4 2
5 4 4
1 3 1 5 3 1 3
Skewness

Skewness

Skewness
0 5
0 River sand 0
Beach sand Beach sand River sand Beach sand 6 River sand
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3

–4 –4 –4

–5 –5 –5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Standard deviation
Standard deviation Standard deviation

3.0 3.0 3.0

C10 C11 C12

2.6 2.6 2.6

2.2 2.2
2.2

1.8 1.8
Graphic mean

Graphic mean

Graphic mean

Miola and Weiser (1968) Miola and Weiser (1968) 1.8 Miola and Weiser (1968)

1.4 1.4
1.4

Coastal dune Coastal dune Coastal dune River

River 1.0 River
1.0
1.0
River River
River Beach Beach
Beach
0.6 0.6
0.6

0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
Standard deviation Standard deviation Standard deviation
4 4 4
3 Friedman (1961) 3 Friedman (1961) 3 Friedman (1961)
2 2 2
1 1 1
Skewness

Skewness

Skewness

0 0 0
–1 Beach sand River sand –1 Beach sand River sand
–1 Beach sand River sand
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3
–3
–4 –4
–4
–5 –5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 –5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Standard deviation Standard deviation Standard deviation

Figure 8. Miola and Weiser plots (standard deviation vs. graphic mean) and the corresponding
Friedman curve (standard deviation vs. skewness) for core samples 7–12.

5.2.1. Site number 1

An electrical resistivity survey was done in a village named Pettai (near Kadalur) across
an interpreted palaeochannel in the southeastern part of the study area. The result of the
survey for the three locations of the first site is shown as graphical plots in Figure 9. The
graphical plot and Table 4 depict the information about the vertical strata and thickness of
beds at the three locations at site 1.

5.2.2. Site number 2

The second location is an interpreted buried palaeochannel, an extension of the river
Malattar (meaning a river that does not carry water). This river is also called the dead
6524 C.V. Nandini et al.

1000

0.1

0.1
100
(a) (b)
Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

1
1

Depth (m)
Depth (m)
100

10
10

10
100

100
10

1
Electrode spacing (m) Resistivity (Ωm) Electrode spacing (m) Resistivity (Ωm)
1 10 100 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1 10 100 1000
1000

0.1
(c)
100

Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

Depth (m)
10

10
100
1

Electrode spacing (m) Resistivity (Ωm)

1 10 100 10 100 1000

Figure 9. (a) Resistivity curve at location 1, (b) resistivity curve at location 2, and (c) resistivity
curve at location 3. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 are the locations respectively on the two banks and in the
centre of the palaeochannel.

Table 4. Thickness of strata in the inferred palaeochannel (site 1).

Location 1 (north) Location 2 (centre) Location 3 (south)

Stratum Thickness (m) Stratum Thickness (m) Stratum Thickness (m)

Sand 1.54 Clayey sand 17.93 Sand 9.87

Clay 1.47 Weathered rock 2.60 Weathered rock 2.86
Sand 4.27 Hard rock ∞ Hard rock ∞
Weathered rock 2.76
Hard rock ∞

river because it disappears before it reaches Rajapalayam. It is believed that this river flows
beneath the ground after Rajapalayam. Here also, resistivity surveys were conducted at
three locations: one in the centre and the other two in the northern and southern sides of
the river. This terrain is different from site 1 in terms of land use, moisture content, etc.
Figure 10 and Table 5 represent the information about the vertical strata and thickness of
the three locations at site 2.
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6525

104

0.1
0.1
1000
(a) (b)

1000
Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

100

1
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
10
100
10
10

100
100

10
1

Electrode spacing (m) Resistivity (Ωm) Electrode spacing (m) Resistivity (Ωm)
1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100103104 105
100

0.1
(c)
Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

1
Depth (m)
10

10
100
1

Electrode spacing (m) Resistivity (Ωm)

1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Figure 10. (a) Resistivity curve at location 1, (b) resistivity curve at location 2, and (c) resistivity
curve at location 3. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 are the locations respectively on the two banks and in the
centre of the palaeochannel.

Table 5. Thickness of strata in the inferred palaeochannel (site 2).

Location 1 (north) Location 2 (centre) Location 3 (south)

Stratum Thickness (m) Stratum Thickness (m) Stratum Thickness (m)

Fine sand 10 Dry sand 20 Silty sand 5

Silty sand 10–25 Medium sand 20–40 Medium sand 5–20
Coarse sand 25–40 Clayey sand 20–35

The apparent resistivity values measured during the survey are plotted as a resistivity
curve and the varying thickness of each strata is determined. The thick horizon of alluvial
strata indicates the presence of a palaeochannel. Thus, electrical resistivity surveys at two
sites (six locations) have proved the existence of palaeochannels that were delineated from
enhanced and fused images and by the hill-shade analysis and spatial profile of SRTM
DEM.
6526 C.V. Nandini et al.

Figure 11. Exposed palaeochannel (not listed in a topographic map as a stream) seen with water
logging.

5.3. Spatial profiling

As mentioned in Section 3, a digital elevation model is a data set that can be used to com-
plement remotely-sensed satellite images, while a spatial profile across two points in a
DEM depicts the topographic highs and lows along the transect. Figure 6(b) (i), (ii), (iii)
shows the spatial profiles obtained across three palaechannels. The hill-shade image was
used only to identify the palaeochannel. Locations on both banks of a palaeochannel were
selected from the hill-shade image and identified in the DEM, and a profile was created
from the DEM. The result of the spatial profiling exercise using the DEM is a set of broad
U-shaped curves that represent the topography along the transect line of the profile. In an
otherwise flat terrain, with no river reported in the topographic map, such broad, linear
topographic depressions with U-shaped profiles are certainly indicative of the presence of
a palaeochannel. Figure 11 is a field photograph of a palaeochannel in the southern part of
study area. The shallow linear depression, shown in the photograph, was seen with water
logging and with alluvial sand in the subsurface during the field investigations. Thus, we
can infer that spatial profiling using DEM, across the inferred palaeochannels, can confirm
the presence of palaeochannels.

6. Conclusions
This study has demonstrated the potential of remote sensing as a tool for palaeochannel
mapping in the context of a natural resource survey. This study has also helped us to
have a better understanding of field and image characters of palaeochannels. Various image
enhancement techniques have been applied to the various multi-sensor image data sets. The
use of field survey, sedimentological analysis, and electrical resistivity survey as potential
tools for validating the findings of remote sensing has also been demonstrated. Analysis of
the results of such enhancements has shown that:
 International Journal of Remote Sensing 6527

• simple linear enhancement and contrast stretching of optical image data results in
better visualization of palaeochannels;
• fusion of optical and microwave images using the Brovey transform approach resulted
in images of the study area which were very visually appealing and contained a host
of information about the palaeochannels that exists in the study area;
• the hill-shading technique applied to the SRTM DEM was useful, especially for
identifying the exposed palaeochannels, with a gently undulating surface expression
across the valley;
• since most of the palaeochannels in the study area have west–east and east–
southeast flows, the hill-shading technique with a 45◦ north–east azimuth and 10◦
to 15◦ elevation angle as input has resulted in very good visualization of such
palaeochannels;
• a combination of linear contrast enhancement, image fusion, and DEM analysis
resulted in identification of 25 palaeochannels, which is 20 more than that reported
in the literature about the study area;
• sedimentological analysis of 12 bore hole samples taken from the predicted
palaeochannels reveals that the sediments are of fluvial origin, thereby confirming
the accuracy of the palaeochannel map;
• at six locations, electrical resistivity surveys have further strengthened the findings
about the existence of the palaeochannels; and
• the potential of optical, microwave, and thermal image data in identifying and
mapping the palaeochannels is proved.

Acknowledgements
The Global Land Cover Facility at University of Maryland USA, is thanked for the satellite images.

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