ME 424 – REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

LATENT HEAT qLHF (expressed in kJ/kg or Btu/lbm)

 Latent heat is that heat added to or removed from a substance to cause a change of state
without a change of temperature.
 The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process.
 More specifically, the amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent
heat of fusion and is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing.
 Similarly, the amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the latent heat of
vaporization and is equivalent to the energy released during condensation.

The magnitudes of latent heats depend on the temperature or pressure at which the phase
change is occuring.
At 1 atm (101.325 kPa), the latent heat of fusion of water is:

144 Btu/lbm = 335 kJ/kg = 80 kcal/kg

At 1 atm (101.325 kPa), the latent of vaporization is:

970 Btu/lbm = 2257 kJ/kg

SPECIFIC HEAT cp (expressed in kJ/kg.oC or kJ/kg.K and Btu/lbm.oF or Btu/lbm.R)

 The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance by one degree.
 The two most common descriptions are specific heat at constant volume cv and specific
heat at constant pressure cp. The second (or cp) is the more useful because it applies to
most of the heating and cooling processes experienced in air conditioning and
refrigeration.
The approximate specific heats at constant pressue cp of several important substances
are:

1.0062 kJ/kg.oC or 0.24 Btu/lb.oF dry air

cp = 4.187 kJ/kg.oC or 1.0 Btu/lb.oF liquid water
1.88 kJ/kg.oC water vapor
2.094 kJ/kg.oC or 0.5 Btu/lb.oF ice water (– 17.8oC to 0oC or 0oC to 32oF)
TON OF REFRIGERATION (TR, TOR or simply TON)

 One ton of refrigeration is the rate of cooling required to freeze one ton of water at 32 oF
(0oC) into ice at 32oF (0oC) in one day.
 It is the amount of heat to be removed from water at 0 oC (32oF) at constant pressure of 1
atm (101.325 kPa) to produce 1 ton of ice per day (or in 24 hrs) at the same temperature.

1 TR = mice x Latent heat of fusion, QLHF

= 1 ton x 1 day x 1h x 2000 lbm x 1 kg x (335 kJ/kg) = 3.52 kW

day 24 h 3600 sec 1 ton 2.204 lbm

1 TR = 3.52 kW

Heat Engines

A system operating in a cycle and producing a net quatity of work from a supply of heat is
called a heat engine and is represented as shown in Fig. 1-1a.
The work-producing device that best fits into the definition of a heat engine is the steam
power plant, which is an external-combustion engine and the working fluid is the steam as
shown in Fig 1-1b.

Fig. 1-1a. Representation of a heat engine Fig. 1-1b. Schematic of a steam power plant
Thermal Efficiency, e

The performance or efficiency, in general, can be expressed in terms of the desired output
and the required input.

Performance = Desired output

Required input

For heat engines, the desired output is the net work output, and the required input is the
amount of heat supplied to the working fluid. The fraction of the heat input that is converted to
net work output is a measure of the performance of a heat engine ans is called the thermal
efficiency e. Then the thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be expressed as

Thermal efficiency, e = Net work output, Wnet, out = QH, in – QL, out = 1 – QL, out
Total heat input, QA, in QH, in QH, in

where: Wnet, out = net work output = QH, in – QL, out

H, in (or QA) = amount of heat supplied to the heat engine (steam in boiler)
from a high temperature (or TH) source (such as a furnace)
QL, out (or QR) = amount of heat rejected from the heat engine (steam in
condenser) to a low temperature (or TL) sink (such as the
atmosphere, a river, etc.)

Carnot Heat Engine

The hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot Cycle is called the Carnot
heat engine. Then the thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine or any reversible engine can be
expressed in terms of temperatures as

Thermal efficiency, e = Net work output, Wnet, out = QH, in – QL, out = 1 – QL, out
Total heat input, QH, in QH, in QH, in

Thermal efficiency, e = TH – TL = 1 – TL
TH TH
Refrigerating Machine or Refrigerators

A refrigerating machine will either cool or maintain a body at a temperature below that its
surroundings. A refrigerating machine may be represented by the diagram shown in Fig 1-2a.
The machine R absorbs heat QL from the cold body at temperature TL and rejects heat QH to the
surroundings at temperature TH and, during the process work W to be done on the system.

Refrigerators, like heat engine, are cyclic devices. The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a refrigerant. The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, which involves four main components: a compressor,
a condenser, an expansion valve, and an evaporator, as shown in Fig. 1-2b.

Fig. 1-2a. Representation of a Fig.1-2b. Basic components of a refrigeration

refrigerating machine. system and typical operating conditions.

Coefficient of Performance of Refrigerating Machine, COPR

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance

(COP), denoted by COPR. The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL,in or QA) from
refrigerated space. To accomplished this objective, it requires a work input of Wnet, in. Then the
COP of a refrigerator can be expressed as

COPR = Desired output = __QL, in . = QL, in .

Required input Wnet, in QH, out – QL, in
 where: Wnet, in = net work input (mechanical energy consumed)
= QR, out – QA, in
QL, in (or QA) = amount of heat absorbed (by the refrigerant) or heat added to
the refrigerant from the low temperature (or TL) cold body or
refrigerated space. Also known as Cooling Load Cooling or
Refrigerating Effect, Qe or Useful Result.
QH, out (or QR) = amount of heat rejected by the refrigerant to a high
temperature (or TH) surroundings.
Heat Pumps

Another device that transfer heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one
is the heat pump, shown schematically in Fig. 1-3a. Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on
the same cycle but differ in their objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the
refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat from it. Discharging this heat to a
higher-temperature medium is merely a necessary part of the operation, not the purpose. The
objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature. This is
accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-temperature source, such as well water or cold
outside air in winter, and supplying this heat to the high-temperature medium such as a house
(Fig. 1-3b).

Fig. 1-3a. Representation of Fig 1-3b. The work supplied to a heat pump
heat pump. is used to extract energy from cold
outdoors and carry it into the warm
indoors.
Coefficient of Performance, COPHP or Performace Factor, PF of Heat Pump

The measure of performance of a heat pump is also expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance COPHP or performance factor PF, defined as

COPHP (or PF) = Desired output = __QH,out . = QH, out .

Required input Wnet, in QH, out – QL, in

where: Wnet, in = net work input (mechanical energy consumed)

= QH, out – QL, in
QL, in (or QA) = amount of heat absorbed (by the refrigerant) or heat added to
the refrigerant from the low temperature (or TL) cold
environment
QH, out (or QR) = amount of heat rejected by refrigerant to a high temperature
(or TH) surroundings (or warm heated space). Also known as
the Heating Load or Heating Effect.

A comparison of COPR and COPHP reveals that

COPHP = COPR + 1

Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air as the heat source in winter, and they are
referred to as air-source heat pumps. The COP of such heat pumps is currently about 3.0 at
design conditions. Air-source heat pumps are not appropriate for cold climates since their
efficiency drops considerably when temperatures are below the freezing point. In such cases,
geothermal (also called ground-source) heat pumps that use the ground as the heat source can
be used. Geothermal heat pumps require the burial of pipes in the ground 1 to 2 m deep. Such
heat pumps are more expensive than air-source heat pumps). The COP of ground-source heat
pumps currently approaches 4.0.
The Reversed Carnot Cycle

A refrigerator that operates on the reverse Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator.
A heat pump that operates on the reverse Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat pump.
Generally Reverse Carnot Engine is referred to as a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat Pump.
Consider a reversed Carnot cycle executed within the saturation dome of a refrigerant, as
shown in Fig. 1-4.

Fig. 1-4. Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator and T-s diagram of the reverse Carnot cycle.

The coefficient of performance of Carnot refrigerator and Carnot heat pumps are
expressed in terms of temperatures as

COPR = QL, in . = TL ,
QH, out – QL, in TH – TL

COPHP = QH, in . = TH ,
QH, out – QL, in TH – TL
Energy Efficiency Rating, EER

The performance of refrigerators and air conditioners in the United States is often expressed
in terms of the Energy Efficiency Rating (EER), which is the amount of heat removed from
the cooled space in Btu’s for 1 Wh (watt-hour) of electricity consumed. Considering that 1
kWh = 3412 Btu and thus 1 Wh = 3.412 Btu, a unit that removes 1 kWh of heat from cooled
space for each kWh of electricity it consumes (COP = 1) and will have an EER of 3.412.
Therefore, the relation between EER and COP is

EER = 3.412 COPR

Most air conditioners have an EER between 8 and 12 (a COP of 2.3 to 3.5). A high-
efficiency heat pump recently manufactured by the Trane Company using a recirprocating
variable-speed compressor is reported to have a COP of 3.3 in the heating mode and EER of
16.9 (COP 5.0) in the air conditioning mode. Variable-speed drive (VSD) or Varaible-frequency
drive (VFD) compressors, fans and pumps allow the unit to operate at maximum efficiency for
varying heating/cooling needs and weather conditions as determined by a microprocessor. In
the air-conditioning mode, for example, they operate at higher speed on hot days and at lower
speeds on cooler days, enhancing both efficiency and comfort.
Calculating the Cooling Load from Products (Product Load)

1. Without Freezing:

Cooling Load = m cp ∆T , kW or Btu/min

Δt

or

Cooling Load = ṁ cp ∆T , kW or Btu/min

where: m = mass of the product, kg or lbm

ṁ = mass flow rate of the product, kg/s or lbm/min
cp = specific heat of the product, kJ/kg.oC or Btu/lbm.oF
∆T = temperature change, oC or oF
= initial temperature, T1 – final temperature, T2
Δt = time or duration of cooling, sec, min, or hr

2. With Freezing:

Cooling Load (per unit time) = m [ cpa ( T1 – Tf) + qLHF + cpb (Tf – T2) ], kW or Btu/min
 Δt

or

Cooling Load = ṁ [ cpa ( T1 – Tf) + qLHF + cpb (Tf – T2) ], kJ or Btu

where: m = mass of the product, kg or lbm

ṁ = mass flow rate of the product, kg/s or lbm/min
cpa = specific heat above freezing of the product, kJ/kg.oC or Btu/lbm.oF
cpb = specific heat below freezing of the product, kJ/kg.oC or Btu/lbm.oF
T1 = initial temperature of product, oC or oF
T2 = final temperature of product, oC or oF
Tf = freezing temperature of product, oC or oF
Δt = time or duration of cooling & freezing, sec, min, or hr

Cooling Load (kW or Btu) = Cooling Load (KW or Btu/min) x Δt (sec or min)

Total Refrigeration Load (Desired Ouput, Refrigerating Effect, Qe)

1. Without loss or external heat gain from external sources

Total Refrigeration Load = Cooling load from products

2. With loss or external heat gain from external sources

Total Refrigeration Load = Cooling load from products + Heat gain from
external sources

If loss or external heat gain from external sources is expressed as percentage of cooling
load from products then,

Total Refrigeration Load = (Cooling load from products) ( 1 + % loss)

Sample Problems:
1.) Water enters an ice machine at 55oF and leaves as ice at 25oF. If the COP of the ice machine
is 2.4 during this operation, determine the required power input for an ice production rate of
20 lbm/h. Ans: 0.558 hp

2.) An 10-hp heat pump is designed to maintain a house at 70 oF when the outside temperature
is 23oF. The heat loss from the house is estimated to be 85,000 Btu/h for these temperature
conditions. Can the heat pump provide the necessary heat?

3.) It is desired to double the COP of a reverse Carnot engine (refrigerating system) from 5.0 by
raising the temperature of heat addition for fixed high temperature. By what percentage
must the low temperature be raised? Ans: 9.1%

4.) A reversed Carnot engine (refrigerating system) operates between 440 R and 540 R and
recieves 500 But/min of heat at the lower temperature. The power to drive the reversed
engine comes from a Carnot engine operating between 1600 R and 540 R. Determine the
heat input to the Carnot engine. Ans: 171.53 Btu/min

5.) A reversed Carnot engine operating as a heat pump consumes 6 kW and has a COP of 3.0.
A house containing 3000 lbm of air is initially at 54oF, and the heat raises the air temperature
to 70oF. How long will it take? For air cv = 0.1714 Btu/lbm.oF. Ans: 8.04 min

6.) A house that was heated by electric resistance heaters consumed 1200 kWh of electric
energy in a winter month. If this house were heated instead by a heat pump that has an
average COP of 2.4, determine how much money the homeowner would have save that
month. Assume a price of 8.6¢/kWh for electricity. Ans: $59.50

7.) A household refrigerator with COP of 1.2 removes heat from refrigerated space at a rate of
60 kJ/min. Determine (a) the electric power consumed by the refrigerator and (b) the rate of
heat transfer to the kitchen air. Ans: (a) 0.83 kW, (b) 110 kJ/min

8.) A household refrigerator that has a power input of 450 W and a COP of 2.5 is to cool five
large watermelons, 10 kg each, to 8oC. If the watermelons are initially at 20 oC, determine
(a) EER of the refrigerator and (b) how long it will take for refrigerator to cool them. The
watermelons can be can treated as water whose specific weight is 4.2 kJ/kg. oC. Ans: (a)
8.53 (b) 37.33 min.