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quadrant II quadrant I
(reverse active) (saturation)
0
VBE
quadrant III quadrant IV
(cutoff) (forward active)
E
VBE IB VBC
(positive) (negative)
+ +
B
1 Injection Component
2 Recombination Component
3 Collection Component
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 6
* BE junction forward biased: electrons injected
from E to B, thus emitter current (I E ) flows out
of the emitter terminal
* In B, electrons diffuse towards the BC junction
due to the presence of diffusion gradient
Note: electrons are minority carriers in p-base
* In this process, some electrons will recombine
with the majority carriers (holes) present in B
* The holes lost due to this recom bination process
will be supplied by the external circuit , thus,
base current (I B ) flows into the base terminal
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 7
* Electrons, which did not recombine, will reach
the edge of the BC depletion region, and will
get swept to C by the junction electric field
* Thus, collector current (I C ) flows into the C
terminal
* A small change in I B can cause a large change in
I C to I E ratio, due to a phenomenon known as
base control
* For a good transistor, I B should be as small as
possible the base region should be as thin
as possible
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 8
Current Gain:
* Note that the sum of the collection component and
the recombination component must always equal
the injection component (charge conservation)
IE IC IB
* Common-Emitter Current Gain () = IC I B
* Common-Base Current Gain () = IC I E
* Thus, β = α 1 α and α = β β + 1
* For a good transistor, I B should be as small as
possible α 1, and β is quite large (~ 100 -500 )
* Closer is the value of α to 1, better is the BJT!
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 9
Current -Voltage Characteristic:
* Note that BE junction basically is a diode
I E I ES exp VBE VT 1 I ES exp VBE VT
BE junction is sufficiently forward biased
The 1 term can be neglected
I ES : Reverse saturation current of the BE junction
VT : Thermal Voltage (= kT/q) = 26 mV at room
temperature (T = 300 K )
* Thus, IC = I E = IS exp VBE VT
IS I ES saturation current of the BJT
I B = I E IC
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 10
Output Characteristic:
* Note: VC VCE (variable), also I B is variable
* When BJT is in the forward active mode, VBE
VC
is assumed to get clamped at 0.7 V (about 100 IC
IB4
IB3
IB2
IB1
0
VCE
IB4 > IB3 > IB2 > IB1
onset of
saturation
IB1
VCEQ VCC
VCE
load
line
v0
DC (or Quiescent) Power Dissipation
of the Transistor = VCEQ ICQ
t
Common-Base ) +
rE
Current Gain
vbe ie = ( + 1)ib
rE : Incremental Emitter Resistance = ic/
– E
dVBE dI E VT I EQ VT ICQ ( 1)
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 27
* Note: rE is expressed in terms of ICQ (or I EQ )
The linearization is done around the DC
bias point (Q-point )
DC analysis must precede ac analysis
in order to obtain the bias point information,
and thus, the value of rE
* Also, note the v be = ie rE , which can also be written
as: v be = (+1)i b rE i b rE i b r , with r rE
r is another small -signal parameter , defined
as incremental base -emitter resistance
Note that this resistance appears in the base lead
Aloke Dutta/EE/IIT Kanpur 28
Analysis of Amplifiers Using Transistors:
* The analysis proceeds as follows:
First, DC biasing analysis is done, which
yields the DC bias point (Q-point )
Gives ICQ and VCEQ
ICQ is needed to obain the values of the
small -signal parameters
VCEQ is needed to ensure that the transistor is
biased in the FA region (VCEQ 0.7 V, and
ideally VCC /2, known as the best bias point )