FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

OF EPOXY-REPAIRED TIMBER

By R. Richard Avent, 1 M . ASCE

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ABSTRACT: An investigation into the factors affecting the strength of epoxy-

repaired timber structures has been conducted. Two aspects are evaluated: re-
pair methodology, and effects of member configuration. The structural repair
sequence of timber consists of four basic steps: (1) Special member preparation;
(2) joint sealing; (3) epoxy injection; and (4) finishing. Each of these steps is
described in detail with recommended procedures to aid the engineer in both
the design and inspection of epoxy repair. To evaluate the various joint con-
figuration parameters affecting the behavior of epoxy-repaired timber, over 200
full size repaired members and over 100 shear blocks of Southern pine were
tested. The parameters studied include effects of: mechanical connectors; length
of overlap; member thickness; grain orientation; timber age; and glue line thick-
ness. It was found that the shear bond strength is on the order of the shear
strength of the wood. It was also determined that the primary factors affecting
strength are the ratio of lap length to member thickness and grain orientation.

INTRODUCTION

Although epoxy injection has been used for m a n y years in concrete

repair, the method has only in recent years found application in the
repair of timber. To evaluate its effectiveness a comprehensive experi-
mental and analytical research program h a s been conducted on epoxy-
repaired timber. The purpose of this paper is to describe basic proce-
dures for epoxy repair a n d to evaluate some of the primary factors af-
fecting the design strength of epoxy-repaired timber.
The first reported study on the use of epoxy repair for timber w a s
presented by Avent et al. (2) in 1976. Basic repair methodology was given
along with some preliminary experimental results which indicated that
such repairs might be highly effective. A second experimental study b y
Avent et al. (3) on full size test trusses further showed the epoxy repair
method to be structurally effective. Based on these results, several actual
repair projects were conducted a n d reported by Avent et al. (6,7,12). In
addition, several papers describing various aspects of epoxy repair have
since been presented (4,5). However, the state-of-the-art as defined b y
past research is incomplete. The degree to which various factors affect
the strength of epoxy-repaired timber h a s not b e e n quantified. A n en-
gineer contemplating epoxy repair h a s n o basis for evaluating whether,
and to what degree, the after-repair strength will approach the original
strength. The purpose here is to present data that can b e u s e d to quan-
tify the strength associated with the epoxy repair procedure for timber.
'Prof, and Coordinator, Structural Engrg. and Mechanics, Dept. of Civ. Engrg.,
Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA 70803.
Note.—Discussion open until July 1, 1986. Separate discussions should be sub-
mitted for the individual papers in this symposium. To extend the closing date
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication
on July 14, 1983. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
112, No. 2, February, 1986. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/86/0002-0207/$01.00. Paper
No. 20387.

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J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 STEPS IN THE EPOXY REPAIR PROCEDURE

Types of Epoxy Repair.—Epoxy repair of timber is applicable primar-

ily in structural or semi-structural applications. Repairs can be conve-
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niently typed as follows, where A indicates prime structural and B in-

dicates semistructural.
Type A-l.—Epoxy injection of cracked and split members at truss joints.
Type A-2.—Epoxy injection and reinforcement of decayed wood.
Type A-3.—Splicing and epoxy injection of broken members.
Type A-4.—Epoxy injection of delaminated beams.
Type B-l.—Epoxy injection of longitudinal cracks and splits in truss
members away from joints.
Type B-2,—Repair of bearing surfaces using epoxy gel.
While the basic steps required to epoxy repair timber have been pre-
viously reported, recent research has led to modifications and extensions
of the procedures. The methodology is detailed in the following sec-
tions.
Special Member Preparations.—The preparation of the repair area can
range from little to extensive. Individual judgment is necessary to de-
termine the preparations required. The following items should be con-
sidered prior to any epoxy repair.
Shoring and Jacking.—In cases where excessive damage or deterioration
has occurred, it may be necessary to shore the members to prevent ad-
ditional movement during repair or to jack members back to a more nor-
mal position. Based on field observations of damaged buildings, jacking
has been required only in isolated instances. Three reasons for consid-
ering jacking are: (1) To remove excessive sag; (2) to relieve stresses; and
(3) to close large cracks. Jacking to relieve stresses will probably be un-
successful and is not recommended unless a large number of jacking
points are used. This recommendation implies that epoxy repair would
be effective for live load stresses and would only begin to carry dead
load stresses if further weakening of the mechanical connectors oc-
curred. Experimental studies have shown that it is difficult to close cracks
by jacking and that the size of the crack is usually unimportant in the
epoxy repair process. Therefore, the only reason to jack a truss before
repairing would be to remove excessive sag. Only if the sag/span ratio
exceeds 1/240 should jacking even be considered. If jacking is necessary,
extreme caution should be exercised. Stress reversals could cause mem-
ber failures, especially in the vicinity of the jacking points. The differ-
ential movement may also damage attachments such as roofing. In gen-
eral a structural analysis of the system should be conducted to determine
the maximum jacking force that is permissible. If jacking is necessary,
gages to measure the jacking forces should be utilized during the op-
eration. An alternative to truss jacking is to jack the roof purlins. Such
a procedure decreases truss deflections by unloading the truss and yet
avoids stress reversal problems in the truss.
Addition of Splice Plates.—For some repairs it may be necessary to add
splice plates. The primary example is the case of a broken member. The
epoxy repair technique is most effective for lapped joints in which the
epoxy is injected between the lapped surfaces to provide shear resis-
208

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 tance. For broken members, splices are tack-nailed on both sides of the
broken member to be injected with epoxy. Since most failures occur at
joints that already consist of lapped members, it is generally not nec-
essary to provide additional splice plates.
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Removal of Moisture Source.—For moist or decayed sections, the mois-

ture source must be eliminated to protect the member from later dete-
rioration. While epoxy formulations exist that adhere in moist environ-
ments, the presence of moisture may mean that decay will continue in
encapsulated or adjacent areas and result in continued deterioration. If
the moisture content exceeds 20%, the member should be dried out be-
fore repair and the source of the high moisture eliminated. For trusses
and roof girders, the roof should be repaired so that continued leaking
will not contaminate the repaired member.
Replacement and Reinforcement.—For severely decayed members, re-
placement of decayed sections or the addition of reinforcing elements
may be necessary. For reinforcement, holes are drilld and fiberglass rein-
forcing rods inserted to form either: (1) A strong connector pattern be-
tween sound and unsound wood; or (2) a stiffening internal truss or
frame for increasing load-carrying capacity. Epoxy injection will bond
the reinforcing members to the surrounding wood and provide in-
creased strength. Replacement is effective when new sections can be
lapped on existing sound wood. For example, decayed portions of lam-
inated beams can be replaced by new laminates if the original laminates
are removed past the decay and into sound wood. Since little experi-
mental evidence is available, these procedures should not be used with-
out careful engineering analysis.
Cleaning.—The area to be repaired should be thoroughly cleaned. All
dust and debris should be cleared so that a good bonding surface is
provided. An air jet from a compressed air source has been found to be
very effective for this purpose.
Joint Sealing.—The area to be repaired must be completely sealed on
the exposed surfaces except for injection and bleeding ports. The success
of the repair depends to a large degree on the effectiveness of the seal-
ing. The sealant used should be a high-viscosity epoxy with a putty-like
consistency (referred to as a gel). The usual steps in the sealing process
are as follows:
Port Setting.—The placing of ports serves three purposes. First, it pro-
vides a means for injecting epoxy into the interior of the damaged area;
second, it provides a means for venting the air displaced by the epoxy
during the injection process; and third, it provides a means for deter-
mining the penetration of the epoxy into the damaged area.
Materials.—One of the most common materials used for ports is 1/4
in. diameter copper tubing. Also frequently used is small diameter
(1/4 in. to 3/8 in.) standard pipe. In addition, plastic tubing has been
successfully used. The primary requirements for port material is that it
should be compatible with the injection equipment, that it should be
bondable with the epoxy gel, and that it can be sealed or closed during
the injection itself.
Placement of Ports.—Ports are placed by drilling holes with a diameter
identical to the outside diameter of the port. The port is inserted into
the hole and sealing gel is applied around the port. The depth of the

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M (b)

(c)
(d)

FIG. 1.—-Alternate Methods of Setting Injection Ports

approx I/2

—hole

FIG. 2.—Cross Section Showing Gel Build-Up Around Port

hole depends upon its location and type. Recalling that the key to a
successful epoxy repair is insuring penetration into all lapped surfaces,
the ports should be placed to maximize this penetration. Alternative
placement methods are shown in Fig. 1. One method is to place the port
at the juncture of the lapped surfaces as illustrated by port type A in
Fig. 1. The hole is drilled at an angle to the surface while insuring that
the hole includes the lap area. The depth of the hole should be approx-
imately one-half inch. The second method is to drill holes perpendicular
to the lapped surfaces as illustrated by port type B in Fig. 1. This method
allows easier installation and allows the penetration of multiple lap planes
by drilling the hole deeper. The hole should be drilled deep enough to
penetrate the lapped surfaces desired. For either method the port should
only be inserted approximately 1/4 in. into the hole. After placement,
the port should be sealed with gel. The gel should be built up around
the port as shown in Fig. 2. It is important to build up the gel to prevent
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J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 leaking during injection and capping.
Location and Number of Ports.—The minimum number of ports for a
single lapped surface is three. Two ports are usually placed at the top
and one at the bottom as shown in Fig. 1; however, placement may vary
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depending on the shape of the lapped surfaces. For members oriented

at an angle-to-the-grain, three ports per lapped surface are usually suf-
ficient. However, for parallel-to-grain members such as splices, the lap
area may be long enough to justify additional ports. It is recommended
that two ports per lapped surface be provided (one top and one bottom)
for every two feet of length of spliced members. One other location for
ports is at cracks and splits. It is recommended that single ports be placed
at the extreme ends of all longitudinal splits with additional ports placed
at three-foot increments.
Lap Joint and Crack Sealing.—All cracks, lap joints, bolts, holes, and
defects must be completely sealed with gel. This sealing is usually per-
ormed by hand with putty knives and trowels. The gel must be thick
enough to span the openings and withstand pressures of 40 to 80 psi.
A cross section of a crack covered with gel is shown in Fig. 3. The thick-
ness of the gel at the crack, h, should be approximately equal to the crack
thickness, t. The gel is usually spread 1/4 in. to 1 in. wide on either
side of the crack. For cracks wider than 3/8 in., a fiber glass cloth can
be placed over the crack and gelled over. This procedure prevents the
gel from penetrating too deeply into the crack and provides a stiffening
effect once the gel has hardened. Apply the gel to the surface only. Forc-
ing gel deeply into cracks may obstruct the path of injection epoxy and
could prevent the injection epoxy from filling the voids. The gel is sig-
nificantly weaker than the injection epoxy and should not be counted
on for strengthening the repaired joint. Special care should be taken in
sealing the following, since experience has shown that leaks often occur
at these points: sharp corners; openings greater than 1/4 in.; around
bolts and washers; and around ports. The entire joint or damaged area
must be completely sealed. The injection epoxy has a viscosity similar
to thin paint and will seek the path of least resistance when injected.
Any small opening will leak enough that the injection cannot continue
without sealing the leak.
Leak Testing.—It is recommended that joints be leak tested before in-
jection. A suitable procedure is to use compressed air. All ports except
one venting port and injection port should be temporarily capped. Com-
pressed air (at 25 psi pressure) is then forced into the joint. The joint is
then coated with a soap film and observed for bubbles. All leaks are
marked and repaired after the film has dried. While leak testing may

FIG. 3.—Gel Applied over Longitudinal Split

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FIG. 4.—Epoxy Injection in Progress on Lower Chord Truss Joint Using Auto-
matic Injection Equipment

seem tedious, experience has shown that the time spent in leak testing
is more than compensated for by expedited injection. In addition, the
joint has a higher repaired strength when leaking is minimized.
Hair-Line Cracks.—In some cases the deterioration has resulted in hair-
line cracks difficult to see. Should leak testing reveal a large number of
such cracks, it is recommended that the entire damaged area be painted
with a thick epoxy paint. This application fills hair-line cracks and small
holes not generally visible.
Epoxy Injection.—The next step is to pressure inject a low viscosity
two-component epoxy into the sealed joint though the injection ports
(Fig. 4). This can usually be done by attaching the nozzle of the injection
gun to a single port (usually the lowest) and letting the other ports serve
as vents. As epoxy fills the joint, the venting ports leak epoxy and are
sealed off. After all ports are sealed, epoxy injection should be continued
to ensure penetration into the fibers. Care should be taken not to inject
with too much pressure or the seal might break. A nozzle pressure of
40 psi (276 kPa) is recommended. When possible, the entire joint should
be injected from a single port.
Port Capping,—Various methods can be used to seal off ports during
injection. One method is to lightly tap wooden golf tees into the port.
Copper tubing can be bent or squeezed closed with pliers. Wooden dow-
els can also be inserted. But the seals should not be broken in the pro-
cess.
Leaking during Injection.—Should a leak develop during the injection,
quick drying patching cement can be applied. Since it is essential to fin-
ish the injection before the epoxy initially sets, a patching cement with
a 2-3 min pot life is needed. Hydraulic cements that can be mixed with
water work well. Hot-melt glues have also been used successfully. Be-
cause of the porous nature of wood, leaking will occur on occasion. No
injection should be attempted without a supply of patching compound
on hand.
Injection Equipment.—Injection is usually accomplished with automatic
equipment, although hand equipment can be used. Typically, two pos-
itive displacement pumps geared to the specified mix ratio feed the sep-
arate components into a nozzle. Mixing is accomplished by forcing the
212

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 epoxy through static mixing brushes in the nozzle. As long as the flow
is not interrupted for more than a few minutes, injection can progress
for hours without damage to the nozzle.
Finishing.—The initial cure time for many epoxies is 30 min to 5 hrs.
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Final cure is usually accomplished in several days. After curing, any

temporary supports may be removed. If aesthetics are important, the
injection ports can be removed and sealing gel sanded smooth. Then
paint can be applied to finish the repair.

FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND STRENGTH

A series of experimental studies were conducted on Southern pine to

evaluate factors affecting the bond design strength of epoxy-injected
lapped joints. Such factors can be divided into two categories: (1) Effects
of joint configuration; and (2) effects of environmental factors. The pur-
pose here is to evaluate effects of joint configuration. Earlier studies
(2,9,10,13-15) have indicated that the following factors may be impor-
tant: effect of mechanical connectors; length of overlap; member thick-
ness; grain orientation; timber age; and glue line thickness. These factors
are evaluated in the following sections.
Environmental factors include the effects of weathering, duration of
load, low temperatures, and high heat or fire. These factors have also
been studied and will be reported in a separate paper.
Basic Shear Bond Stress for Epoxy Bonded Wood.—To determine ba-
sic shear bond stress characteristics of Southern pine, the standard ASTM
D-905 shear block test (1) was utilized. Specimens were fabricated using
mill produced nominal 2 X 10 in. No. 2 kiln dried Southern pine as
shown in Fig. 5(b). Using a glue line thickness of 1/16 in., joints were
injected with Sikadur Hi-Mod LV epoxy. After curing, these joints were
cut into four shear blocks and loaded as shown in Fig. 5(a). Previous
results (2,3) involved a small number of specimens. However, recent

(b)

FIG. 5.—ASTM D 905 (81) Shear Block Test (1): (a) Test Specimen from Joint; (b)
Four Specimen Joint
213

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 TABLE 1 .—Summary of Shear Block Tests
Number of Mean average Standard
Specimen type specimens shear stress (psi) deviation (psi)
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(1) (2) (3) (4)

Mill lumber, parallel grain 100 1,312 422
Mill lumber, perpendicular grain 7 572 103
Aged lumber, parallel grain 7 1,025 289
Aged lumber, perpendicular grain 8 681 82

tests have included 100 specimens from three lots to provide a statisti-
cally meaningful evaluation, of bond shear stress. A small number of the
following specimens were tested: mill lumber with grain orientation per-
pendicular; aged Southern pine (30 yrs old) with parallel grain orienta-
tion; and aged Southern pine with perpendicular grain orientation. A
summary of these results is shown in Table 1.
The test results show that the bond strength of parallel grain speci-
mens was on the order of the shear strength of the wood. Inspection of
the failed specimens showed that significant wood failure occurred on
a majority of specimens. The perpendicular grain orientation specimens
had an average failure stress of less than one-half that of parallel grain
specimens. The results of the aged Southern pine were similar to those
of new lumber.
Effect of Mechanical Connectors on Joint Strength.—All joints in
wooden trusses must have some form of connector. Generally in older
trusses, mechanical connectors such as bolted connections, split ring
connectors, and tooth-plate connectors are used. Since the structures being
repaired may have a variable number and arrangement of connectors,
it is important to know what effect the connector will have on the ca-
pacity of the repaired joint. Previous results (2,3) have shown that the
connector has a negligible effect on the strength after repair. From ob-
servation of failure, the glue line must fail (or at least deform signifi-
cantly) before the load can be transferred to the rings. If the capacity of
the glue line is greater than the split ring capacity, then the split rings
will fail at the load transfer point. Thus split rings would only be effec-
tive if the ring capacity was larger than the glue line capacity. Since in
most repair situations the ring capacity is less than the glue line capacity,
the mechanical connectors will generally have a negligible effect on epoxy
repair strength. Consistent with this assumption, many of the tests de-
scribed in later sections were conducted on joints without mechanical
connectors.
Length of Overlap.—To investigate the strength characteristics of tim-
ber truss joints, over 200 double shear joints were load tested after epoxy
injection. Both parallel and perpendicular grain orientation tests were
conducted. The results of these tests are shown in Tables 2 and 3 and
are plotted in Figs. 6 and 7. Based on these and earlier tests, the primary
factor affecting joint strength was found to be the ratio of lap length to
thickness of the middle member, l/t. Other authors (10,13-16) have also
concluded that the average failure shear stress in a double lap bonded
joint is a function of l/t. The thickness of the outside members was found
214

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 TABLE 2,—Summary of Double Shear Joint Tests with Parallel Grain Orientation
Middle Member
Mean glue Standard
No. of Lab length, Thickness, line shear derivation
specimens 1 (in.) t (in.) l/t stress (psi) (psi)
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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

6 1.5 1.5 1.00 201 52
3 5.5 3.5 1.57 248 68
27 2.5 1.5 1.67 440 177
6 3.0 1.5 2.00 204 25
3 5.5 ' 2.25 2.44 640 110
6 4.5 1.5 3.00 244 78
54 5.5 1.5 3.67 688 207
6 6.0 1.5 4.00 524 214
6 7.5 1.5 6.00 537 213
26 9.0 1.5 6.00 537 213

TABLE 3.—-Summary of Double Shear Joint Tests with Perpendicular Grain Ori-
entation
Middle Member
Mean glue Standard
No. of Lab length, Thickness, line shear derivation
specimens 1 (in.) t (in.) l/t stress (psi) (psi)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
6 1.5 1.5 1.00 170 39
6 3.0 1.5 2.00 264 50
6 3.5 1.5 2.33 355 47
6 4.5 1.5 3.00 241 94
35 5.5 1.5 3.67 425 112
6 6.0 1.5 4.00 552 ' 28
6 1.25 1.5 4.83 295 26
6 7.5 1.5 5.00 536 132

to have a negligible effect on average failure stress. The test results in-
dicate that the average failure shear stress is proportional to the l/t ratio.
This behavior is due to two factors: the variation in stress concentrations
for different geometries; and the effect of combined shear and tension
on the glue line. A typical stress distribution for a lapped member (Fig.
8) along with observations of failure patterns illustrates the failure mech-
anism. The failure initiates at the stress concentration point of the lead-
ing or trailing edge (usually the trailing edge) and gradually spreads over
the glue line. Thus variations in the magnitude of these peak stresses
may lead to failures at differing average shear stress values for various
geometries.
Tension stresses also exist in double lap shear joints. For small l/t
ratios the joint acts as a deep beam with significant bending stresses
generated. For a joint with the middle member loaded in compression,
compressive stresses will occur at the leading end of the middle mem-
ber, while tensile stresses will occur at the trailing end. The allowable
215

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 o ave age

10
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8
-
fuh
674 O
„.?
v 677 ( )

6
S.6S ( )
!
463©
•i-
4 !

«1 0 ' 24T<

3 '•" 4

FIG. 6.—Effect of l/t Ratio on Glue Line Shear Stress for Double Shear Lapped
Joints of No. 2 KD Southern Pine with Paralled Grain Orientation (Circles Indicate
Average of Each Test Series)

o average

C> S.64

Full
F„ 4.47 6

4*74
3.11 6
UI t
1.64 {

US ( l

e/i

FIG. 7.—Effect of l/t Ratio on Glue Line Shear Stress for Double Shear Lapped
Joints of No. 2 KD Southern Pine with Perpendicular Grain Orientation (Circles
Indicate Average of Each Test Series)

load for wood in tension perpendicular to the grain is usually very small
and may be close to 1/40 of the allowable load in tension parallel to the
grain. If the bending stress exceeds the allowable tensile stress at low
loads, then the middle member might split at the tension end. This type
of failure occurred for small l/t ratios. Even in cases where the glue line
216

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Jose Antonio Peñaherrera Cordova on 04/17/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Position on lap length, x/i

FiG. 8.—Typical Glue Line Shear Stress Distribution for Lapped Joint (Angle of
Load to Grain = 0°)

(«) (b)

FIG. 9.—Glue Line of Typical Failed Double Shear Lapped Specimens: (a) Per-
pendicular Grain Orientation with Split Ring; (b) Parallel Grain Orientation without
Split Ring

FIG. 10.—Bearing Failure of Middle Member in Double Shear Parallel Grain Spec-
imen with a Large l/t Ratio

217

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 failed, the failure would result from combined tension and shear stresses.
As the l/t ratio increases, the effect of the bending tensile stresses be-
come small, resulting in greater load capacity and shear failures. Typical
failed specimens are shown in Fig. 9. For large l/t values, sufficient area
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is provided so that the middle member in compression crushes before

the glue line fails in shear. This bearing-type failure in the long speci-
mens is shown in Fig. 10.
Effect of Grain Orientation.—In order to evaluate the effect of grain
orientation, a series of tests was conducted on joints initially configured
as shown in Fig. 11(a). Specimens were prepared from 2 x 8 and 2 x 10
lumber depending on the grain orientation. After injection and curing,
the specimens were cut to a standard 5-1/2 in. x 5-1/2 in. size in order
to provide an identical shear area for specimens at various grain angles.
The specimens were oriented such that the center member was always
loaded parallel to the grain [Fig. 11(b)].
The results of the tests are plotted in Fig. 12. The experimental results
indicate that a decrease in ultimate load capacity occurs as the grain an-
gle varies from 0° to 90°.
These results can be approximated using Hankinson's formula in the
form:
PQ
N- (1)
P sin2 6 + Q cos2 6
in which P = the strength when the load is applied parallel to the grain;
Q = the strength when the load is applied perpendicular to the grain;
N = the strength when the load is applied at any angle, 6, with the
grain. This formula is also plotted in Fig. 12 with P = 688 psi and Q =
425 psi, which represents the average failure stress of 54 parallel and 35
perpendicular grain test specimens, respectively. Although relatively few
data points were obtained at other grain orientations, the trend of the
results fits the shape of Hankinson's formula.
Effect of Glue Line Thickness.—Based on theoretical studies (11), glue
line thickness has been found to be an important variable related to the

(a) (b)

FIG. 11.—Specimen Arrangement for Grain Orientation Tests

218

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 1200

1000
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800 r
<1

(I

» 600 i
^--. ' T*

| 400
Han kinson's formula-^

200

15 30 45 60 75 90
angle of grain (degrees)

FIG. 12,—Effect of Grain Orientation on Failure Shear Stress for No. 2 KD South-
ern Pine Double Shear Joints (Circles Indicate Average Value for each Test Series)

. test valu
O average ' 1 parallel gr lin

/ • test valu* j p e r p e n d i c i lar grain

/ Oaverage
/
/
-finite elem e n t - p a r a l l e l g r a i n model

/
/
aoo

// >
3
/ O
/
o ,/
600

I
'/ <
I
/
/ 9
o

QLUE LINE T H I C K N E S S , IN,

FIG. 13.—Effect of Glue Line Thickness on the Shear Strength for No. 2 KD South-
ern Pine 2 x 6 Double Shear Joints

219

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 strength of bonded joints. However, earlier experimental studies (2) were
not conclusive. Additional experimental tests were conducted for com-
parison to theoretical results. The joints tested were double shear 2 x 6's
arranged with both a parallel and perpendicular grain orientation be-
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tween inside and outside members. Glue line thicknesses ranged from
1/64 in. to 1/8 in. The experimental results are shown in Fig. 13.
Test results for a series of 6 x 6 double shear lapped joints (with par-
allel grain orientation) were correlated to a finite element analysis (8) of
the same joint to determine the stress concentration that initiates failure.
For the finite element analysis of other specimen configurations, this
same stress was used to define initial failure at the stress riser. Thus
failure loads could be determined analytically for various joint config-
urations. These results are typical of other theoretical analyses (11) and
are plotted in Fig. 13. It appears that the failure of bonded lapped mem-
bers depends on other factors than just the maximum stress concentra-
tion, particularly for joints of sawn lumber. While analytical results sug-
gest that glue line thickness plays an important role in joint strength,
experimental results indicate that glue line thickness has a negligible ef-
fect. This conclusion is particularly useful since the glue line thickness
usually varies in actual repair situations and would be difficult to mea-
sure.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF EPOXY-REPAIRED SCHEMES

An engineer needs design criteria in order to select the most appro-

priate repair scheme. Such criteria must be based on experimental evi-
dence. The experimental results presented here can be used to develop
a rational design approach for epoxy-repaired lapped members. Primary
considerations associated with the joint configuration of epoxy bonded
members are: (1) The strength of such members is on the order of the
shear strength of wood for parallel grain orientation while the strength
for perpendicular grain orientation ranges from one-half to two-thirds
the parallel grain values; (2) the average failure shear stress is propor-
tional to the ratio of lap length to member thickness; and (3) grain ori-
entation has a significant effect on joint strength. Other factors, such as
the effect of mechanical connectors, timber age, and glue line thickness,
were found to have negligible effects on shear strength.
It is therefore recommended that the design criteria for epoxy-repaired
joints be based on the basic bond shear stress modified for the joint
configuration effects of lap length and grain orientation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to the United States Air Force Directorate of

Civil Engineering through the Civil Engineering Division at Robins Air
Force Base, GA, for providing a research grant as part of Air Force Civil
Engineering's Applications Engineering Program. Appreciation is also
extended to graduate students Jimmy Baylot, Raja Issa, and Tammy Smith
for their efforts on the project.
220

J. Struct. Eng., 1986, 112(2): 207-221

 APPENDIX.—REFERENCES

1. ASTM, "Standard Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesive Bonds

in Shear by Compression Loading," D905-49 (Reapproved 1981), Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1982.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Jose Antonio Peñaherrera Cordova on 04/17/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

2. Avent, R. R., Emkin, L. Z., Howard, R. H., and Chapman, C. L., "Epoxy-
Repaired Bolted Timber Connections," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE,
Vol. 102, No. ST4, Apr., 1976, pp. 821-838.
3. Avent, R. R., Emkin, L. Z., and Sanders, P. H., "Behavior of Epoxy Repaired
Full-Scale Timber Trusses," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 104,
No. ST6, June, 1978, pp. 933-951.
4. Avent, R. R., Issa, R. R. A., and Baylot, J. T., "Weathering Effects of Epoxy-
Repaired Timber Structures," Structural Uses of Wood in Adverse Environments,
Meyer and Kellogg, Eds., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY,
1982, pp. 208-218.
5. Avent, R. R., Sanders, P. H., and Chapman, C. L., "Space-Age Adhesives,"
The Military Engineer, Vol. 74, No. 477, Jan.-Feb., 1982, pp. 20-22.
6. Avent, R. R., Sanders, P. H., and Emkin, L. Z., "Epoxy Repair of Timber
Structures Comes of Age," Construction, Adhesive Engineering Company,
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7. Avent, R. R., Sanders, P. H., Emkin, L. Z., "Structural Repair of Heavy
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9. Greenwood, K., Boag, T. R., and McLaren, A. S., "Stress Distribution in Lap
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ference held at the Univ. of Nottingham, England, Sept. 20-22, 1966, The
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12. Sanders, P. H., Emkin, L. Z., and Avent, R. R., "Epoxy Repair of Timber
Roof Trusses," Journal of the Construction Division, ASCE, Vol. 104, No. C03,
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13. Scales, M., "Epoxy Based Structural Adhesives," Adhesives Age, Vol. 7, Nov.,
1964, pp. 22-24.
14. Walsh, P. F., "Linear Fracture Mechanics in Orthotrophic Materials," Engi-
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Joints in Timber," Forest Product Journal, Vol. 23, No. 5, May, 1973, pp. 30-
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Lap Joints," Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 8, No. 10, Oct., 1971, pp. 817-820.

221

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