Section I.

Light reflex​ ​(Ang, Agustin)

A, B, C, D

Section II. Inversion of image: Projection (Bahala, Agbayani)

A. Visual field is always opposite of the retinal field. The application pressure to the lateral
side of the eye stimulates the cells of the retina on the lateral side. Since the image projected
into the retina is inverted, it is interpreted by the brain as inverted hence when the lateral retinal
cells are stimulated, the perception is at the medial aspect. It appears as a ring-shaped light
since the fingers are semi-circular in shape, projecting a ring-like projection in the retina. And
also the pressure exerted on the eye gives off a higher intensity of stimulation.

B. Using a pinhole gives us a sole light source; it eliminates the light coming from other
places. The shadow seen is due to the pin blocking the light coming from the pinhole. The
shadow appears on the retina as well as the object on the same side, the projection of the
image of the object on the retina is on the other side. Since the object is moving, the perception
of the shadow is also moving.

C. The pinholes were set at 1mm apart so that both can be seen even if the pupils are
constricted and not less than 1mm so that they could stimulate at least two receptors on the
retina because a distance less than 1 mm would stimulate only one receptor. The perception of
two images is due to the pinholes projecting separately the same image. Since the object is
projected by both pinholes, the perception is that there are two pins.

Section III. Visual Field (Baldevia)

a) Blind Spot
b) Size of Visual Field

Section IV. Visual Acuity (Acena)

Visual acuity tests for the sharpness of vision. It is dependent on the retinal focus within
the eye, sensitivity of receptors, and the perceptive capacity of the brain. VA is a quantitative
measure of the ability to identify black symbols on a white background at a standardized
distance. A visual acuity of 20/20 means that a person can see detail from 20 feet away the
same as a person with normal eyesight would see from 20 feet.

A common cause of low visual acuity is refractive error including aberrations in the
shape of the eyeball, the shape of the cornea(astigmatism), and reduced flexibility of the lens.
Too high or too low refractive error (in relation to the length of the eyeball) is the cause of
nearsightedness (myopia/ short focal length = focal point in front of retina) or farsightedness
(hyperopia/long focal length = focal point behind the retina).

Section V. Color Vision (Balao)

To see colors, we utilize our cones which as less sensitive to light and with a high threshold,
and the opposite of rods. These colors should be in 397-723 nm for us to appreciate.
There are 4 theories of color vision:
1. Trichomacy - there are 3 primary colors of light and there are cones/receptors
responsible for each color.
2. Young-Hemholtz - there are 3 primary cones that will respond to the colors of light and
these cones are sensitive to one color.
3. Opponent Process - colors have counterparts/opponents, pairs of colors.
a. Green - Red
b. Blue - Yellow
c. Black-White (not colors)
4. Retinex - the perception of light will depend on an individual’s neural pathway. Every
color has their own visual system/tract

Ishihara Test uses sets of plates with numbers, that when presented to the the subject and the
subject will determine if there are numbers in the plate and try to trace it.
American Optical Instrument - letters are utilized instead of numbers

Section VI. Binocular (Stereoscopic) Acuity (Abad, Barrocamo)

Stereoscopic Cues – Near-Field Depth Perception Normally, your two pupils are 6 cm (2
inches) apart. If it is 2 inches apart and when you see an object, you fix your eye on
that particular object so you have a certain distance of your eye in which you fix your
vision and you call that your fixation point. It falls on the certain part of the retina and
that is your fixation point. When you move the object nearer, the distance bet between
the images formed in both retinas will become further. If you move the object farther,
the distance between the image formed in both retinas will become nearer each other.

During the experiment, when the subject used only one eye the distance between rod A and rod
B are further from each other than when he used both of his eyes which made the distance
between the two rods more accurate.

Section VII. Retinal or Train Nystagmus (Balagot)

The subject looked at the black vertical line on the optokinetic drum. It was turned by hand
counter-clockwise and in a vertical position. First, the turn is slow and we observed that the
subject’s eyes were moving sideways rapidly. The subject follows the target as it goes to the
periphery and then the saccade resets the eye into primary gaze. Second, the turn went faster
and we observed that the subject’s eyes were not moving anymore.

In this experiment, the central foveal area is most sensitive. For vertical optokinetic nystagmus
(OKN) it utilizes lateral terminal nuclei (LTN). For horizontal OKN, it utilizes nucleus of optic tract
(NOT). Stimulation of right NOT with rightward motion will cause movement of eyes to the
ipsilateral side (right) and same goes when left NOT is stimulated with leftward motion it will
cause eyes to move towards the left.
Nystagmus is present if the subject’s eye moves slowly at first in one direction and then more
rapid in the opposite direction in a repetitive manner that is uncontrolled.

Section VIII. Optics (Angeles, Aquino)

A) The set up used in this experiment can be compared with the object that can be
perceived by the eyes, lens, and retina. The screen is equivalent to the retina. The lens
used is of course equivalent to the lens of the eyes. The object or shape is the one
perceived by the eyes. By following the steps written on the manual, the students were
ask to get the Do (distance of the object from the nodal point of the lens), Di (distance of
the image form the nodal point of the lens), and fd (principal focal distance). All values
should be expressed in meters.
The light rays passing through the center of the lens strike the lens exactly
perpendicular to the lens and, therefore, pass through the lens without being refracted.
Toward either edge of the lens, however, the light rays strike a progressively more
angulated interface. The outer rays bend more and more toward the center, which is
called ​convergence of the rays. Half the bending occurs when the rays enter the lens,
and half as they exit from the opposite side. finally , if the lens has exactly the proper
curvature, parallel light rays passing through each part of the lens will be bent exactly
enough so that all rays will pass through a single point, which is call the ​focal point​. The
center of the lens that will not bend the light is known as the ​nodal point​. The distance
between the nodal point and focal point is the ​focal length while the distance from the
source of light to the focal point is the ​focal distance​. The formula for focal distance is
expressed in fraction (1/fd = 1/Do + 1/Di).

Refraction is the capability of the lens to bend light. It is the capability of the
surface to absorb and bend the light because all surfaces are capable of bending light.
The light rays should strike a surface and it should be perpendicular to the surface.

B) The image gets sharper when the lens were placed about 30cm in front of the screen
and 30cm in front of the object. In nearsightedness or myopia can be due to a very long
eyeball and very strong or thick lens. What happens is that the lens converges the light
immediately so the focal length is very short. Also , the focal point, where all rays pass
through a single point, falls in front of the retina. So for the person with this case, for their
focal point to focus on the retina, they have to move towards the object. Another
management is to give biconcave lens because it will diverge the light first so that when
it enters the lens and gets converged, it falls right on the retina.

This usually happens to children who watch television at a very near distance.
Because of that, there is frequent contraction of the curvature of the lens, so the
elasticity of the lens decreases, and it remains that way.
 C) The image gets blurred when the screen were put 90cm away from the object. In
farsightedness or hyperopia can be due to very short eyeball and very weak or thin lens.
What happens is that the lens converges the light delayed or late so the focal length is
long. Also, the focal point falls behind the retina. So for the person with this case, for
their focal point to focus on the retina, they have to move towards the object. Another
management is to give biconvex lens because it will converge the light first so the focal
length decreases and it falls right on the retina.

Errors of Refraction
- Refractive power of the lens
- Axial length (length of the eyeball)

Section IX. After Images (Aslam)

An afterimage is a type of optical illusion in which an image continues to appear briefly even
after exposure to the actual image has ended.
Procedure A.
fix gaze on coloured object placed against a white screen for 15 to 30 secs. Shift gaze to a
white blank screen or wall.

Negative After Image: Photoreceptors become desensitized or fatigued (ability of cells to fire
action potential becomes exhausted) causing you to see the opposite or negative color when
shifting to a blank screen because those cells were still unable to fire the color that you saw and
expressed other colors.
What you will see are the combinations of the unused color cones. The used color cone will
function minimally or not at all.
Procedure B:
Fix gaze on a colored object placed against a black background for 15-30 seconds then close
your eyes.

Positive After Image: The color used will be the color seen after the eyes are closed. Black
Background was used to prevent the stimulation of the
other color cones. The image seen when the eyes were closed is the same as that of the object
because in dark, no color cones are stimulated except for the first color cone you used to stare
at the object before closing the eyes.