Clay Mineral Cements in Sandstones Special Publication Number 34 of the International Association of Sedimentologists Edited by Richard H. Worden and Sadoon Morad and published by Blackwell PublishingAL PUBLICATION NUMBER 34 OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SEDIMENTOLOGISTS Clay Mineral Cements in Sandstones EDITED BY Richard H. Worden and Sadoon Morad ¢ Blackwell OD Pubiishing© 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists and published for them by Blackwell Science Lid a Blackwell Publishing company 4350 Main Sireet, Malden, MA 02148-5018, USA 108 Cowley Road, Oxtord OX4 1}F, UK 550 Steanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia Kurltirstondamm 67, 10707 Borlin, Germany The rights of Richard Worden and Sadoon Morad tobe identified as the Authors of the Editorial Material in this Work has beon asserted in accordance with the UK Coptight, Designs, and Patents Act 1986, All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be repraduced, stored in a otrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by:any moans, blectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, exept as permitted by the UK Copsright, Designs, and Patents Aci 1988, without Ute prior permission al the publisl Piast published 2003) Library of Congross Cataloging-in Publication Data Clay coments in sandstones/odited by Richard H. Worden and Sadoon ovad. p. cm, —(Spocial publication number $4 ofthe International Association of Sedimentologists) Includes bibliographioal soforences and indox ISUN 1-40510-587-9 (pbk. alk. paper) 1, Clay minerals. 2, Sandstone. | Worden, Richard i. Il. Morac, Sadoon. II. Speciel publication... ofthe International Association of Sedimoatologists; no. 24, Qe389.625.0517 2002 340'6—-de21 2002070932 A catalogue record for this tite is available from the British Library Set in 9.5/12pt Melior by Graphicralt Limited, HongKon Printod and bound in the United Kingdom. by MPG Books L1d., Bodmin, Cormsvall Por further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: blips /wewsblackwellpublishing.comvial Contents Introduction Acknowledgements Review papers 3 43 62 93, 109 Clay minerals in sandstones: controls on formation, distribution and ovelution RH. Werden and S. Morad Predictive diagenetic clay-mineral dis tribution in siliciclastie weks within a sequence stratigraphic framework JM.Ketzer, S. Morad and A. Amorosi Ox; tion of diagenetic clay minerals in sand- stones: a review af the data and controls S.H.Morad, Ru, Worden and J.M. Ketzer yon and hydrogen isotopic composi- Palacoclimate controls on spectral gamma-ray radiation from sandstones AH. Ruffell, B11. Worden and R. Evans Smectite in sandstones: a review of the controls on occurence and behaviour JM. MeKini Ruff RAL. Worden and AIL Pattorns of cley mineral diagon: interbedded mudrocks and sandstones: an example from the Palaeocene of the North Sea Cross-formational flux of aluminium and potassium in Gulf Goast (USA) sediments M. Wilkinson, B.S. Haszoldine and K.L. Milliken 161. Silicate—carbonate reactions in sediment- ary systems: fluid composition control and potential for generation of overpressure I.Huicheon and 8, Desrocher 177 Experimental studios of clay mineral D.A.C. Manning 191 Hifect of clay content upon some physical properties of s PE Worthington Istone reservoirs Quantitative analysis of clay and other minerals in sandstones by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) 8. Hillier 253 Axeviewof radiometric dating techniques for clay mineral coments in sandstones PJ. Hamilton Chlorite case study 291 Chlorite authigen and porosity preservation in the Upper Cretceous marine sandstones of the Santos Basin. offshore eastern Brazil SMC. Anjos, LF. De Ros and CMA Silva Kaolinite case studies 319 Origin and diagonotic evolution of kaolin in reservoir sandstones and sssociated shales of the Jurassic and Cretaceous, Salam Field, Western Desert (Egypt) R. Marfil, A. Delgado, C. Rossi, A. La sia and K. Ramsever34a 361 383 Contents Microseale distribution of kai Rreathitt Formation sandstones (middle Pennsylvanian|: implications for mass balance K.L. Milliken The role of the Cimmerian Unconformity (Early Cretaceous) in the and related reservoir-quality evolution in kaolinitization Triassic sandstones of the Snorre Field. North Sea [.M, Ketzer, 8, Morad, .P. LP. De Ros tuen and The formation and stability of Kaolinite in Bront sandstone rescrvoits: a modelling approach E. Brosse, T Sanjuan, A. Canham, J-P. Girard, jC. Lacharpagne and F. Sommer fargueron, C. Cassou, B. Ilite case studies aun lite Muorescence microscopy: a new echnique in the study of illite in the Merrimelia Formation, Cooper Basin, Australia N.M, Lemon and GJ. Cubitt 425 Geochemical modelling of diagenetic illite and quartz coment formation in Bront sandstone reservoirs: example of the Hild Field, Norwegian North Sea B. Sanjuan, JoP. Girard, 8. banini, A Rourgnignon and &, Brosse The ct of ofl emplacement on diage- 10, Magnus Sandstone Member, North Sea RH. Worden and 8.4, Barclay ie clay min the Upper Jurassic Glauconite case study ago Application of glauconite morphology in geosteoring and for on-site reservair quality cssosemont in vory fino-grainod sandstones: Carnarvon Basin, Australia LP. Schulz-Rojahn, D.A. Seeburger and GJ. Beacher Index Colour plates facing p. 296, p.392 and p. 424.Introduction Clays are one of the most important groups of minerals that destroy permeebility in sand- stones, but they also react with drilling and com- pletion fluids and induce fine-particle migration during hydrocarbon production. They are a very complex family of minerals that commonly are mutually intorgrown and contain a wide rango of solid solutions and form by a wide range of processes. They form under a wide diversity of pressure and temperature conditions, as well rock and fuid compositional conditions. In this volume, clay minerals in sandstones are reviewed in terms of their mineralogy and general occurrence, their stable and radiogenic isotope geochemistry and their rolationship to sequence stratigrephy and palaeoclimate. Their relationship to the petrophysical properties of sandstones and their use it drilling technolo- gies are also covered. Tho controls on the vari- ous clay minerals are addressed anda variety of geochemical issues, including the importance of mass flux, links to carbonate mineral diagen: esis and linked clay diagenesis in interbedded madstone~sandstone are explored. The thorny issue of the quantification of clay minerals using XRD (X-ray diffraction) is tackled from of techni a varie! angles. A number of case studies ded for chlorite clay cements, and the occurrence of kaolin, illite and in sandstone also is reviewed. Clay Is grow at retes that are only just becom- ing known; experimental date on clay coments in sandstones are thus reviewed and there ere two model-based case studies that address the rates of grawth of kaolinite and illite. This volume follows a volume on Carbonate Comeniation in Sandstones (LAS Special Publication 26, edited by Sadoon Morad) and a volume on Quartz Gementation in Sandstones (IAS Special Publication 29, edited by Richard Worden and Sadoon Mored), With the publica- tion of this Special Publication, the majority of mineral cements in sandstones will have been addressed in books sponsored by the JAS. ership this volume will attract @ wide range of scientists and techno- ogists including: (i) petrographars who deal with the accumence. spatial and temporal distribution patterns and importance of clay cements in sandstones, (ii) geochemisis who are involved in unravelling Amongst its 1 sedimentologists and the factors that contrel clay cement formation in sandstones and (iii) petroleum geoscientists who need to predict areas of a play that m The book also will be of interest to geologists involved in palacoclimate studies, basin ane- lysis and basin modelling.Acknowledgements Crucial to all refereed publications are the referees themselves. For this service, they receive no real recognition and yet their efforts commonly lead to much improved final products. We would therefore like fo acknowledge the following ceviewers for their hard work, dedication and care in reviewing the 21 papers published in this volume. Alastair Ruffell Barle McBride Mike Mayall Alossandro Amorosi Etienne Brosso Andrew Hogg Ghazi Kraishan Norman Oxtoby Andrew Hurst Giles Berger Patrick Corbett AnneGrau. Jean-Francois Deconinck Per Aageard Aiilla fubas Jolt Grigsby Reinhard Gaupp Bruce Yardley Jim Boles Richard Evans Cathal Dillon Kovin Teylor Shelagh Baines Chris Rochelle Kitty Lou Milliken Shirley Dutton Christoph Spétl Knut Bjorlykke Craig Smalley Lou Macchi Dave Dol Lyndsay Kaye Mark Wilkinson Tony Fallick Michael Wilson, Warren Dickenson Dave Manning David Awwiller Dewey MooreReview papersBahan dengan hak ciptaInt. Assoe. Sedimentol, Spec. Publ (2003) 34, 3-41 Clay minerals in sandstones: controls on formation, distribution and evolution R.H. WORDEN! ond S. MORAD? 1 Department of Barth s, University of Liverpool, Brownlow Street Livorpool L60 2GP, UK, o-mail:r.worden@livorpool.acatk of Barth Scicnces, Uppsala University, Villa viigen 16, 5-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden, e-mail: sadoon.rorad@geo.uu.se 2 Deparimer ABSTRACT ‘This paper addresses the origin, distribution pattem and burial diagenetic evolution of clay minerals in sandstone: kaolin, smectite, illite, chlorite, berthierine, glauconite and mixed-layer illite-smectite and chlorit smectite, Clay minerals may be co-deposited with send grains as sand-sized argillacaous intra- and oxtra-clasts and as floceulated clays. Those sand sized argillaceous clasts are deformed by mechanical campaction into clay pseudomatrix. Detrital clay minerals may be incorporated into sandy deposits by biolurbation and infiltzation of muddy waters, Diagenetic clay minerals form by akeration of unstable detrital silicates and by transforma- tion of detrital and precursor diagenetic: clay mineral eogenetic clay minerals are kaolinite, dioctahedral and trioctahedral smec- fe most common, y minorals ch ol tito, berthicrine, glauconite and, loss commonly, Mg: such as palygorskite. The distribution of eogenetic clay minerals is strongly related (a depositional facies and sequence stratigraphic surfaces. Illite and chlorite dostinale the mesogenetic clay minerals end usually grow at the expense of eogenotic clay minerals and detrital feldspars and lithic grains. Mesogenetic illite and chlorite can result irom widely different reactants and processes. Clay minerals usually are assumed to be detcimental to sandstone mesorvoir quality because they can plug por throats and seme y minerals promote chemical compaction. However, coats of chlorite on sand grains can preserve reservoir quality because they prevent quartz, cementation. Adding oil to a sandstone stops clay diagenesis if the sand stone is oil-wet but probably only slows clay reactions if the sandstone is water-wet. Sandstones tend to be more oil-wet as the Fe-bearing clay content of the sand increases and as oil becomes more enriched in polar compounds INTRODUCTION petroloum fields and reactivity to various enhanced oil recovery practices. Prior to the The amount, distribution pattorn and mor ro uso of tho scanning olectron micro phology of clay mine on sandstone properties in terms of porosity, permeability, density, natural radioactivity, assumed to be detrital in origin, being co: electrical conductivi Ishave significant effets scope (SEM) in petrographic examinat sandstones, clay minerals were often wi the water contont of deposited with the primary host4 R.H, Worden and 8. Morad However, laws of hydrodynamics tend to cause separation of the clay- and sand-sized fractions, implying that post-depositional processes must be responsible for the incorporation of most clay minerals into sandsiones. ‘The intention of this paper is to review the following: 1 composition and mineralogy of clay minerals insandstone: 2 how clay minerals are incorporated into sands prior to diagenesis 3 early diagenetic minerals in sandstones 4 burial diagenetic (mesogenetic) origin of clay minerals in sandstone: 5 uplift-rvlated diagenetic (telogenetic} origin ofclay minerals in sandstones; 6 offects of clay permeability 7 effect of petraleum emplacement on clay diagenesis in sandstones ogenetic) origin of clay minorals on sandstone Definitions ‘The word ‘clay mineral’ refers to diverse groups minorals that aro membors of the hydrous aluminous phyllosilicates, whereas the word clay’ is strictly a grain-size term, clessically for particle diameters less than 3.9 win (Wentworth, 1922). Unfortunately, in sedimentary petrology, the torm ‘clay’ is frequontly used synonymously with ‘clay mineral’ Bodiagenesis occur at or near the sediment surface, where Includes all processes that the geochemistry of the interstitial waters is controlled mainly by the depositional environ- ment. Badiagenesis also can be defined in teen and depth, where the upper temperature limit is < 70°C, typically equival- ent toabout 2 km burial (Morad et al, 2000). Mesodiagenesis occurs during burial and includes all diagenetic processes. following eodiagenesis and through to the earliest steges of low-grade metamorphism (as defined by Choquette & Pray, 1970). In many casos, this includes sediments buried to depths with equivalent temperatures of about 200 to 250°C, The main factors that influence mesogenetic of temperature changes include the time—tomperature history, the primary mineralogy and fabric, local vo- genotic madifications, extent of material loss and gain to neighbouring lithologies, geachom istry of the pore water and the presence of petoleum-related Muids, Telodiagenesis accurs in inverted basins that have experienced an influx of surface (usually meteoric) waters. Such water has the capa- including feldspar dissolution and alteration to kaolinit ‘There are eight main ways that clay minerals are incorporated into sandstones: 1 clay-sich rock fragments formed in the hinterland (extraclastic, allochthonaus); 2 olay-rich clasts formed within the sediment: ary basin (intraclastic, autochthonous); 3 flocculated mud particles and faecal pellets; 4 inherited clay rims on sands grains; 5 post-depositional incorporation of detrital mud into the sandstone by bioturbation and clay infiltration: 6 cogenelic reaction products in sandstone; 7 mesogenetic reactions in sandstones; 8 tologonotic reactions in sandstonos CLAY MINERALS IN SANDSTONES: SUMMARY OF CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURE General aspects of clay mineral structure Clay minerals are hydrous aluminosilicates tha’ belong to the phyliosilicaie group of miner als (Deer ef al., 1996). In addition to aluminium and silicon they also may contain other cations. including alkeli, alkaline earth end transition metals. Cley minerals have a sheet-like struc- ture in which the building blocks are either tetrahedra or octahedra linked to each other into planer layers by sharing oxygen ions between Si or Al ions of the adjacent tetrahedra or octahedra (Bailey, 1980; Fig, 1). Tho totraho: dra result from the close packing of four O ions, with the space between them occupied by a Si* jon or, toa lesser extent, an AL” ion. The octahedra result from the ch so packing of sixClay minerals in sandstones | Sirshos| Si ahos} (oi, [Cee On OL aaa Ke OW Ks OH tom Aaotinie |) ite Fig. 1 Schematic diagram showing the structures of the common clay sninerals (a) kaolin, (6) illite {cJehlorite and (d) dioctatedral smectite. Tha triangular motif roprosents totrahedtal layers. The | TS || (Hg > | 5 xamaal MP HO Nae OW po LITT | \AAAAT cath Ho KP om solid groy hats reprosont octahedral lye © entorte | 6) anions that ary dominantly oxygen but also can include some hydroxyl (OH) ions. The Si and AL ions mainly occupy the space betweon the oxygen octahedra and tetrahedra but other cali s, such as iron, calcium, magnesium and potassium, are required in the clay structure to ensure charge balance. Tetrahedral and octahe- dral sheets are bound to each other inl that extend for tens to thousands of nano (nm) in the @ and b crystallographic directions: The layers are stacked on top of each other in the c-axis direction, Figure 2 is a schematic phase diagram that incorporates most of the important clay minerals, This figure is subdi- vided between K-ALtich, Al- (and ferric iron) rich and Mg-Fe*-rich clay minerals, Clay minerals can bo classified basod on the types of ions occupying the octahedral sites. If the ions are trivalent (Al, Fe"), the cla als are said to be dioctahedral because only two ions are needed to provide six positive chargos. otros If the ions are divalent (Mg, Fe*'), they are said to be trioctahedral hecauise thres ions are needed ta provide six positive charges. Limited substitution of trivalent ions in dioctanedral clay minerals and divalent ions in trioctahedral clay minerals is possible. ‘Thus typically Mg. and Fe®-rich clay minerals are trioctahedral whereas Al- and Fe®-rich clay minerals ere dioctahedral. laterlaye Jominated by potassium, Ammonia (NH) can be present in small quantities in the interlayer site in illite (Williams et al, 1992). There are five dominant groups of clay minerals in sandstones: kaolin, illite, chlorite, smectite and mixed-layer varioties, A less com- mon clay mineral in sandstones is palygorskite. 'ypos, or polymorphs, of clay minoral have the same composition but different crystal structures. The crystallographic differences typically occur in response to different tem- perature conditions. cations are6 R.H, Worden and 8. Morad Mesa emer K) rade. Fe) if Fig.2 Phase diagram show iow proportions, The predominant alkali earth is potassium although sme ‘The main divalent ions are magnesium and icon so that avery important rang 1. (a) Main minerals represented with azeas of solid solution indicated, (}) Sehematl ‘ompositions of a vavioty of diffrent sandstones from clean arenites through to highll roprosented on this diag ropresentation of typical themuain clay minerals in terms of dival Fete or Mga ) {trivalent and alkali element (monovalent) tos can contain measurable sodiu, 1 solid solutions (Fe~Mg) cannot be thie sandstones. Note that thermadynamicequilibrium cannot beassumed in low temperature sediments and itis possible to have many clay minerals together in one sample, Kaolin-serpentine series clay minerals, including berthierine Keolin-serpentine series clay minerals are comprised of one tetrahedral layer linked to one octahedral layer with na interlayer cations and are termed 1: 1 layer structures connected by O-H-O bonds. The chemical formula of kaolin Is AL,Si,0,(OH),, whereas the Mg end member serpentine has the Mg,Si,0,(OH),. Serpentine can have Fe? substitution for Mg. Serpentine has not been formula reported in sandstones whereas beethicrine [Fe2AI(Si.AN,0,(010,1 is a mineral of the solid solution series between Fe-rich serpentinite and kaolin Keolinite is the low common clay temperature form, whereas dickite and nacrite are thought to be the high temperature forms of kaolin. Keolinite hes a unit cell of ane octahedral—tetrahedral— octahedral packago (unit coll of about 0.7 nm), whereas dickite has a unit cell mado up of two ofthese packages (thus with a unit call of about 1.4 nm) and nacrite has a unit cell made of six of those packagos [unit coll of 4.3 nm), Kaolinite tends to form pseudohexagonal plates, that commonly are stacked, in a book- or worm- like vermicular habit, whereas dickite tends to form small rhombic crystals (Fig. 3) X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis can be used to discriminate between dickito and kaolinite. However, mote accurate distinction betwoon the kaolin polymorphs can be made by deter mining the position and relative intensity of the OF-stretching bands in the 3600-3700 cm ! region of infra-red spectra (Ruiz-Cruz, 1996) Hassouta et al, 1999). Differential thermal ana- lysis also can be kaolin polymorphs, because they have con- siderably different dehydration temperatures, (e.g, Beaufort ef al., 1998). Xia (1985) claimed that a variation in the relative solubilities of the kaolin polymorphs towards hydro‘luaric acid allows a quantitative analysis of their abundances. used to discriminate betwe lite and glauconite lite and glauconite are K-rich dioctahedral clay minerals comprised of one octahedralClay minerals in sandstones (a) Fig.3. Scanning .cron microscope (SEM) micrographs illustrating the progressive burial diagenctic transformation of haolinite into dickito. Noto that dickito aad kaolinite may ubut the quarts overgrowth, which cfton load to a misinterpretation af the parag onetic relationship between these two minerals. (a) Disordered ver cular kaolinite (b]Well-ordered kaolinite in discrete booklets. (c) Euhedral dickite crystals: D, dickite: Q, quartz cement, (A) INitized Kaolinite (indicated by white arrow) with enhedval dickite preserved intact, layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral layersand so are termed 2 ; 1 structures, O-K-O bonds connect two opposing tetrahedral layers. The interlayer K’ is required for charge balance accompanying the partial substitution of Al* for Si** in the tetrahedra and the substitution of divalent cations for AI’* in the ociahedra (Bailey, 1984). ‘The O-K-O bonding is strong and provents swelling behav jour in illite and glauconite mica. dominated by Al, whereas glauconite has octa- hedral sites with abundant Fe The general chemical formule for illite is K, Aly(Sig_,-Al,JOm9(OH), (Velde, 1985), whero vis typically significantly less than 2. Ilite can occur as flakes, filaments or hair-like cryst (Fig. 4). Ilite occurs as polytypes that reflect difforont ways in which layers are stacked. Illite has octahedral sites8 R.H. Worden and 8. Morad 1arm &) ld Fig.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) silerogiaphiv illustrating tie poopronsive busal diagenotic transformation of grain-coating, infiltrated digctahedral smectite into illite, via mixed-layer illite—smoctite (1/5). (a) Initial stages af VS, curling clay mineral flakes tangential to the detrital grain with 90% igetahedral smectite, 10% Hite. (0) Shar to (a) but ‘with 80% smectite: (c} 60% smectite, (d) 20% smectite, (o}< 10% smoct the change from tangential N Dakar te porpondicular GrosClay minerals in sandstones 9 1M and IM, polytypes are prevalent for low temperature (i.6. diagenetic) illites and also for glauconites. The one common at lower diagene- tic temperatures is the 1M, polytype, in which t package of octahedral-tetrahedral-octahedral sheets (plus interlayer cations) ordered. The 1M polytype tends to form at higher diagenetic temperatures, and is more ordered than the 1M, polytype. At high grade diagenetic to low grade metemorphie tempera- tures [> 200-250°C) illite is typically the 2M polytype, with a unit cell of about 2.0nm tetrahedral—octahedral— crystallography repeats for every: single nd is dis- comprised of a pai tetrahedral layers. Glauconite is a term thet Odin & Matter (1981) have suggested be restricted to occur: ronces of dark green, Fe-rich, mica-type clay minerals of marine origin and with K,O > 6% Glauconite has the formu Mg.Fel (Sip; yL).0,40z9OH),-nH,0. The term glaucony is thus recommende: asa facies term thal typically includes Fe-rich marine clay minerals thet range in composition fom gleuconitic smectite to glauconitic mica. Smectite Smectite is a group of 2: 1 clay minerals with one octahedral layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral layers. Smoctite has the goneral for- mula (0.5Ca,Na}, -(Al.Mg,Fe),(S1,AN4O.g(OH), nH,0. Trioctahedral smectite has octahedral sites dominated by divalent metals (Fe, Mg, Ca), whereas dioclahedral smectite has octahe- deal sites dominated by trivalent metals (Fe AD, There is less binding of opposing tetra- hedral layers by K* than in illite, with interlayer weter bound by weak van der Waal’s forces. Gations present between layers are exchange- able and reflect the chemistry of the aqueous medium with which the smectite was last in contact, Interlayer cations are variably hydrated, rosulting in the smoctitic clay minerals. Smoctites are defined by their tendency to swell when exposed to organic solvents, which can be absorbed bolwoon interlayers ewelling characteristic of Smectite asually occurs as flakes curling up from an attachment zone on the detrital sand grain surface (Fig. 4). Chlorite Chlorite has a 21:1 structure comprised of @ negatively charged 2 : 1 tetrahedral—octahedral— tetrahedral layered structure interlayered with an additional octahedzal layer that is positively charged and comprised ofcations and hydroxyl ions (e.g. brucite layers; Mg,(OH),). A general formula for chlorite is (Mg,ALFe) ,1(Si,A1},O,o] (O1),_. Solid solution is possible on all sites, leading to a very complex mineral group. Chlorite can oxist as different polytype includ- ing the 1b polytype and the 2b polytypes with 1.4 and 2.8nm basal spacings, respectively. Fo-tich diagenetic chlorite (c.g. chamosite) is typically the 1b polytype, whereas the more grich diagenetic varieties (e.g. clinachlore) are typically the 2b polytype. It has b posed that the type polytypemay be prevalent al lower diagenetic temperatures, with the type 2 polytype forming as diagenetic temperatures approach low grado metamorphic conditions (Bailey & Brown, 1962). However, recent work has concluded that there is no well-defined link between temperature and chlorite polytypes (e.g Do Caritat ef al, 1993; Walker, 1993) Chlorite occurs in a variety of morphologios although classic chlorite occurs as a grain coat Ing boxwork, with the perpendicular to the grain surface (Fig. 5). i pros hlorite crystals attached Mixed-layer clay minerals Mixed-layer clay minerals result from the inter- stratification of different mineral layers in a single structure (Srodén, 1999). Most mixed- layer clay minerals contain sm tite as a swell- ing component, and include illite~smectite and chloritesmeetite (abbreviated to I/S and C/S respectively). During progressive burial diagonesis I'S becomos moro illite-rich and GiS becomes more chlorite-rich. The stacking of layers in V/S usually is disordered (randomly interstratified) at’ the time of deposition and during eodiagenosis.