The brain is one of the most complex and magnificent organs in the human body.

Our
brain gives us awareness of ourselves and of our environment, processing a constant
stream of sensory data. It controls our muscle movements, the secretions of our
glands, and even our breathing and internal temperature. Every creative thought,
feeling, and plan is developed by our brain. The brain’s neurons record the memory of
every event in our lives.

In fact, the human brain is so complicated that it remains an exciting frontier in the
study of the body; doctors, psychologists, and scientists are continually endeavoring to
learn exactly how the many structures of the brain work together intricately to create
our powerful human mind.

There are different ways of dividing the brain anatomically into regions. Let’s use a
common method and divide the brain into three main regions based on embryonic
development: the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Under these divisions:

 The hindbrain (or rhombencephalon) consists of the remaining brainstem as well as

our cerebellum and pons. Neuroanatomists have a word to describe the brainstem sub-
region of our hindbrain, calling it the myelencephalon, while they use the
word metencephalon in reference to our cerebellum and pons collectively.

HINDBRAIN (RHOMBENCEPHALON)

Brainstem
Connecting the brain to the spinal cord, the brainstem is the most inferior portion of our
brain. Many of the most basic survival functions of the brain are controlled by the
brainstem.
The brainstem is made of three regions: the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain. A net-like structure of mixed gray and white matter known as the reticular
formation is found in all three regions of the brainstem. The reticular formation controls
muscle tone in the body and acts as the switch between consciousness and sleep in the
brain.

The medulla oblongata is a roughly cylindrical mass of nervous tissue that connects to
the spinal cord on its inferior border and to the pons on its superior border. The medulla
contains mostly white matter that carries nerve signals ascending into the brain and
descending into the spinal cord. Within the medulla are several regions of gray matter
that process involuntary body functions related to homeostasis. The cardiovascular
center of the medulla monitors blood pressure and oxygen levels and regulates heart
rate to provide sufficient oxygen supplies to the body’s tissues. The medullary
rhythmicity center controls the rate of breathing to provide oxygen to the body.
Vomiting, sneezing, coughing, and swallowing reflexes are coordinated in this region of
the brain as well.

The pons is the region of the brainstem found superior to the medulla oblongata,
inferior to the midbrain, and anterior to the cerebellum. Together with the cerebellum,
it forms what is called the metencephalon. About an inch long and somewhat larger and
wider than the medulla, the pons acts as the bridge for nerve signals traveling to and
from the cerebellum and carries signals between the superior regions of the brain and
the medulla and spinal cord.
 Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a wrinkled, hemispherical region of the brain located posterior to the
brainstem and inferior to the cerebrum. The outer layer of the cerebellum, known as
the cerebellar cortex, is made of tightly folded gray matter that provides the processing
power of the cerebellum. Deep to the cerebellar cortex is a tree-shaped layer of white
matter called the arbor vitae, which means ‘tree of life’. The arbor vitae connects the
processing regions of cerebellar cortex to the rest of the brain and body.
The cerebellum helps to control motor functions such as balance, posture, and
coordination of complex muscle activities. The cerebellum receives sensory inputs from
the muscles and joints of the body and uses this information to keep the body balanced
and to maintain posture. The cerebellum also controls the timing and finesse of
complex motor actions such as walking, writing, and speech.

 The midbrain (or mesencephalon), located near the very center of the brain between
the interbrain and the hindbrain, is composed of a portion of the brainstem.

The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon, is the most superior region of the
brainstem. Found between the pons and the diencephalon, the midbrain can be further
subdivided into 2 main regions: the tectum and the cerebral peduncles.

 The tectum is the posterior region of the midbrain, containing relays for reflexes that
involve auditory and visual information. The pupillary reflex (adjustment for light
intensity), accommodation reflex (focus on near or far away objects), and startle
reflexes are among the many reflexes relayed through this region.
 Forming the anterior region of the midbrain, the cerebral peduncles contain many nerve
tracts and the substantia nigra. Nerve tracts passing through the cerebral peduncles
connect regions of the cerebrum and thalamus to the spinal cord and lower regions of
the brainstem. The substantia nigra is a region of dark melanin-containing neurons that
is involved in the inhibition of movement. Degeneration of the substantia nigra leads to
a loss of motor control known as Parkinson’s disease.

What Is Reticular Formation?

Think about everything you've done in the last twenty minutes. Even if you were just sitting in front of
a computer, you probably made small movements. Did you breathe in and out? Cough? Sit up
straight? You probably did these things automatically, without even thinking about it. And yet, you
wouldn't be able to make these small movements at all without the reticular formation.
The reticular formation is a nerve network of nuclei clusters found in the human brain stem.
The dorsal tegmental nuclei are in the midbrain, the central tegmental nuclei are in the pons, and
the central nuclei and inferior nuclei are found in the medulla. The reticular formation comprises
most of the brain stem and is a critical region for functioning. Because this region of the brain is so
diverse and responsible for so many functions, you can think of the reticular formation as a collection
of neurons, all of which have specialized jobs to carry out.
 The forebrain (or prosencephalon) is made up of our incredible cerebrum, thalamus,
hypothalamus and pineal gland among other features. Neuroanatomists call the
cerebral area the telencephalon and use the term diencephalon (or interbrain) to refer
to the area where our thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland reside.

The Forebrain: Telencephalon &

Diencephalon
03/12/2011
inShare by 3icreative
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The forebrain is split into 2 sections: The telencephalon and the
diencephalon.

Parts of the telencephalon

 Cerebral cortex – The cerebral cortex is the “gray matter”

of your brain, and is comprised of the fissures (valleys) and
gyri (hills). Most information processing occurs in the
cerebral cortex. Each of its 6 layers has different
composition in terms of neurons and connectivity. However,
there are 2 types of basic neurons: Star-shaped cells (small
interneurons with no tail) and triangular cells (large
 multipolar neurons). There are 4 lobes in the cerebral
cortex:

 Frontal lobe – The frontal lobe is associated with

personality, conscience (right/wrong/consequences),
planning and is the source of inhibitions. Moniz won a
Nobel Prize for developing the prefrontal lobotomy. It
was later replaced by Walter Freeman’s transorbital
lobotomy. They were both later replaced with safer
alternatives (drugs like thorazine).
 Parietal lobe – The parietal lobe is in charge of
somatosensory processing (touch). See Oliver
Sack’s case study about the man who fell out of bed.
 Occipital lobe – The occipital lobe processes visual
memory, and is associated with migraine headaches.
 Temporal lobe – Auditory and language processing
occurs in the temporal lobe; about 90% on the left side.
 Corpus callosum – The white matter in the brain that
connects the left and right hemispheres. Split brain occurs
when the connection in the corpus callosum is severed.
 Limbic system – The limbic system is the collective name
for the parts of the brain that control emotion, motivation,
and emotional association with memory, and includes the
hippocampus, cingulate cortex, mammillary bodies,
amygdala, fornex and septum.
 Hippocampus – It’s easy to remember where the
hippocampus is because it’s shaped like a seahorse.
The hippocampus is associated with short and long
term memory indexing (moves memories in and out),
and is one of the first parts of the brain affected in
Alzheimer’s. Damage to the hippocampus can cause
amnesia, preventing the formation of new memories
(anterograde amnesia), as well as recollection of old
ones (retrograde amnesia). Elderly people with
shrinkage of the hippocampus tend to have memory
problems (episodic and working memory).
Abnormalities in development of the hippocampus are
associated with schizophrenia.
 Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) – In PTSD, there is
lower activity and fewer neurons in the the anterior
cingulate cortex.
 Amygdala -The amygdala is shaped like an almond,
and located on the fatter end of the hippocampus. It is
responsible for emotional processing, and associated
with conditioned learning, especially fear/anger/rage.
Dysfunction of the amygdala is linked to
anxiety, autism, depression, post-traumatic stress
disorder, phobias and binge drinking. PTSD is now
being treated with small doses of esctasy (plus
counseling). Also see case study below of Little Albert
by John Watson.
 Olfactory bulb – Sense of smell, connected to the
amygdala, which is why smells are strong sources of
memories.
Parts of the diencephalon

 Thalamus – The thalamus has 2 lobes, and is responsible

for sensory relay in your brain. Essentially, it is the “traffic
cop” that directs information. It does NOT help with
recognition.
 Hypothalamus – The hypothalamus controls motivated
behavior by regulating the release of hormones from the
pituitary gland. It is responsible for the 4 F’s: Fighting,
fleeing, feeding and sex.
 Pituitary gland – Small pea-sized gland of the endocrine
system, often called the “Master Gland.” The pituitary gland
hangs from the hypothalamus.
 Pineal gland – Small gland of the endocrine system that
controls melatonin (a hormone that affects the modulation
of wake/sleep patterns and seasonal functions) production
that’s sometimes referred to as the “third eye.”

The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) consist of multiple subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in
the brains of vertebrates, which are situated at the base of the forebrain. Basal ganglia nuclei are
strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several other
brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions including: control of
voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or "habits" such as bruxism, eye
movements, cognition[1] and emotion.[2]