Grading maintainability parameters for sanitary-

plumbing system for high-rise residential buildings

M.Y.L. Chew,
Dept. of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore
(email: bdgchewm@nus.edu.sg)
Sutapa Das,
Dept. of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore
(email: sutapa@ns.edu.sg)
Nayathara De Silva,
Department of Building Economics, University of Moratuwa
(email: endds@becon.mrt.ac.lk)
Foon Fong Yee
Dept. of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore
(email: foonfongyee@dpa.com.sg)

Abstract

Sanitary-plumbing system can waste energy and even become a source of fatal contamination
unless designed, constructed or maintained properly. Human health and convenience are the
two critical issues and it is important to identify, analyse and quantify the maintainability
parameters of complex sanitary-plumbing systems to meet requirements of today’s bigger and
better buildings. This research was undertaken to investigate the common defects in sanitary
plumbing system in high rise residential buildings and their causing factors which may be the
critical maintainability parameters of sanitary-plumbing systems. From the detailed case studies
of five residential buildings in Singapore, a total of 113 defects were identified for ten major
components of sanitary-plumbing system. Out of them 56 were graded as significant by 33
experienced facility managers based on frequency of occurrence and their adverse effect on:
economy, system performance, environment and health. Poor maintainability consideration in
design stage was apparent from the comprehensive defect analysis. The defect commonly found
in almost all the components was the “inaccessibility” for regular inspection and maintenance.

Keywords: Contamination, Defect analysis, Maintainability, Sanitary-plumbing, System

performance.

1. Introduction

Apart from wasting precious energy and water, sanitary-plumbing system can become a source
of fatal contamination unless it was designed, constructed and maintained properly. With time
the concept of maintenance has changed from the action of “breakdown repair” to “preventive
maintenance”. Only clean water with quality hygienic standard is considered satisfactory.

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Hence this system deserves a keen attention particularly in Singapore as abundant rainfall, high
temperature and humidity, coupled with high population density can cause waterborne diseases
to spread easily and quickly unless a high standard of public health is maintained [1]. In a recent
survey conducted by Hassanain [2], design professionals of nine countries have proposed 41
design guidelines with an emphasis on occupant’s health to a great extent.

Codes of practise, standards of design and operation handbooks have clear and well-defined
guidelines for design and construction of sanitary–plumbing systems in general [1,3-5], along
with detailed consideration for certain major issues such as piping [6], valves [7], pumps [8] and
life cycle costing [9] etc. Yet major problems are reported frequently, all round the world such
as leakage resulting in water scarcity [10], sewage contamination of potable water causing
sickness [11] or recurrent cases of Legionella [12]. The root cause of many of these problems is
derived from corrosion and wearing off of metallic parts which are common in pipelines,
particularly in the consumer's plumbing fittings. Corrosion favours bacterial growth, developing
high concentration of lead and copper components within the system and leading to dirty and
contaminated water [13]. Researchers have drawn attention to various problems related to
sanitary-plumbing system, such as lead contamination [14], biofilm formation [15] etc.

In most cases the solutions for a particular issue were seldom well communicated as a design,
construction or maintenance guideline. Health and convenience are the two major critical issues,
and it is not only important to identify and solve various defects, but it is equally essential to
quantify and grade the maintainability parameters especially when qualitative decision making
process is inadequate for complex sanitary-plumbing systems to meet the requirements of
today’s bigger and better buildings. To address the absence of such grading system, this
research was undertaken to investigate the types of defects that are commonly occurring in
sanitary plumbing system in high rise residential buildings and to identify the significant ones.

2. Research methodology

2.1 Data collection

In order to obtain a preliminary idea of common maintenance problems in sanitary–plumbing

system, major components were examined in a systematic site investigation process. In the first
phase of data collection, an in-depth field survey was conducted in five residential towers to
identify the common defects occurring in each major component. Discussion with facility
managers (FM) and maintenance personnel was followed by expert on-site inspection.
Comprehensive photo of each component parts were taken to investigate elements such as the
fixture and fittings in individual toilet units, water storage tanks and pumps etc. The defects
were diagnosed with the help of information provided by FMs, maintenance records of the
buildings and the knowledge gained through the literature review [16-23] were elicited.

From the defect analysis, it was observed that a defect can cause adverse effects on (1)
economy, (2) system performance; (3) indoor environmental quality (IEQ); and (4) occupants’

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health and well-being. These factors contribute to the level of seriousness of a defect A frequent
defect might not have significant effect, whereas a very serious defect may happen once in a
lifetime. For example, a slow discharge rate of supply water is common but it may not have as
much impact on the user when compared with the contamination of potable water from sewage
which may cause serious illness. Therefore apart from the frequency of occurrence, the
following four major impacts were also considered to be the significant factors caused by the
sanitary-plumbing system defects. :

• Economic loss: accumulated financial loss in long term due to the result of the
defect. For example, high consumption of electricity due to wrong design
resulting in excessive pipe length and bending leading to energy loss of hot
water before discharging through the taps.
• System performance loss: such loss occurs when the system performs
significantly below normal operating efficiency. For example, slow or disrupted
sewage pumping system choked by solid waste discharge.
• IEQ loss: This loss originated from the defect that causes deterioration of the
built environment. For example, due to trap seal loss, foul air from the discharge
pipes or stacks enters into the building.
• Human health loss: affects the health of the building occupants and maintenance
personnel as a result of the defect. For example, illness caused by Legionella
contaminations in water supply system.
The defect data related to major components and sub-components of sanitary-plumbing system
was collated in a detailed survey questionnaire. In a face to face interview, 33 experienced FMs
were asked to indicate the frequency of the defect in a five point Likert scale, where, 1 = ‘rare’,
2 = ‘sometimes’, 3 = ‘quite often’, 4 = ‘very often’ and 5 = ‘always’. In order to estimate the
impact of each defect, the respondents were asked to indicate the significance of the defects in
terms of four consequences also in a five point Likert scale, where, 1 = ‘negligible’, 2= ‘slight’,
3 = ‘moderate’, 4 = ‘serious’ and 5= ‘very serious / fatal’. Among ten major components, the
questionnaire for sanitary piping is shown in Appendix A as an example.

2.2 Data analysis

Mean ratings for the level of seriousness of the defects were calculated from the feedback
received. Mean rating for frequency was defined as X FR, while the same for four impacts,
namely, economic loss, system performance loss, IEQ loss and health loss were denoted by X
EC, X SP, X EN and X HW respectively. For each defect, the vales were calculated by a general

formula (Equation 1). Using statistical tool SPSS 12, T-test was carried out to identify the
significance of each mean. The midpoint test value of 3 (by definition) was assigned to measure
whether the defects have a significantly large enough mean with p<0.005.
Mean frequency of occurrence X = ∑l =1 i × ni ∑
5 5
n
l =1 i
(1)

Where, i = frequency rating.

ni = number of responses for i-th rating

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 3. Results and discussion

3.1 General observation

For water supply, in most of the condominiums or public housing in Singapore, a gravity supply
system was observed whereas hot water is supplied mainly from heater of individual residential
units. Tankless type instantaneous heater is commonly installed for shower unit where no hot
water is provided for lavatory and kitchen sink. For sanitary works, ventilated stack is used for
all buildings with a height more than six stories. The wastewater is collected and conveyed by
combined sewers to sewage treatment works before final discharge into the sea. In general it
was found that many defects occurred due to poor design consideration for maintenance. The
access to various components or provision of work space for maintenance is inadequate. In
concealed pipe work, it is difficult to determine the exact location and root cause of any fault. It
was also observed that one defect may give rise to a chain of defects. For example, corrosion of
piping may cause leakage, which in turn results in water ponding, backflow of dirty water from
surrounding soil, as well as wastage of water.

3.2 Survey results

The summary of survey results is presented in Tables 1 - 6 for water supply, while Tables 7 -10
illustrate the prevalent defects in sanitary system. A total of 113 defects related to ten major
components of sanitary-plumbing system were identified, out of which 56 were found serious
and among those 13 were referred by FMs as frequent and 17 occurs in two or more categories.
Economy, system performance, IEQ and health & well-being were affected by 40, 34, 9 and 20
defects respectively. All the significant defects for ten major components are graphically
illustrated in the defect list (Tables 1-10). As an example, defects in sanitary piping are
discussed in details in Section 3.3.
Table 1: A summary of the defects in supply main

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (11 nos.) (3 nos.)

Piping Overflow, contamination, slow 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

discharge / backflow, hydraulic

thrust, dirt accumulation at X FR X EC X SP X EN X HW

dead end, less supply,

leakage, damage

Stop Valve Unable to cut supply for repair

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Air valve Air lock at high point (low
pressure flow), Air gap at
summit (normal flow)

Table 2: A summary of the defects in service pipe

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (18 nos.) (11 nos.)

2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Underground Settlement, damage due to
pipe settlement
X FR X EC X SP X EN X HW

Exposed pipe Corrosion, other

degradation

Internal pipes Leakage, contamination, air

locks, slow discharge, noisy
flow, dirt accumulation,
supply-discharge
interference, damage
(thermal stress), poor
accessibility, difficult to
locate, difficult cleaning

Valves In-accessibility, supply

suffers during repair

Fittings Corrosion

Table 3: A summary of the defects in over-head / under-ground storage

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (14 nos.) (11 nos.)

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Tank body Corrosion, leakage,
poor / no ventilation,
flooding around tank, X FR X EC X SP X EN X HW

clogged wash out pipe

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 hinders cleaning

Intake Overflow, interruption,

back siphonage,
stagnation / short
circuiting

Discharge Contamination, level

goes below pipe invert

Controls Faulty valve, alarm

indicator etc

Accessory Corroded net or

strainer etc, entry of
dirt or insect

Table 4: A summary of the defects in distribution pipe

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (14 nos.) (7 nos.)

2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Underground Settlement, damage due to
piping settlement, mechanical damage,
leakage X FR X EC X SP X EN X
HW

General Contamination, degradation, low

discharge rate, air locks, frictional
loss, head loss at bend / joint,
noisy flow, ugly arrangement

Valves In-accessibility, supply suffers

during repair, corrosion of
components

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Table 5: A summary of the defects in hot water supply

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (8 nos.) (5 nos.)

Piping Wastage of water, heat loss, 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

short circuiting in the piping of

the primary and secondary X FR X EC X SP X EN X HW

circuit, scaling, Legionella

growth, corrosion

Tank Corrosion, bursting

Table 6: A summary of the defects in pumps

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (9 nos.) (3 nos.)

2 2.5 3 3.5 4
body Corrosion

FR EC SP EN HW
Impellers Corrosion, out of balance

Valves Damaged reflux and isolating valves

Controls Faulty control can’t auto interchange

duty and standby pumps after each
cycle of operation.

In general Damaged pumps, choking, over

heating, excessive vibration

Table 7: A summary of the defects in sewage ejector or solid diverter tank

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defect

component (8 nos.) (4 nos.)

2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Tank / pit Poor accessibility for
maintenance, poor working
condition, inadequate ventilation,

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 vandalism / break in, water X FR X EC X SP X EN X HW

penetration / ponding, corrosion

Air Incomplete sewage discharge

compressor

Sump pump Unable to dewater

Table 8: A summary of the defects in sewage pumps

Sub Common defects (5 Seriousness of significant defects

component nos.) (2 nos.)

Body Corrosion 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Impeller Corrosion, out of balance

X FR X EC X SP
Controls Unable to auto interchange of duty
and standby pumps after each cycle X EN X HW
of operation.

General Long fibrous materials of raw sewage

cannot be pumped (clogging), solids
of diameter ≥ 64mm diameter cannot
be pumped (choking)

Table 9: A summary of the defects in sanitary piping

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant defects

component (10 nos.) (7 nos.)

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

General Corrosion, leakages, slow
discharge , no discharge,
discharge of foul air into the X FR X EC X SP X EN X HW

building, poor accessibility for

maintenance and repair,
contamination , trap seal loss,

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 mosquito breeding in open
trap, noisy flow

Table 10: A summary of the defects in sanitary fixture and fittings

Sub Common defects Seriousness of significant

component (13 nos.) defects (3 nos.)

2 2.5 3 3.5
WC pan Water ponding around pan, discharge
pipe disconnected from pedestal type
pan, collapsed / dislodged of support X FR X EC X SP

brackets of wall-hung WC
X EN X HW

Flushing Leakage of water and air at the

Cistern connection of flush pipe and WC pan,
damaged device no longer automatic

Urinal Clogged trap

Bidet Backflow or back siphonage

Bath and Leakages at the joints at the edge of

shower unit wall and tray, poor maintenance of the
waste pipe / trap under the bath

Floor trap Slow drainage

Grating / cover Corrosion, damaged gratings causes

for floor trap / undesirable opening and penetration of
waste garbage or other solid waste

Accessory Corrosion of installation screws

3.3 Discussion

For three sub-components of sanitary piping, a total of ten common defects were identified from
the first phase of data collection, among which none was frequent but seven were found to be
significant for their impacts. Such piping seldom suffers from leakage, but it causes

895
considerable amount of economic loss. This may be due to the corrosion of structural members
initiated by water leaking through the joints of concealed pipes. Slow discharge is an example of
system performance loss, but no discharge incurs huge cost as the trap or pipe that may require
replacement. Though discharge of foul air into the building due to trap seal loss is a well
discussed topic but it is considered insignificant from FMs’ point of view. On the contrary, poor
accessibility for inspection, cleaning and repair was reported as a major hurdle for maintaining
proper IEQ. Contamination as caused by backflow and back-siphonage i.e. major defect of
design or construction was considered expensive as replacement is the only remedy. Similarly
mosquito breeding in open traps was found to have the highest emphasis for health and well
being among all 113 defects as this may cause fatal Dengue fever to spread. For the same
reason, this defect was considered to be a great expense on FM as failing to rectify this defect
may incur huge penalty. Noisy flow as caused by interrupted discharge is an unpleasing
example of system performance loss, often demanding costly cleaning or replacement.
From the present study, it was established that among many defects in sanitary-plumbing
system, most of the defects can be prevented by considering four major maintainability criteria,
namely, design, appropriate material selection, construction practices, and operation &
maintenance (O&M) practices and few defects have more than one cause.. It is important to
know at which stage what are the defects arise so that the appropriate preventive measures can
be taken to improve the maintainability. It was found that among 56 significant defects, 38 are
design related, 14 occurred due to poor material selection, 16 were due to bad construction
quality and inadequate O&M practises were responsible for 19 defects. Especially poor
accessibility for regular inspection, cleaning and routine maintenance was found to be one of the
major and prevalent defects which can be addressed during the design stage.

4. Conclusions

The study had identified 56 persistent defects out of total 113 defects commonly occurring in
ten major components of sanitary-plumbing system. The inaccessibility for regular inspection
and maintenance was detected as the common defect for almost all the components. From the
analysis based on feedback provided by 33 experienced FMs regarding: (1) frequency of
occurrence of various defects and (2) seriousness of the defects in terms of their adverse effect
on economy, system performance, indoor environmental quality and occupants’ health & well-
being, it was established that the most important contributing factors for maintainability is good
design, next comes by O&M practices, followed by construction quality, and material selection.
This comprehensive defect analysis was aimed to help the designers, contractors and facility
managers to realize the long term effect of their decisions made and form the basis of an
enhanced maintainability to promote good practices for efficient and safe functioning of highly
maintainable sanitary-plumbing system. Further, this may provide a simple guideline for FMs to
achieve and as well as owner to enjoy lower life cycle maintenance cost of building services.
This generic research method can be applicable for any other building services.

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APPENDIX A: Sample questionnaire for sanitary piping

Grading for Grading for

Defects for sanitary piping
Frequency Impacts

1= Rare 1 = Negligible 2= Slight

2= Sometimes 3 = Moderate 4 = Serious
Sub- 3= quite often 5= Very serious / fatal
Description of
compo- Probable Causes of the Defect 4= very often
Defect
nent 5= Always
Econo Sys.
IEQ Health
my Perf.

Corrosion Deterioration over time, piping material is not corrosion

resistant or unsuitable for pumped media

Leakages Corrosion, joining pipes of different material, absence of

elastomeric seal at joints or sleeve at slab / wall penetrations
Piping

Clogging (slow Dirt entering through damaged / removed floor trap or solid
/no discharge) construction waste causes clogging in pipes

Noisy flow Interrupted flow (bad design of pipe-trap connection)

899
 Discharge of Non provision / wrong design of ventilating pipe, trap seal loss
foul air into the of fixtures
building

Poor Mismatched position of access cover / cleaning eyes and pipe

accessibility for joints, pipes covered by building elements
maintenance

Fixture Contamination Backflow and back siphonage

Trap seal loss Waving out (pressure fluctuation) for short / straight vent,
induced siphonage due to absence of trap ventilating pipes;
self siphonage of undersized discharge stacks.
Trap

Mosquito Irregular cleaning and poor housekeeping

breeding

900