THE NEURON

THE NEURON
The human brain is made up of 12 billion or more
specialized cells called neuron, or nerve cells.

Neurons are cells that are specialized in

communicating information.
 STRUCTURE OF NEURON
The cell body (or soma) is the end of the neuron,
containing the nucleus.
The axons are cellifugal or they carry information away
from the cell body.
The dendrites are cellulipetal, meaning they conduct
neural impulses to the cell body.
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
 SYNAPSE

The way through

which the neuron
communicates, and
the gap itself is
called synaptic gap.
Classification of Neurons
Neurons are classified according to their
functions.

The sensory (afferent) neurons

send neural impulses to the brain.
Neurons are classified according to their
functions.

The motor (efferent)

neurons carry signals from
the central nervous system
to the muscles and glands.
Neurons are classified according to their
functions.

The interneurons form all the

neural wirings within the CNS
which has two axons. One
axon communicates with the
spinal cord and the other
communicates with the skin or
muscles.
 Synaptic
Transmission
Synaptic Transmission

Neurons are cells

that are specialized
to pass signals to
individual target
cells, and synapses
are the means by
which they do so.

There is a slight gap

across which the signal
must be transmitted.
Synaptic Transmission

Neurotransmitters
are responsible for
transmitting the
signal.
Synaptic Transmission

Synaptic clefts are

small rounded
objects in the shape
of sphere or oviod
that contains
transmitter
substance.
Synaptic Transmission

The neurotransmitter
molecules diffused
across the synaptic
gap and combine
with molecules in
the cell membrane
of the receiving
neuron.
Neurons inhibit a behavior or suppress behavior, while
the other releases neurotransmitters that are inhibitory
which do not always produce behavioral inhibition.
The excitatory effects are larger than inhibitory effects.
For some neurotransmitters, the synapse is almost
immediately cleared of the chemical by reuptake; the
process in which the neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the
axon terminals from which it was released.
The effect of other neurotransmitters is by
degradation, the process in which enzymes in the
membrane of the receiving neuron react with the
neurotransmitter to break it up chemically and make it
inactive.
Neurotransmitters

Are substances released by the

neurons which support in sensation,
perceptions and other cognitive
functions.
Common Types of Neurotransmitters:

1. Acetylcholine (ACH)

It is customary in the hippocampus which is

responsible in the retention and formation of
memories.

A defect in the ACH may lead to Alzheimer’s

disease, disorder causing people to forget large
amount of information and experiences.
Common Types of Neurotransmitters:

2. Dopamine

Dopamine is important for memory, movement

and emotions.

Release of dopamine may result to feelings of

gratification, and for some my lead to
schizophrenia, while very little of it may cause
Parkinson’s disease.
Common Types of Neurotransmitters:

3. Serotonin

Influence sleep, moods, pain sensation and

appetite.

Less amount of serotonin may result to feelings of

depression.

Since it regulates appetite, it is also known as a

treatment for bulimia nervosa.
Common Types of Neurotransmitters:

4. Norepinephrine

Affects arousal, wakefulness,

learning, memory, and mood

5. Endorphins

Inhibit transmission pain massages

The NERVOUS SYSTEM
The NERVOUS SYSTEM
The NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The Central Nervous System includes all neurons in the
brain and the spinal cord.
• The Peripheral Nervous System
contains all the neural material
outside the brain and spinal
cord.

• The PNS is divided into Somatic

NS and Autonomic NS.

• The Somatic NS is responsible

for controlling skeletal muscles.
Including the voluntary and
involuntary behavior.

• The Autonomic NS controls the

activity of internal organs and
glands, such as digestions,
respiration and heart rate.
BRAIN STRUCTURE
the human brain is encased in a hallow formed bone
of the skull and weighs at around 3.25 pounds.

The brain soft tissues are protected by membranes

called “meninges”.
Three stages of the Brain:
Central Core
 Limbic System
 Cerebral Hemisphere (Cerebrum)
 CENTRAL CORE

Its five main region help regulate basic life processes,

including breathing, pulse, arousal, movement, balance,
sleep, and early stage of processing sensory information.

Medulla = a narrow
structure that controls
breathing, swallowing,
digestion, heart rate
and some reflexes that
help the organism
maintain an upright
posture.
 CENTRAL CORE

Its five main region help regulate basic life processes,

including breathing, pulse, arousal, movement, balance,
sleep, and early stage of processing sensory information.

Pons = is involved in
the control sleep
 CENTRAL CORE

Its five main region help regulate basic life processes,

including breathing, pulse, arousal, movement, balance,
sleep, and early stage of processing sensory information.

Cerebellum = controls
bodily balance such as
walking on a straight
line without staggering
or lurching forward.
CENTRAL CORE

Thalamus = transmit
messages from the
sense organs to the
cerebral cortex and
from the cerebral
cortex to the
cerebellum and
medulla.
 CENTRAL CORE

Hypothalamus = it
plays an important role
in many aspects of
emotion and
motivation.

It is involved in several functions of the body:

autonomic function control, endocrine function
control, homeostasis, motor function control,
food & water intake regulation, sleep-wake
cycle, & sexual behavior.
 CENTRAL CORE

Reticular Formation = controls our state of arousal or

awareness. It also plays a role in our ability to focus our
attention.

Thus, if we are in
the moment on
intense
concentration, we
become unaware
of the noises
around us or the
pain that was
previously quite
noticeable.
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

Limbic System is fully developed only in mammals.

In mammals, the limbic system allows the organism to be

more flexible and adoptive to changes in the
environment.

It is also involved in the emotional behavior.

LIMBIC SYSTEM
LIMBIC SYSTEM

The
hippocampus,
plays a special
role in memory
(long-term
memory.
LIMBIC SYSTEM

Hypothalamus is
considered to be
the main seat of
emotion. It regulates
expression of
emotions by
changing bodily
functions.
LIMBIC SYSTEM

Amygdala is an
almond shaped
structure that
functions in the
formation and
recall of emotional
experiences.
 Cortical Areas and
their Functions

The movement
Motor on the
Area. Controls the right side movement
voluntary of the body is
of the
governed by the left motor cortex, vice versa.
body.
 Cortical Areas and
their Functions

Somatosensory Area. Located in the parietal lobe – an area that

produces a sensory experience. Heat, cold, touch, pain are all
represented here.
 Cortical Areas and
their Functions

Visual Area. Behind the occipital lobe. The optic nerve fibers
and neural pathways leading each eye to the visual cortex.
 Cortical Areas and
their Functions

Fibers from the right side

of both eyes goes to the
right hemisphere vice
versa.

Damage to the visual

area of the left
hemisphere will result in
blind fields in the left sides
of both eyes.
Cortical Areas and
their Functions
Cortical Areas and
their Functions
Auditory Cortex. The auditory area lies on the surface of the
temporal lobe at the side of the of each hemisphere.

It is concentrated with the patterning of sound in time as in

human speech.
The association
Association
The Frontal
posterior Area. areas
association Areas
association areas
areathe
that
may parietal
are
appear notto
play an
of lobe is
directly
important
consist
important
concerned
role
subareas, for
with
in the each locating
theserving
thought objects
sensory aand
processes in sensory
motor processes
particular
required for
sense.space
problem are
For
called
and for
solving.
example,association
the areas.
maintaining
lower internal
portion of the “maps”
temporal of lobestheis
related to visual perception.
environment.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
NS NS

This two function antagonistically

When the sympathetic stimulates the

parasympathetic inhibits
 THE ENDOCRINE
GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONES
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Pituitary is a major endocrine gland. It has been
called “master gland because it produces the
largest number of hormones and controls the
secretion of other glands.
The pituitary gland is composed of the
anterior pituitary gland and the posterior
pituitary gland
The anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones
that stimulate the thyroid glad and gonads.

It secretes hormones that stimulate production of

melanocytes for skin color, prolactin for milk
production of nursing mothers.
Somatotropin for growth of the body structures.
Overproduction of somatotropin may lead to
gigantism, while undersecretion of this
hormonemay cause dwarfism.
 dwarfism

gigantism
The posterior pituitary gland releases vasopressin
that regulates the amount of body fluids.

During childbirth, it secretes oxytocin needed for

the contraction of the muscles of the uterus.
Thyroid Gland

This gland secretes thyroxin and

tridohtyronine that
THYRIOD GLAND regulates physical
growth, maturation, and mental alertness.
 THYRIOD GLAND
Thyroid Gland

Underactivity of the thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) causes

laziness, dullness, and goiter.

On the other extreme hyperthyrodism leads to a vary

active behavior that may result to insomnia and weight
loss.
Adrenal Glands

Located at the anterior end of each kindney.

The inner part (medulla) of this gland is the source

of epinephrene (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) that sets the body for “flight of
fight” reactions in dealing with emergency.
Adrenal Glands ADRENAL GLANDS

Epinephrine raises the blood sugar level where the

body can draw extra source of strength in times
of emergency, and thus, a person may be able to
lift and carry a refrigerator all by himself when
there is fire.
Adrenal Glands ADRENAL GLANDS

The outer part (cortex) of the gland is the source

of cortisone needed to maintain blood sugar
level, and the aldosterone which maintains the
correct salt and water level of the body.
 GONADS

Gonads

Also called as sex glands.

Male gonads secret androgen which contains

testosterone that influence the growth of
prostrate, seminal vesicles, and production of
sperm.
 GONADS

Gonads

Female gonads secrete estrogen which

influences the development of the reproductive
and mammary organs, widening of the pelvis,
and the distribution of fats in the entire body.
 Pancreas
It is located at the right side of the abdomen at
the level of the navel near the stomach.
This “islets of Langerhans” contain hormone insulin
which is necessary for utilization of sugar in the
blood.
 Placenta

It is present during pregnancy and secretes

placental hormone needed to maintain
pregnancy.
It also secretes gonadotropin found in the female
urine which eventually becomes the basis of a
positive pregnancy result.
 Pineal Gland

It is located at the middle of the cerebrum.

It secretes the hormone called melatonin to help
the pituitary gland to regulate its function.