TAs:

Tristan Cleveland
clevelan@dal.ca
Room 351 HH - Thurs 3-5pm

Adam MacDonald
ad845688@dal.ca
Mon - 9.30-11.30
Hicks Room 334
*****Direct Democracy & Night-Watchman State***** will appear in the final

07.09.2018

Politics
A dynamic discipline defined by a concern for the human community, conflict, change, and power.

10.09.2018

Guest Lecture

An overview of the US government.

● Historically, there is a significantly smaller amount of voters during mid-term elections.
● Primary elections - feature strong polarisation. Seems like four parties, far-and-near left/right,
trying to fit into two camp (republicans & democrats)
● Polarisation so extreme → inhibits civil discourse between partisans. Studies show that social
interactions between people of opposing parties may be displeasing. Social aspect of politics.
● Right leaning sites were found 5X more likely to release a positive review of Trump’s
performance in office so far.

12.09.2018

Definition of Politics:
● The exercise of ​power
● The public allocation of ​values
● The resolution of ​conflict
 ● The competition among individuals, groups, or states pursuing their ​ interests​. (eg.
financial, economic, or cultural interests.)

What does Political Science study?

● Institutions
● Values
● Actors - the people who engage in politics (the electorate, or those people who don’t
vote).

What is Politics?
● Politics is a dynamic discipline ​defined by a concern for the ​human community, conflict,
change​, and ​POWER​.
● Who gets what, where, and when. B ​ ut…
● Studying politics = Studying ​government.​
The ​Source ​of ​Power:
The ​Good ​and ​Bad​ forms of government according to Aristotle

Aristotle’s forms of government ...Rules on Behalf of...

Themselves/self All

Who Individual Tyranny Monarchy

Rules

Few Oligarchy Aristocracy

Majority Democracy Politeia

Democracy in and of itself (Constitutional Republic)
is flawed. We use revised
forms of democracy today
i.e. liberal democracy.

14.09.2018
Democracy

First Divisions:
● Institutional & Theoretical
● Representative (elect people to represent our interests) & Direct (nothing in between the people
and power)
A modern ​Political Democracy​ is a system of g​ overnance​ in which rulers are held​ accountable​ for their
actions in the public realm by ​citizens​ acting indirectly through the competition and cooperation of their
elected​ representatives.​ –– ​Schmitter
- Accountability: the ability to ask actors to justify their actions, use of language, and way of
thinking.

Features of a Democracy​:
1. Elections and an Electoral Process
2. Political parties
3. Judicial impartiality (Predictable)
4. Civil society
5. The media (freedom of speech/free press)
6. Education to Democracy

Utilitarian (protective) Theory of Democracy (Democratic Elitism)​ - elections as protection for the
people.
Humans are considered to be utility maximising. This includes those humans in positions of
political power tasked with representing the people. ​Mills and Bentham​ argue that, unless members of the
government are held accountable to the people, members of government will simply act in their own
interests as opposed to those they represent.
To a utilitarian, then, elections are a way of protecting the majority’s right to representation.
Members of government will have to represent their voters’ interests if they wish to remain in power.

Participatory theory of Democracy

Found in the Greek city-states, amongst JS Mill, Douglas Howard Cole, and Rousseau. What is
needed is participation from the masses. The people, in embracing Elitism, are denied sovereignty – the
essence of democracy.
Deliberative Democracy
Building on the work of participatory theorists, Deliberative Democracy states that “true”
democracy must allow for choices to be developed through discussion and reflection. Public
Debate increases rationality and legitimacy of decisions made.

Problems with Democracy

Majority is not Unanimity. Most modern societies are pluralistic, it is impossible to act in
everyone’s interests (even in a democratic government).
Elections may not even represent the majority if there are more than two alternatives on which
voters may have preference. For example, in two of Canada’s last four elections elected conservative
parties in despite of the fact that the majority voted Liberal and New Democrats.
How can you expect a citizen to obey a law they did not support?

17.09.2018
-Writing day-
LO:
● The importance of Free Exchange of Ideas
● Critical Thinking

Free Exchange of Ideas

- Fundamental principle of Classical Liberalism.
- Freedom of religion

John Stuart Mill - On ​Liberty:​

‘Being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought itself and resting in great part on
the same reasons’ (73)
‘Absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific,
moral, or theological’ (73)

Domains of Freedom: J.s. Mill

● Conscience​: Think and feel as you please (opinions, expression, speech, belief)
● Taste and Pursuits​: ​“Framing… plan of life to suit our own character,” ​even if they’re
displeasing to others as long as no harm is inflicted.
● To Unite​: meet and be with others (Assembly)

Why is Freedom important?

● Fallibility
○ You cannot silence other ideas without “assuming our own fallibility.”
○ Distinction between being convinced and knowing the truth.
● Truth/Balance
○ “... though the silenced opinion may be an error, it may, and very commonly does,
contain a portion of the truth…”
○ “... collision of adverse opinions…”

● BUT we must distinguish between opinions and actions.

● Censorship of opinions that cause harm/hate speech
○ HOWEVER - what is good today was once bad. Intellectual exchange is hindered with
consequence. Those who think differently might be the ones who stay quiet.
○ Those small circles of like minded thinkers have no platform for exchange of foreign
indeas. “...smoulder in narrow circles of thinking.”

Critical Thinking
‘Thinking which has a purpose’
‘Reflective judgement’
 **Critical thinking is a process that challenges an individual to use reflective, reasonable,
rational thinking to gather, interpret and evaluate information in order to derive a judgement.**

19.09.2018
–Thesis Statements & Introductions–

Thesis Statement
● Should be concerned with an issue, not a topic.
● A topic issue claim.
● MUST have an agreement/disagreement with the claim. Something must be resolved. Must be
relevant.
● MUST raise a specific issue to explore.
● Can your position be challenged?

Good Thesis test

1. Do I answer a question? Is my position one that others may challenge?
2. Is my statement specific? Value judgement ‘good’, ‘successful’
3. So What?
4. Do I argue my thesis and only my thesis?
5. Does it pass the how and why?

24.09.2018
–Democracy–
Conditions for Democracy
1. Economic and Material Conditions​ – link between industrial capitalism and parliamentary
democracy. ​Political Economy​.
2. Legal Conditions​ – meritocratic standards
3. Socio-political conditions ​(compromise as essential condition)
4. Education to democracy
5. Constitution & Rule of the Law​ – Independent and predictable under and before the law.

Economy Politics

Currency: Currency:
Wealth Power

Managed Managed by
by the the State
 Market

The ​political economy​ is anything which is concerned with all of the above.

Power
● Political power​: “the social ability to get others to do what you want.”
● Power & Politics = Money & Economics

Forms of Power
● Influence​: the ability to have people carry out one’s will without them feeling that they are being
forced to do so.
● Coercion​: forcibly applying one’s will through threats of physical pain and military intervention
○ violence
● Authority​: when people obey because they accept that the person–or groups–exercising power is
doing so in an acceptable fashion
Authority is legitimate power in the sense that rulers gain the ​acceptance​ of the ruled through
persuasion.

Types of Authority
● Traditional authority
● Legal authority
● Charismatic authority

While Democratic states rely heavily on Authority, Authoritarian states rely more on the exercise of
power.

Important components of Power

Authority
● This is about the groups or people exercising power.
Legitimacy
● About the response to that power.
● Input Legitimacy​: refers to the people at the table. WHO is contributing to public policy?
● Output Legitimacy​: are the outcomes of policy acceptable?

Pluralism & Lukes’s 3Ds of Power

1. A exerts power over B when A affects B in a manner contrary to B’s interests.
a. Pluralists measure power in terms of decision making. If a group’s aims are met even in
part, then it has power.
2. Setting the Agenda - to have power, is to decide and dictate what is argued
 a. Pluralists assume there are no barriers to entry into political groups. We know, however,
that not all those in society have the faculty to organise effectively and gain
representation in parliament.
b. Pluralists ‘ignore’ the possibility that elite ruling groups have already determined the
topics of discussion.
3. The power to manipulate others’ interests into their own.

Functions of Legislatures
Legislatures are vital elements in the structure of power win a state, serving as checks on the executive’s
freedom of manoeuvre.

Areas of Parliament
1. Representational​ - representing groups and individuals in society.
a. Central to the notion of parliament’s legitimacy.
b. If Representation refers to expressing views of constituents and serving as channels of
communication with those in authority, the personal characteristics aren’t so important.
The extent to which a representative may voice the views of a larger community instead
of their own personal views is an issue still being argued.
c. Descriptive and Substantive Representation. Descriptive representation refers to a
representative who resembles a social group only in a demographic sense–the female
population is represented by female politicians in parliament. Whereas Substantive
Representation refers only to the representation of a community’s political views.
2. Governmental​ - forming governments and holding them accountable, developing policy,
enhancing gov. Communication with citizens.
3. Procedural​ - ritualising conflict and ensuring transparency.

28.09.2018
–Values, Institutions & Actors–

Political Values
● Equality: ​Equality of Opportunity​ or ​Equality of Condition
○ Political Equality: the right to participate in political activities of one’s society and be
treated fair
○ Social Equality: equal ​status​ given to everyone
○ Economic Equality: equivalent distribution of benefits accrued from economic
transactions.

● Order: a recognised structure of power, responsibility, and liberty.

○ Political Order: the collection of rules, laws, values, and customs that delimit and hold
together a society
 ○ May impede or contradict some other values - eg, the introduction of the War Measures
Act.
Not a new concept: the use of Estates in England

● Security
○ Security of the person
○ Protection from violence
○ Security at the expense of liberty
○ Post 9/11 world

● Progress: ​Advancement of society toward a better and improved state of affairs

● Justice
1. Justice as ​legal​ affairs (due process, equal before & under the law)
2. As ​political ​affairs
3. As ​socio-economic​ justice

● Liberty & Freedoms: ​Absence from coercion in various aspects of one’s life
○ Civil liberties
○ Political liberties

● Rights
○ Natural - ‘divine’ rights thought to be the base of humanity.
○ Legal - imposed onto the populus by the government.

Institutions
● Groups formed with the task of providing for society
● Strongest when they’re
○ Autonomous
○ Transparent
○ Accountable
○ Durable
Institution →​contributes​→ Order ​←linked​→ Political system

Government

Role of government
● Shape and represent the relationship between citizen and state
● Form is influenced by ‘ideas’

How
1. Maintenance
2. Adaptation
 3. Integration
4. Goal-setting

A. ​In Economic Terms:

- “Laissez-faire” Capitalism
- Socialism, ownership of means of production
- Welfare state (Reform liberalism)

B. ​In Political terms

- Organisational structure
- Degree of control exercised over society

Why
● Different theories for reason to ‘organise’
● Best way
● Ex: Hobbes ‘state of nature’
1648: two main tasks
1. Security (territorial & human)
2. Well-being (1st is necessary)
3. Legitimate and sovereign

02.10.2018
––
Nation
Nations are populations of people with shared ancestral myths, history, tradition and cultur. Usually
occupying shared land and having a strong sense of solidarity.

State
A state is defined body of land with a sovereign government.

Nationalism as a:
Political doctrine
The belief that the world’s people are divided into nations, and that each nation has the right to
self-determination​, either as self-governing units within nation-states or as nation-states of their own.
Cultural ideal
All people identify primarily with their nation first, before assuming other identities (eg.
male/female)
Moral ideal
An ideal of ethic heroic sacrifice, the belief that force of violence can be justified if it is in
defence of one’s own nation against enemies.
– The idea of defending nationhood by means of violence if necessary is underwritten by the cultural
ideal that only nationalism can satisfy an individual’s needs.
– The cultural ideal underwrites the political claim that self-determination is the only way to satisfy the
needs of a nation’s individuals.

Primordialists
See the nation as a natural phenomenon, nationalism is an outcome of human nature and relationships.
Modernists & Perennialists
Modernists: Nationalism or national identity as a human/social construct. Created by the elites as a way of
exerting power over the masses. Modernist Ernest Gellner argues that, nationalism is a result of the
Industrial Revolution, wherein people clustered in Urban cities and were in need of a new identity to
replace the small town life they had left behind. ​Imagined Communities.
Ethno-symbolists
Do not believe that nationalism was constructed by the ‘Elite’ during the Industrial Revolution. Instead
Ethno-symbolists argue that nations are formed naturally from communities that share ancestry myths,
histories and culture. Having an association with territory and a sense of solidarity.

Forms of government
1. Relations
2. Parameter
3. Ideology

Representative Government/Direct Democracy:

Monarchy
● Absolute
● Constitutional (Canada)
- Westminster parliamentary system
- Head of state (Crown - Q. Elizabeth II)
- Head of Government (PM)
Republic​ – ​Res Publica
Power moves from the bottom up. The sovereignty of the people dictates political decisions.

Dictatorships:
Authoritarianism
censorship
Totalitarianism
Benito Mussolini
Individuals in the state exist for the sake of the state.
Characteristic: Blend authoritarian ethos with ideology.
Oligarchy
Theocracy
Religious rule

Ideology

10.10.2018
Populism​: (eg. left/right-wing populist groups)
Elements retained from democracy:
● referendum/plebiscite
● Recall
● Citizens initiative
Liberal Democracy
Institutions
- Free speech/press
- Rule of law
- Electoral system
- Economic system
Populism threatens these institutions, which institutionalize conflict.

Paradigm

● Both Extremes tend toward ​totalitarianism

(Classical) Liberalism
● Reason
● Self Determination (sovereignty of the individual)
● Equality (socio-political equality)

John Locke
Natural Rights​ - the right to free speech, freedom of consciousness
Negative rights ​- freedom from interference: from your right to pursue something in society. The
government should not interfere in the people’s desire to achieve something

Positive Rights ​- The freedom to achieve self-mastery. [reform liberalism]

Alexis de Tocqueville
JS Mill
Enlightenment
● Traditional Ideologies were shaped by the enlightenment
● Ideologies were action oriented
● Ideologies draw from, and sometimes share, a variety of concepts.
● Ideologies usually reflect and shape the socio-historical circumstances in which they
exist.
Liberalism
Classical Liberalism:​ draws on the Capitalist theories of Adam Smith to remove as much gov.
Interference as possible within markets. The market is the most efficient supplier of human needs/wants.
State’s role limited to safety/security allows people the “negative liberty” of self actualisation.

Social Liberalism:​ Emphasis on social reform. Allowing the state to rectify inequities within markets,
social liberals believe, will further aid individuals in achieving self mastery.

Positive & Negative Liberty

- Positive: “freedom to”
- Negative: “freedom from”

Enlightenment
Conservatism​ - A reaction to the Enlightenment
Edmund Burke - father of conservatism
Social Contract

Conservatism → societies are organic

Liberalism → societies are mechanical

Night-Watchman State [Locke]:

Libertarian ideology - the state should function only as internal and external security. It is a
‘night-watchman’ and will do little else - the ‘night-watchman; state will not interfere with markets or
promote welfare programs.

17.10.2018
 –– The French Revolution 1789-99 ––

Social Tensions
● Stratified – 3 estates: clergy, nobles, bourgeoisie

Popularity of enlightenment
- Natural rights
- Freedom
- Liberalism

Declaration of the rights of man

“Men are born free and equal in their rights… liberty, property, security & resistance to oppression”
- The fundamental source of sovereignty lies within the nation
- Law is an expression of the general will of all citizens

Industrial Revolution
Economic change​ → Industrial Capitalism
Political change​ → Decline of landed aristocracy–growing middle class with wealth based in industry
and a want for more political power, Growth & Expansion of democracy, Rise to power of
businesspeople.
Social change ​→ Development and growth of cities, Increase in leisure time,

19.10.2018

Marxism

22.10.2018

Socialism
Anything that contributes significantly to the production, distribution, and delivery of socially necessary
goods should be controlled by the state.

Social Democracy
● Socialism and democracy can work together
● Change peaceful
● Promote economic & political freedom & equality

● Marx: “enlightened capitalists” would not join capitalists

Socialism Today
● Socialist thought reflected in many political parties most ‘social democrat’
 ● Rejection of the ‘revolutionary’ aspect of socialism
● Work within existing system for social and economic justice.

Socialism in common with conservatives:

● A critique of liberalism’s self-interest, competition, and liberties (negative)
● Humans are communal or social creatures and are more cooperative than competitive

Contrary to conservatives:
● Private property is a source of class division (powerful vs. powerless)
● Customs and traditions are of negligible importance

In common with liberals:

● The value of equality but socialists is for ​equality of condition​ not just for ​equality of opportunity​.

Social Democracy’s “differences” from Marxism

● Private property not abolished, but the public should not control the use of property and make
necessities available to all
● Individual rights not abolished but should complement other important values

Italian Fascism
- Giovanna Gentile (philosopher) → inception of
- Benito Mussolini → Totalitarianism

Defining Fascism
● Difficult (Paxton, 1988)
○ “Timing” - poorly understood because its birth and appeal were sudden and unexpected
○ “Mimicry” - appeal of ideas (vitality, force). “Magnetic field” (Philippe Burrin). “fascism
is not defined by its clothing” (G. Orwell).
○ “Doctrive & action”
○ Overuse and imprecise use

24.10.2018
Fascism Cont’d

Benito Mussolini - “il duce”

● 20th century’s ‘original’
● ‘Fascimo’ is Mussolini’s creation
–Fascism–
A political movement which was nationalist and totalitarian. ​Doctrinaire​ (wherein all that which
is contrary to the doctrine is rejected)
 ○ Economically anti-capitalist/anti-socialist
■ Corporatism: wherein all constituents of the nation fall under the jurisdiction of
the state
○ Politically populist: can be negative when the relationship between the ‘elite’ and the
marginalized majority begins to foster hostility.
○ anti-democratic/anti-liberal/Anti-Marxist – Strongly opposed, can be seen in propaganda
(i.e. media which seeks to dehumanize, rather disagree with, those with opposing views)

Fascist Conceptions
● The state: an absolute – individuals and groups are irrelevant.
○ It has a Will, a Personality: the ‘ethical state’
○ Directing force – material and spiritual
○ Vitality, dynanimity
○ Squadristi & Black Shirts​ – paramilitary/fascist militia. “Living dangerously” and the
fascist.

26.10.2018

Tactics of Italian Fascism

Selective Populism
● Group over the indivual/duties over rights
● Victimhood - internal & external enemies
● Erosion and decadence
● Common convictions - inclusive & exclusive
● Authority of ​il Duce​ - a leader who ​IS​ destiny
“Newspeak”​:
(Orwell): must ‘impoverish vocabulary,’ to limit instruments of critical thinking and reasoning.
Propaganda & indoctrination.
Rejection of the modern world​: ​[Citizens will live behind the “Iron Shield” of the state]
especially in the face of the Enlightenment [irrationalism].
- Enlightenment encourages the freedom of the individual. Which doesn’t facilitate the compliant
& conformitant fascist society.

Elements of Fascism
● Nationalism/a historic mission
● State vs. Individuals
● Militarism
● Political violence
● Cult of Personality
● Emotive
● Romanticised ‘People’
 ● “Outsiders”
“Iron Shield” of the state
“All within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state”

The Doctrine of Fascism

● “A minute in the battlefield is worth a lifetime of peace”
● Human life has meaning only if it is realised through the nation (Society is ​Organic not Atomised)​
● Highest importance is the legal and institutional power of the state
● Supreme dedication to the leader.

Summary of Fascism
1. Militarism – virility – discipline
2. Loyalty
3. Propaganda
4. Herd mentality
5. Mystical/Messianic leader
6. Industrial Production (to achieve fascism)
7. CORPORATISM

Nazism
● Distrust of liberalism & socialism
● “Herd”
● Organic society
● Militarism
● Discipline & sacrifice
Difference from fascism:
● Race (until pressures from hitler)
● Fascism + Racism = Nazism

Doubting Reason
● Foundation of Romanticism
● Human experience is subjective
● Human knowledge dwarfs in comparison to other forces
● Individual rights
Political Impact
● expedited the rise in nationalist movements
● The ​volk
● Cultures was highlighted
 05.11.2018
–Horizontal and Vertical relations of Power–

Executive, Legislative & Judicial Branches

Horizontal Relations: The Branches

● Legislative - Law Makers
● Executive - Execute and implement laws
● Judicial - Interpret (and sometimes adjudicate) the law

US Presidential vs Canadian Parliamentary

● Presidential System:​ Executive branch and power separate from the legislature
● Canadian Parliamentary System:​ Executive branch is separate but power is fused

07.11.2018
–Vertical Relations–
Levels of Government: Vertical Power Relations

● Unitary system:​ Britain, Israel, France & Ireland all have unitary constitutions
○ Suited to smaller countries with limited cultural, ethic & linguistic diversity
○ Power concentrated in hand of central government
■ Some power may be devolved into subunits
● Federal system: ​power divided between centre & regional authorities (US)
○ Always require a written constitution - to discern which subunit is in charge of what.
○ Central government & subunits cannot overpower each other.

Federalism
Goals
- Promote unity
- Promote Diversity
Advantages
- Checks the possibility of centralised tyranny
- Allows ‘unity in diversity’
- Encourages legislative and policy experimentation
- Positions governments closer to the people
- Arenas for public participation
- Policy areas of immediate concern
Disadvantages
- National unity?
- provincial\national policies
 - Different policies?
- Diversity
- Special interests?

19.11.2018

What is a Constitution?
● The system of ​fundamental principles according to which a state is governed.
● A document that ​organizes government.
● Sets up the government: tells you ​what kind of government, what its limits are, how to change it,
and the rights of the people.
● Constitutional ‘bills’ or ‘charters’ ​protect rights​ (from government)
Constitutions
● Establish clear rules & principles
● Relationship between organisations
● Limitations on powers
● Often include statements on rights on individuals i.e. ​preamble
○ Preamble
■ an introductory and explanatory statement in a document that explains the
document’s purpose and underlying philosophy
■ An introductory, concise statement of the principles at work in the full text.
● Lay foundation for ​Power​ relations between:
○ Government & citizens
○ Different levels of government (vertical power relations)
○ Different institutions of state (horizontal power relations)
Balance of ​Liberty & Rights ​with ​Order & Security

Features of a strong Constitution

1. Easy to understand
2. Impossible to ignore
3. Not easy to amend

Purpose of a Constitution
1. Legitimacy
2. Protect freedom & rights
3. Encourage stability
4. Draw attention to goals & values
5. Set out spheres of jurisdiction, i.e. federalism vs. unitary

● Constitutional law is written & enforced

● Constitutional conventions are unwritten & enforced: responsible government
 Post-Industrial Society

Post Materialism
● Previous generations are
predominantly materialists, concerned
about physical and economic security

● post-materialists​ are people who

are more concerned about
self-actualisation​.

● Has led to a decrease in voter

loyalty and an increase in ​single-issue
movements

● Value change
● The decline of deference -​ Neil Nevitte
● Canadian values changed due to post-materialism

Post-Industrial Society
● Intellectual vs. Material
● First Revolution​ - phone, radio, telegraph
● 2nd Revolution​ - TV, computers, satellites
● 3rd Revolution​ - new media (info revolution) and tech
● Internet & Knowledge economy

Social Capital ​- Lyda Hanifan: “those intangible assets that count for most in the daily lives of people:
namely goodwill, fellowship, sympathy, and social intercourse among the individuals and families who
make up a social unit.”

04.12.2018
–REVIEW–

Political Culture
An amalgamation of beliefs, values & values. Political culture is robust with longevity; it is a broad label
for a large population.
Constitutional Role of Monarch - to protect Canadian Democracy. To ensure government does not rule
arbitrarily.

09.01.2019

Westminster Parliamentary system

● Sovereign head of state → QEII
● A head of the government → PM
● Executive branch from the legislature →

14.01.2019
–Westminster Parliamentary System & the Constitution–
● Fusion of Powers​ because the members of the executive branch are drawn from the legislature
● Members of the executive are elected members of parliament who are appointed to the executive
by the crown to govern
● The executive’s right to govern comes from the crown

The Constitutional convention of ​Responsible Government

- The monarch’s advisors shall command the support of the popularly elected chamber.
- Responsible Government is the democracy of the system

The ​CROWN​ is the ​structuring principle​ of canadian government and the most important convention is
responsible government.

Parliament of Canada
- Crown
- Legislature

16.01.2019
Legislative Branch​: represents the people and is accountable to them through periodic elections (in the
people’s house)
● Debate public issues and provide a forum for competition between political parties
● Make laws
● Reviews & ‘sober second thought’
● Approve government spending

Bicameral Legislature
1. House of Commons - democratically elected
2. The Senate - Approved by the Crown

The governing party must achieve single member plurality → “first past the post”

House of Commons ​– (24 Sussex-Stornaway)

● Symbolically and practically important as a contact point between citizens & government
1. Symbolically: embodies the principles of government by consent.
2. Practically: Citizens turn to elected representatives when they have problems.
● All legislation must be passed by a majority of MPs in the House.
● Mostly the government that initiates legislation (PM & Cabinet sets the priorities for government)
Senate initiates legislation sometimes as well.
● Government presents legislation to the House and uses PARTY DISCIPLINE to ensure the party
supports that legislation (majority government)
● Minority government = government seeks input to ensure it will have adequate support

Legislation
● Most ​legislation originates with government (PM & Cabinet)
● Bills can be introduced​ by the h​ ouse​ or the ​senate​.

Federal and Provincial Governments

1. Federal ​parliament has the power to make laws for the “peace, order and good government of
Canada” except for those laws which fall under Provincial jurisdiction
 2. Provincial​ legislatures pertain to direct taxation, natural resources, education, marriage, hospitals,
provincial corporations, social security

American vs Canadian government

1. Canada is bilingual, America has no official language
2. Canada is a Constitutional Monarchy: Queen = Head of State (Executive). PM & Cabinet = Head
of government. America is a republic, therefore the president is both head of state and head of
government.
3. President-Congressional system dictates that members of either house cannot be the president or
members of cabinet and vice versa. In Canada the PM & Cabinet must be members of the house
(by convention)
4. America has a much more centralised federal government than Canada’s federal government.
The Queen
Federal rep. → Governor General
Provincial rep. → Lieutenant-governors

The Senate
● 105 members (made of senators from each province)
● Appointed by governor general on PM’s advice
● Can introduce any bills except gov. spending and taxes
● Can amend/reject any bill
● Conducts investigations into public concerns

The House of Commons

the major law-making body

Political Parties
● Voluntary associations of people with broadly similar views on public questions.
● Largest number of seats in general election → forms government. Leader becomes PM

Provinces and Municipalities

● Each province has a legislative assembly like the HoC
● All bills must reach royal assent and go through the lieutenant-governor
● Members are elected by constituencies or ridings
● Municipal governments are set up by provincial legislatures and are given powers as provincial
legislatures see fit.

18.01.2019
–Political Executive–

Prime Ministerial Powers

1. Powers of the crown – Crown will act on the advice of PM & Cabinet
2. Forming Cabinet (allegiance forming)
3. Appointment (sen., judges, deputy ministers. Heads of gov. Agencies, boards, corporations,
ideologies?​)
4. Organisation of gov.: can create or dismantle departments or agencies
BUT​ there’s limits on these powers

Institutional memory → the benefit of experience with gov. Institutions

Senate​ → “sober second thought,” to look upon legislation and make amendments and ask important
questions.
Functions of Parliament
Parliament = CROWN + LEGISLATURE
1. Form a government - Elections
2. Authority (resources) - money bills, taxation, gov. budget
3. Watchdog (oversee)
4. Alternative (opposition)
5. Recruit & Train
6. Communication

21.01.2019
–Federalism–

HoC
“Representation by population”

Senate
Regional Representation
1. Maritimes
2. West
3. Ontario
4. Quebec
5. Newfoundland & Labrador
6. Territories
Offer “sober second thought in parliament.”
The federal principle is represented in legislation

federalism
1. Bicameralism
2. Constitution
3. Supreme court

Federalism
“A political system in which legislative power is divided between national, central, or federal legislature
and a level of state or provincial legislatures.”
● Canada is divided into two ​constitutionally autonomous ​levels of government: the federal/central
gov. & provincial governments.

Unitary system
“A political system where legislative authority derives from a single parliament.”

Foedus: positive connotations

- Retaining individuality in collectivity
 - Values of community
- Shared and self government
- Joining together for a purpose
- Unity in diversity
Basic Summary
1. Shared rule (shared ‘sovereignty’)
2. Written constitution​ and courts to settle power division disputes
3. Central Government​ that represents units of the federation

Territoriality

23.01.2019
–Vertical Relations: Federations–

Federalism & Democracy​ - ​Federalism strengthens democratic ideals by providing:

1. Multiple levels for issues to be addressed
2. Multiple levels for individuals to be involved in the political process
3. Multiple levels for varying opinions and values to be expressed, and represented
Goals of Federalism
● Unity
● Diversity
Advantages of Federalism
● Checks the possibility of centralised tyranny
● Allows ‘unity in diversity’
● Encourages legislative and policy experimentation
● Positions governments closer to the people
○ Arenas for public participation
○ Policy areas of immediate concern
Disadvantages
● Can erode national unity​, may become more interested in their own province without much
regard for the federal government. ​Federal largesse​ plays a part in this.
● Provincial/national policies
● Different policies
● Diversity in terms of regional makeup. Different provinces have varying economic needs, ethnic
compositions, servicing requirements.
● Special Interests? Groups lobbying for their needs, and not the needs of the broader nation.
Why federalism is better than a unitary system
● The states act as a safeguard against excessive centralisation
● Recognises the distinctive history, traditions and size of each state, allowing for national unity but
not uniformity.
● It provides opportunities for political involvement to many citizens at state and local level
 ● Citizens can identify strongly with their state as well as their country
● States provide opportunities for innovation, and act as a testing-ground for experiments which
other may follow
A multinational state
A state with several nations that have been present at confederation.

Quiz prep

● Pt.1 Schematic of parliament

● Pt.2 SAQ: answer 2 of 3 questions [definition and significance]: federalism, canadian

constitution, senate, responsible government,

25.01.2019

Executive branch
● Symbolic
● Political
● Permanent
Work together as the ​government

● Constitutionally the ​executive​ is composed of the Crown and its representatives, who fulfill the
Crown’s duties
● The right to govern, therefore, flows down from the Crown. Constitutional office of power grants
parliament the right to govern

Cabinet Functions​:
● To initiate policy proposals
● Supervise administration of law
○ Ministers are individually responsible for their departments. Cabinet is collectively
responsible for its house

Canadian Cabinet
● Each minister heads a department
● Cabinet sets the legislative agenda
● Cabinet is collectively responsible to the HoC
● Cabinet members act as a team (party responsibility)
● Ministerial discipline
How to make a canadian cabinet
- At least one minister from each province
- At least on english speaking Quebecer
- At least one french speaking canadian living outside of Quebec
- Diverse heritage of canada
(Federalisation of the Cabinet)

Prime Minister
- Has control over direction of government and on deliberation of cabinet
- Dual function of MP and head of government

Prime Ministerial Powers:

1. Powers of the Crown
2. Forming Cabinet (allegiance forming)
3. Appointment
4. The limits on these powers
a. Crown (Reserve Powers/Constitution)
b. Opposition (HoC)
c. People → communication with MPs, media
d. Senate

06.02.2019
–USA–
Founding Principles​ - “Americanism”
1. The Declaration of Independence
2. The American Constitution

Three separate branches​ - each branch has the power to ​check​ others.
● Legislative​ - power to make laws
○ Senate
■ Each state has 2
■ 30 years or older
■ US citizens for 9 years
■ Elected to a 6 year term
○ House of Representatives
■ Number according to size of state’s population
■ Representative must live in state they represent
■ 25 years or older
■ US citizens for 7 years
■ Elected to a 2 year term
● Executive​ - power to carry out laws
○ President is head
 ○ Commander in chief of nation’s army
○ Elected to a four year term
● Judicial​ - power to interpret laws

Bill of Rights
● First 10 amendments
● Guarantees certain freedom of rights
● Added after the constitution
● Freedom of speech
● Freedom of religion
● Freedom to assemble

08.02.2019
–The Executive Branch (US)–

Executive Power
● Vested in the POTUS
● Commander in Chief
● Grant reprieves and pardons
● Make treaties (with the “advice and consent” of the Senate)
● Nomination power (cabinet members, ambassadors and judges, although many appointments are
subj. to Senate approval)
● Presents State of the Union information to the Senate
● Power to convene congress on “extraordinary occasion

Cabinet
● Advises the President on any subject he may require relating to the duties.
Department of State
● Handles foreign policy
● Staffs embassies
● Analyses american interests around the world
● Speaks for the US at the UN
Department of Homeland Security ​- formed after 9.11
● Charged with protecting the security of America’s borders, shores, land and the safety of
its people

Steps in appointing members of cabinet

15.02.2018
Judicial branch
Points to consider
1. Definition
Branch of government empowered to decide legal disputes

2. Function of judges
To adjudicate on the meaning of the law in the sense that they interpret law

3. Significance
Varies, particularly important in states with constitutions

4. Characteristics
Independent (of exec and leg.) and non-political

5. Political significance
Judgements have a political impact

Important Questions
1. Are judges political?
a. External bias - derived from the influence that political bodies are able to exert on the
judiciary.
b. Internal bias - stems from the prejudices and sympathies from judges themselves,
particularly from those that intrude into the process of judicial decision-making
2. Do judges make policy?
a. Application of the ‘letter of the law’ & ‘self evidence’
b. Imposing meaning? Construction of meanings
i. Clarity with which the law is specified
ii. Codified constitutions
c. Judicial activism​: the willingness of judges to arbitrate in political disputes, as opposed
to saying what the law means
d. [Does the canadian judiciary make policy?]

01.03.2019
–Representation, Participation & Elections–

Participation​ - A person is participating in the political process by making their beliefs, opinions,
or concerns known
● Voting
● Right to assemble
● Protests
 ○ Goal is to influence or initiate a policy/action of government.
● Elections
● Party membership
● Juries

Representation​ - ​of what?

Representing the average person, or the collected interests?
● Delegate​ Representation
○ Delegates act as a mouthpiece of their constituents. Act on the exact direction of
their constituency
● Trustee​ Representation
○ Trustee will be selected to represent their constituent as the trustee may see fit.
● Democracy and representative government and self-government
○ Greece → Rome → England → France → USA
● Political​ representation: “...acting in the interest of the represented in a manner
responsive to them”

13.03.2019

People who do not vote:

● Those who are ​Tuned Out ​or ​Turned Off
● Apathy
○ Where individuals don’t vote, follow the election process, because they believe
the elections don’t affect or influence them, or that they have little influence over
outcomes.
○ Challenge is to make voters feel connected and that their voice matters.

15.03.2019

Citizenship
● “Membership in a political society”
○ “Members” are afforded Rights & Recognition
○ “Members” also have Duties
● Full Civil & Political Rights
● Protection in & out
● “Nation” & “nationality” evolving
 ○ Nation vs. State
● International vs. Domestic Law
● Non-Citizens

- Acquisition & loss

- “Jus Sanguinis” & “Jus Soli”
- Natural Born & Naturalised (traditionally)
- Dual Citizenship

Rights of Canadian Citizens

● Vote or to be a candidate in Election
● Right to vote
● Right to be educated in French/English
● Right to apply for a passport
- By Birth
- By Naturalization

25.03.2019
––

Voter Turnout
● Is it a threat to democracy?
● If only a small percentage vote, then the country is effectively run by… ​a small
concentration of power.
● If people do not participate, control of government goes to…
● Democracy works best when…
● Single member plurality system (first-past-the-post)

First Past the Post & Proportional Representation​: pros and cons
FPTP – (among many) wasted votes/popular vote
PR – (among many) cohesiveness & efficiency

Pros of FPTP:
- Clear choice
- Efficient & quick
- Some cons = pros
Pros PR:
- Compromise & consensus
- There is no more ‘Lost vote’