Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
English for
General Sciences
[A Lecture Handout]
Compiled by:
Dyah Raina Purwaningsih, S.S., M.Hum
Ika Maratus Sholikhah, S.S., M.A
Tri Murniati, S.S., M.Hum
Unit 1
Description
When we describe a process or procedure, we often use the present passive tense (is/are + past
participle): this is a general description. When we report a particular procedure we are
concerned with only one particular occasion in the past; then we often use the past passive
tense (was/were + past participle). A description that does not involve a process or procedure is
often written in the present simple active tense. Sequence, or order, is important in both
describing a process and reporting a procedure.
(1) Read the following carefully. Underline the verbs in the present passive tense.
HOW PAPER IS MADE
Paper is made from wood, and many of the world’s paper mills are found in those
countries which have great forests—Canada, Sweden, and Finland.
The trees are felled or cut down.
The branches and leaves are removed.
The trees are transported to the sawmill.
The bark is stripped from the trunks.
The trunks are sawn into logs.
They are conveyed to the paper mill.
They are placed in the shredder.
They are cut into small chips.
They are mixed with water and acid.
They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp.
The wood pulp is cleaned.
It is also chemically bleached to whiten it.
It is passed through rollers to flatten it.
Sheets of wet paper are produced.
The water is removed from the sheets.
These sheets are pressed, dried, and refined until the finished paper is produced.
(2) When describing a process, sequence markers, e.g. first, then, next, finally,…are often
used. They help to link the sentences.
(3) Sometimes in order to avoid repeating a subject, a relative pronoun and relative clause
are used.
e.g. The bark is stripped from the trunks.
The trunks are sawn into logs.
Becomes:
The bark is stripped from the trunks which are sawn into logs.
(5) Look at the following sentences. They are in the WRONG ORDER. Write them out in the
correct order using the sequence of pictures to help you.
HOW A BREAKFAST CEREAL IS MADE
It is stored in the silos.
These are woven into biscuits.
The wheat is harvested from the field.
Each biscuit is baked until brown.
It is cut into thin strips.
The grain is cooked to soften it.
It is packed ready to be eaten.
The wheat grain is transported to the silos.
(7) Write a description of the information below. Write in a similar way to that above.
Writing in English: University of Newcastle upon Tyne: May, 1974 (45 students)
% students Type of writing (average) frequency (average) length
36% Essay 6 per term 2750 words
36% Report 5 per term 3750 words
7% Dissertation 1 per year 100 pages
7% thesis 1 per year 73 pages
STAGE 1
(1) If we look in a dictionary for the word “school” we may find:
School an institution where children are educated
More formally in writing we would put:
A school is an institution where children are educated.
Look at these other examples:
A doctor is a person who gives medical treatment to people.
Aluminium is a metal which is produced from bauxite.
Complete the following sentences in the same way as the examples above!
1. A college……………………………………….students receive higher or professional
education.
2. A dentist……………………………………treats people’s teeth.
3. Steel…………………………is produced from iron and carbon. (We can also say that steel
is an alloy.)
The following sentences have been mixed up. Join the eight sentences on the left
with the correct ones from the ten on the right. Use the appropriate relative pronoun.
1. An engineer is aperson a. It produces electricity.
2. A microscope is an instrument b. He studies the way in which
3. A generator is a machine industry and trade produce and
4. A botanist is a person use wealth.
5. A square is a geometric figure c. He treats the diseases of animals.
6. A cucumber is a vegetable d. It makes distant objects appear
7. An economist is a person nearer and larger.
8. An encyclopedia is a book e. He designs machines, buildings, or
public works.
f. It gives information on subjects in
alphabetical order.
STAGE 2
(1) Look at the following definition.
Plastics are compounds made with long chains of carbon atoms.
You will notice that the ‘wh’-word has been omitted. A definition written in this way
uses a reduced relative clause. In full the definition would be:
Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of carbon atoms.
Write out the following definitions in full, putting the ‘wh’-word in the correct place.
1. Plastics are substances moulded into shape when they are heated.
2. A mineral is a structurally homogenous solid of definite chemical composition
formed by the inorganic processes of nature.
Write out the following definitions omitting the ‘wh’-word so that a reduced relative
clause is used.
(2) Often subjects, particularly academic subjects, omit the ‘wh’-word in the following way:
Criminology is the study of crime.
Psychiatry is the study and treatment of mental illness.
Politics is the science of government.
Botany is the science of the structure of plants.
Write out definitions of the subjects given below. Use the notes given next to each subject;
write in the same style as above.
Write out definitions of the following subjects in the sam way as above.
STAGE 3
It is possible for academic subjects to be defined more specifically. Normally, this can only be
done if more information is given.
(1) Look at the following example (‘branch’ has the meaning of ‘division’).
Psychology may be defined as the branch of biological science which studies the
phenomena of conscious life and behavior.
Write out definitions of the following subjects in the same way as above.
(2) A definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or to give more
information about the subject. Look carefully at the following examples:
Sociology may be defined as the branch of science which studies the development and
principals of social organization. It is concerned with group behavior as distinct from the
behavior of individuals in the group.
Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, its structure, sound
systems, acquisition.
Geology may be defined as the science of the earth’s history as shown by its crust, rocks,
etc.
Geography may be defined as the science of the earth‘s surface. It is concerned with a
number of features, particularly physical, climate, and products.
STAGE 1
(2) The following sentences are based upon the information contained in the passage
above. Complete the sentences making use of each of the following words (use each
only once):
Illustration for example a case in point an example for instance such as
1. At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls: this is………………………of
animals communicating with each other.
2. Cries,……………………….those of anger, fear and pleasure, are uttered by apes.
3. There are important differences between human language and animal
communication: …………………………………animals’ cries are not articulate.
4. Animals’ cries lack,…………………………………., the kind of structure that enables us to
divide a human utterance into words.
5. A good…………………………of changing an utterance by substituting one word for
another is a soldier who can say “tanks approaching from the north” or “tanks
approaching from the west”.
6. A number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the Great Tit is
………………………………………….
STAGE 2
Latin
Portuguese Spanish Italian French Rumanian etc
1. There are a number of languages which are descended from Latin; for example,
Portuguese and Italian.
This can be expressed with another way:
2. There are a number of languages, sucha s Portuguese and Italian, which are
descended from Latin.
(2) Write two sentences about the following information: firstly, one sentence as in 1
above, and then another sentence as in 2.
Latin
Romansch Provencal Catalan Sardinian etc
When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we classifying those
items. The classification is normally made according to a criterion or several criteria (standards
or principles on which judgments are based).
In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. The
classification essay organizes supporting details into three or more groups with each group
having its own identifying characteristics. For this reason, classification essays rely heavily on
description and example as supporting details, description providing the means for identifying
distinguishing characteristics and examples illustrating the members of each class.
Stage 1
(1) Read the following carefully
Classification
We can classify all the living things in the world into two big groups: living things and
non-living things. Living things have common characteristics as they can move, breathe,
grow and have young ones. They also need food. Non-living things are different
because they do not have these characteristic. Monkeys, trees, fish and flowers are
examples of living things but glass, water, plastic, metal and oxygen are non-living
things.
We can subdivide living things into two more groups: animals and plants. Why do we do
this? The answer is because they are different in many ways. Plants cannot move from
place to place. They have not got brains, hearts, lungs or blood, but they are alive. (10)
Also, plants can do something very important which animal cannot. Plants can make
their own food. Grass, wheat, roses and gum-trees are all types of plants. However, not
all plants have flowers on them so we can divide them into two groups: flowering and
non-flowering plants. Roses, daffodils and fruit trees all have flowers, but mushrooms,
fungi and ferns do not.
We can also divide animals into two groups: vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates
such as dogs, people, birds and frogs have a backbone, whereas jelly-fish butterflies and
spiders do not. There are five important groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and fishes. So you can ses that we put some things together in a
group because they are similar in many ways and they have characteristic which divide
or separate them from other things. In other words, we classify things. We make
classifications so that it is easier to learn about things.
3 Animals get their food from other _______________ or from plants. Plants are the
only _____________ things that can make their own food. Animals need plants for
their food supply. So animals could not _____________ without plants.
(4) Comprehension
Answer the following questions in your own words.
1. Why do we put plants and animals into the same group, 'living things'?
2. Why are things such as water and metal classified in a separate group to plants and
animals?
3. What are the most important differences between plants and animals?
4. Do all animals have backbones?
5. In which group would you classify daffodils and roses?
Stage 2
(1) Read the following carefully:
Birds are instantly recognisable creatures. Perhaps it is their ability to fly that causes
this. Some people might consider that their shape was the most distinguishing feature.
Everyone, however, agrees upon the characteristics that a bird possesses: two wings,
feathers, two legs, a toothess bill or beak, warm blood and it lays eggs.
The modern system of classifying birds is like a pyramid, with the base formed by 8514
different species. A convenient definition of species is: an interbreeding group of birds
which do not normally mate with other such groups.
The next division above the species is the genus, a group of species showing strong
similarities. The scientific name of a bird give the genus first, then the species. Thus, the
scientific name (Latin) of the golden eagle is 'Aquila crhysaetos' (eagle, golden). When
there are strong points of similarity between one genus and another, these related
genera are grouped together and are said to belong to the same family. The names of
the 215 families of birds always end in 'idae'. The golden eagle, for instance, is one of
the 'Falconidae' (falcon family).
Families with broadly similar characteristics are grouped together into 27 orders, whose
names end in 'iformes'. The golden eagle falls into the order of 'Falconiformes' (falcon-
like birds). The largest order is 'Passeriformes' or perching birds. This contains 63
families, and more species than all the rest put together. The feet are designed so that
they can grip a perch, with three toes in front and one behind. In addition, all are
known as song-birds. Two large families within this order are sparrows, with 155
species, and crows, with 100 species.
Finally, all of the orders make up the class 'Aves' (birds). This system of classification has
enabled scientists to differentiate 8514 species of birds. Placing a bird in the right family
depends upon the number of features. Among them are external characteristics, such
as the shape of the beak and feet, and the colour pattern of the features. However, at
the level of order, the next higher category, distinctions are based on such features as
(2) Look at the diagram below. It is the shape of a pyramid and represents the classification of
birds. If necessary read the texts again and then complete the diagram, writing on the line
provided. Inside the pyramid write the classification divisions or categories. To the right of the
diagram give one example, for each division, of the classification of the bird ‘golden eagle’ (in
English not Latin). To the left of the diagram, write the number of the divisions--if they are
known.
Class: birds
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
DRINKS
alcoholic non-alcoholic
aerated non-aerated
squashes or
cordials (i.e. fruit juices
diluted with (i.e. normally
water) undiluted)
(2) Now draw a diagram for the subject, or part of it, that you are studying. Write a brief
description of the classification diagram making sure that it is clear what the criteria are.
In most academic subjects and in life generally, we often need to compare and contrast things.
Similarities and differences are often noted when classifying (see the previous unit). The
language of comparison and contrast is frequently needed when studying tables and other
statistical information.
Formation
(1) The regular comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs is formed as follows:
(a) By adding the ending –er and –est to word with one syllable.
(b) By placing the word more and most in front of words with three or more syllables.
word length adjective or adverb comparative superlative
1 syllable new newer newest
soon sooner soonest
3 syllables or more, convenient more convenient most convenient
e.g. easily more easily most easily
(c) Words with two syllables may be like (a) or (b) above:
Generally they will add the ending –er and –est if they end in:
-y or –ly e.g. funny (funnier, funniest): friendly (friendlier, friendliest)
BUT NOTE: adverbs ending in –ly take more and most.
e.g. quickly (more quickly, most quickly)
-ow e.g. narrow (narrower, narrowest)
-le e.g. able (abler, ablest)
-er e.g. clever (cleverer, cleverest)
(3) Showing one item compared with a number (i.e. the superlative)
(a) He scored the highest marks in the annual examination.
(b) The most convenient time for him to see his tutor was in the early afternoon.
(c) Some economists find that the least interesting part of their subject is statistics.
Now complete the following sentences. If necessary, look at the formation of comparisons.
Number 1 has been done for you.
1. The Severn is longer than the Thames.
2. The Thames is _________ long _____ the Severn.
3. The Severn and the Thames are __________________ in England.
4. In Edinburgh January is a _____________ month __________ December.
5. July is a _______________ month __________ June.
6. There is ______________ rain in May ___________ in March.
7. August has the ______________ rain; in other words, August is ____________ month.
8. May is _________ warm _______ June.
9. April is ______________ month.
10. The rainfall in May is ____________________ in September.
11. June is ___________ wet ________________ March.
12. The rainfall in February is ___________________ in March.
(2) Look at the text below. Read carefully and do the exercise.
Stage 2
(1) Similarities:
Denmark and Norway are similar (or: alike) in that they both have a constitutional
monarchy.
(b) Now write one sentence similar to each of the above six types, basing your information
on Table 3.
Norway and Sweden are dissimilar in that Norway has a much smaller population
than Sweden.
Denmark has the smallest land area; however, it has the largest percentage
agricultural area.
Although Denmark has the smallest land area; on the other hand, it has the largest
percentage agricultural area.
(On the other hand,) Denmark has the smallest land area; on the other hand, it has
the largest percentage agricultural area.
The main difference One of the differences between Finland and Sweden is that
Finland is a republic, whereas Sweden has a constitutional monarchy.
(b) Now write one sentence similar to each of the above nine types, basing your
information on Table 3.
(3) Compare and contrast your country with one of the Nordic countries on Table 3. It is not
necessary to refer to all the items. If you do not know some of the details for your country,
give a rough estimation; but try to find out by looking in appropriate reference books. If
necessary, look at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid in this unit to help you.
considerably
a great deal
(very) much
(quite) a lot
rather smaller
somewhat bigger
(It is) a bit cheaper than ….
a little
slightly
scarcely
etc
hardly
only just
totally Different
completely
entirely
quite
Event
situation
action
idea forward in time
problem or sequence
problem
back in time or
sequence effect
consequence
cause
reason result
purpose solution
Connective
There are a number of ways to express the relationship shown in the diagram above. You will
need to look at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this unit before you do the
following exercises.
(1) The parts of the sentences below have been mixed up. Join the 6 parts on the left with the
correct parts from the 9 on the right.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
(3) The demand has increased. (;) Therefore, the prices are higher.
So,
As a result.
CAUSE consequence, EFFECT
Accordingly,
Consequently,
Because of this,
Thus,
Hence,
For this reason,
*Now,
(4) Because the demand has increased, the prices are higher.
As
Since
*Now (that)
(*Includes in its meaning a present time element)
Now look at the following cause and effect table. From the text above copy into the table
where necessary the causes and effects mentioned; also write, in the central column, the
appropriate connective or marker of the cause/effect relationship. Where an example (e.g.)
is asked for, only write the first one if more than one is given in the text. The first section
has been done as an example.
Table 1: Climate
Cause Connective or Marker Effect
The climate has been growing (different) effects 1 glaciers have been melting
much warmer very rapidly,
e.g. the Muir Glacier in Alaska
has retreated 2 miles in 10
years
2
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
Complete the following description of the information above. In the spaces in the
paragraph write a suitable cause-effect connective.
Firstly, turning right without due care ____________________ 608 accidents in 1977.
Secondly, _____________________ pedestrians crossed roads carelessly, 442 accidents
occurred. Next, although there was a 5% decrease in drivers failing to give a signal,
nevertheless there were 314 accidents _____________________ this. In 1977, 50% more
drivers than in 1976 lost control of vehicles. _______________________, there were 264
accidents. In fifth place came drivers improperly overtaking other vehicles: these
________________________ 257 accidents. Finally, there was a 25% fall in drivers
misjudging distances; however, they were still the ________________________ 174
accidents.
(3) Now write a description on Table 3 in a similar way to the previous exercise. Practice using
different connectives but take care to use the correct construction.
Adjective + suffix
ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES
Noun or verb + suffix
ZERO AFFIXATION
Many words in English can function as a noun and verb, or noun and adjective, or verb and
adjective, with no change in form.
VERB SUFFIXES
Govern stupid
In his first broadcast on (1)…………………….since he won the (2)………………………last month, the Prime
Minister promised to make health and (3)…………………………two of his top priorities. And in a strong
attack on the previous (4)………………………….., he said that the present (5)…………………….of the British
economy was caused entirely by their (6)……………………..and bad (7)…………………………. He said he
would act immediately and he hoped the British people would be able to see clear signs of an
(8)……………………….in the economy by the end of the year.
Look at the two examples and then complete the rest of the definitions.
Example:
A Survey of Unemployment
A recent survey of people out of work analyzed the type of worker who is unemployed. Out of
the one million registered as unemployed one in five were women. 60% of men who were
unemployed were to be found in services and engineering. However, there was a 1 in 8 chance
of being unemployed in the construction industry. 1 in 20 were unemployed in industries such
as metal goods and textiles.
A recent survey of people out of work analyzed the type of worker who is unemployed. Out of
all those registered as unemployed a minority were women. The majority of men who were
unemployed were to be found in services and engineering. However, the chance of being
unemployed was also likely in the construction industry. There was some unemployment in
industries such as metal goods and textiles.
Note: There are some changes in words in that paragraph. A number of generalizations have
been made, which involve qualifying statements. For example:
Quantity: all
Frequency: usually
Probability: likely
Look at the following information which relates to a British university. It shows some
of the forms that overseas students completed during their first few weeks in Britain.
(%=percentage of students who completed that form)
% Form
100 University Registration
90 University Library Membership Application
80 National Health Service Registration
56 International Student Identity Card Application
40 Foreign Currency Exchange
3 Magazine Subscription
Affirmative Sentences
Adv. of Main
Subject Auxiliary Predicate
Frequency Verb
The side away after a few
usually go
effects hours.
trouble accessing my
I sometimes have
favorite web site.
to Baden for the
Beethoven often went
summer.
Kevin has never been a fan of SUVs.
Brian has always wanted to own a restaurant.
I will always be grateful to you.
Negative Sentences
Adv. of Main
Subject Auxiliary Predicate
Frequency Verb
Suzanne doesn't usually get involved in politics.
It doesn't often snow here at Christmas.
music from the
I don't ever download
Internet.
Imperative Sentences
Fill in the blanks in each sentence using a modal verb, such as can, could, would, should, might,
may, must, or have to, based on the situational hints in italics. Select the modal that seems
most appropriate for the situation described, and be prepared to explain your choice.
Table 1 shows the output comparison of rice, vegetables, fruits and nut in 2005 to 2009.
In comparing those output, we can describe them in comparison and contrast or we can give
comment based on Structure and Vocabulary Aid in the end of this unit. We can give such
comment as:
Introduction : Table 2 shows Japan's economic growth, which represents by the output of
agricultural, forestry and fishing industries. The information is divided into column, compares 5
years output, from 2005 to 2009
Comment: As can be seen from the table, Japan's total agricultural output in 2009 was 8.05
trillion yen, down 4.9 percent from the previous year. Crops yielded 5.48 trillion yen, down 5.8
percent from the previous year. Compared with dairy cattle product, there was a marked
increase in 2009
a. Now comment on the information contained in Graph 1. Before you write, look at the
Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this Unit.
b. Estimate the percentage on food self-sufficiency rate of Canada in 2012. Base your estimate
on the trend shown in the graph
a. The chart shows self-sufficiency rates for selected categories of agricultural produce in
Japan.
b. Comment on the self-sufficiency rate of fruits in 2005. Base you comment on the
information contained in Chart 1
c. Comment on self-sufficiency rate of fruits and meats in 2005 compared with 2008.
The diagram, often called a pie diagram, gives information about family spending in Britain.
Look at the information and then write generalized comments that draw attention to the most
significant items.
A r g u m e n t
Giving argument deals with putting together a number of the language function to express our
ideas. In developing argument or discussion we need to express our opinion or views, and then
we need to conclude. When we discuss or argue academic writing, we normally need to present
a balanced view. We often look at what other people have already said on the same subject or
we look at other ideas. We probably look at the advantages and disadvantages of a particular
idea or action; we look at the arguments for and against. Then we try to evaluate the different
opinions, comparing and contrasting, and eventually give our own opinion or views
FOR AGAINST
Forestry Minister Zulkifli Hasan said on Thursday that his ministry would provide
deforested land for the cultivation of rice, to achieve a surplus of 10 million tons by 2014. He
said the Agriculture Ministry could request land without limitations on land portions or location.
“We would fully support whatever location they [the Agriculture Ministry] choose. It could be in
Java, Sumatra or Kalimantan. If they requested 200,000 or 300,000 hectares, then we would
fulfill the request,” he said after opening an annual national seminar to mark World Food Day,
which falls on Oct. 16.
Foreign investment in African land is growing. Countries like China, Saudi Arabia and South
Korea are leasing or buying millions of hectares to grow food for their people.
Research shows that many large land deals lack protections for small farmers. Contracts may
guarantee leases for up to ninety-nine years, leaving local people without land for generations.
Better practices balance exports with local food needs and give farmers ways to
enforce promises by investors. They also make clear what kinds of jobs and how many jobs will
be created. Smallholders can gain influence if they form cooperatives or unions or have the
support of nongovernmental organizations.
There are different business models for cooperation between investors and local farmers.
Lorenzo Cotula is a senior researcher at the International Institute for Environment and
Development in London. One popular method, says Mr. Cotula, is contract farming. "Contract
farming has been around for a very long time and which essentially involves a company
a. Do you think investors leasing or buying land in Africa is fair to farmers? What are the
advantages?
b. What are the disadvantages? Write 5-8 sentences explaining your answer.
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Summarizing Concluding
In short, ……. In conclusion, ……..
In a word, …. On the whole, ……
In brief, ……… Altogether, ……….
To sum up, … In all, ………………..
It is generally accepted
widely argued that………
held
believed
HEALTH
It is generally accepted that a dietary intake of about 2500 calories a day is a basic
requirement for proper health, of which a particularly important element is the protein
content. Therefore, it can be assumed that if the protein intake in the diet falls below a
certain level, it will lead to malnutrition and disease. The average adult’s body contains
about 10.9 kg (24 lb) of protein, only 2.2 kg (5 lb) can be lost without death occurring
An adult needs to replace about 40 grams (1 ½ oz) of protein a day. In developed
countries nearly everyone gets about twice as much protein as he really needs, often
from eating such food as milk, cheese, eggs, fish and meat, all of which are high in protein
content. In developing countries, on the other hand, many vegetables that are eaten
contain little protein. Some, however, are rich in protein, for example, soya beans.
Table 1: Daily calorie and protein consumption
Country Daily calorie intake per capita Daily total protein intake per capita
(grams)
USA 3200 95.6
UK 3150 87.5
Mexico 2550 65.7
Japan 2460 74.7
Nigeria 2180 59.3
India 1810 45.4
a. Analyze the information in the table above. Comment on the significant items and
discuss them. What conclusions can you draw?
b. Now write a suitable conclusion
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Cheshire. 1987
Jordan, R.R. Academic Writing Course. London: Bell and Bain, Ltd. 1986
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2003
Big Investors, Small Farmers in Africa: a Fair Deal? (online)( www.voanews.com, diakses pada 1
Maret 2012)
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Statistics Bureau, Director-General for Policy
Planning and Statistical Research and Training Institute. (online)( www.stat.go.jp, diakses
pada 1 Maret 2012)