Hofstede, in his book “Cultures and Organizations” says (1997) culture is communication,

communication is culture. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience,

beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the
course of generations through individual and group striving.

Reference:

TOMIĆ, M. D. and SCHOEFFEL, V. (2017) ‘Why Teachers Need to Know about Intercultural
Communication’, Journal Plus Education / Educatia Plus, 17(1), pp. 262–275. Available at: http://e-
resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh
&AN=123110330&site=eds-live (Accessed: 24 March 2019).

The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001) defines culture as "the set of distinctive
spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional patterns of a society or groups of people together with
their lifestyles, ways of living together, art, literature, system of values, traditions and beliefs"
(UNESCO, 2011).

Reference:

TOMIĆ, M. D. and SCHOEFFEL, V. (2017) ‘Why Teachers Need to Know about Intercultural
Communication’, Journal Plus Education / Educatia Plus, 17(1), pp. 262–275. Available at: http://e-
resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh
&AN=123110330&site=eds-live (Accessed: 24 March 2019).

Kincaid, a cultural convergence representative, defines communication as a process in which two

or more individuals or groups share information in order to reach ”a mutual understanding of
each other and the world in which they live” (1988: 32). He summarizes the theory in several
hypotheses, such as: 1) in relatively closed social system in which communication among members is
unrestricted, the system as a whole will tend to converge over time toward a state of greater cultural
uniformity; 2) the system will tend to diverge toward diversity when communication is restricted.

Reference:

Pavleski, A. (2018) ‘Intercultural Communication and Sustainable Peace in the Balkans’, Security
Dialogues, 9(1), pp. 87–96. Available at: http://e-
resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tsh
&AN=133747350&site=eds-live (Accessed: 24 March 2019).
Communication is the process of exchanging information between two or more parties.
Communication exists ever since humankind acquired the ability to communicate.

Reference:

TOMIĆ, M. D. and SCHOEFFEL, V. (2017) ‘Why Teachers Need to Know about Intercultural
Communication’, Journal Plus Education / Educatia Plus, 17(1), pp. 262–275. Available at: http://e-
resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh
&AN=123110330&site=eds-live (Accessed: 24 March 2019).

This globalization has driven many scholars to research and write about ICC in general and what it
entails (cf. Bennett, 1993; Chen & Starosta, 1998; Deardorff, 2004, 2006; Fantini, 2006; Mascardi,
Brownlee, Walker & Alford, 2016; Shaules, 2007; Spenser Oatey & Franklin, 2009). Taylor (1994) stresses
the fact that a person who seeks to become competent in intercultural communication has to develop
an adaptive capacity and change his/her perspective so as to better understand and accommodate
the demands of the host culture. Similarly Huang, Rayner, and Zhuang (2003), as cited in Penbek,
Yurdakul and Cerit (2009, p. 2) state: A person who has the ability of intercultural competence can
develop relational competence with people from different cultures, manage to solve complicated
conflicts by moving around alternatives that arise as a result of cultural differences and improve the
ability of doing business with counterparts from different cultures.

Reference:

KARRAS, I. (2017) ‘The Effectiveness of an Intercultural Communication Course in Increasing

International and European Studies Students’ Intercultural Sensitivity’, Intercultural Communication
Studies, 26(2), pp. 96–118. Available at: http://e-
resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh
&AN=131479438&site=eds-live (Accessed: 24 March 2019).

Intercultural communication competence is the ability to communicate effectively and

appropriately in various cultural contexts. Actually, intercultural communication competence
involves knowledge, motivation and skills to interact effectively and appropriately with members of
different cultures. The knowledge component includes what the people know about the culture that
informs and guides their choices of what to think, say, and do in a particular situation. Listening
to people who are different from us is a key component of developing self-knowledge.
Reference:

Pavleski, A. (2018) ‘Intercultural Communication and Sustainable Peace in the Balkans’, Security
Dialogues, 9(1), pp. 87–96. Available at: http://e-
resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tsh
&AN=133747350&site=eds-live (Accessed: 24 March 2019).

The term cross-cultural addresses observed differences of cultures (Schaffer and Riordan, 2003).
Cross-cultural communication respects differences striving to understand and acknowledge these. It
can lead to or induce individual change, but will not lead to collective transformations (Fig. 1b).
Characteristic for cross-cultural societies is that “one culture is often considered ‘the norm’ and
all other cultures are compared or contrasted to the dominant culture” (Schriefer, 2018).

Reference:

Schneider, S. and Heinecke, L. (2019) ‘The need to transform Science Communication from being multi-
cultural via cross-cultural to intercultural’, Advances in Geosciences, 46, pp. 11–19. doi: 10.5194/adgeo-
46-11-2019.

UNESCO defines cross-cultural learning or “intercultural education” as the diverse culture of the society
in which it encompasses not only ethnic or national culture, but also includes linguistic, religious and
socio-economic diversity. The main aim of cross-cultural learning is to provide and equitable
interaction of diverse cultures and moving towards generation of shared cultural expression through
dialogue and mutual respect. The cross-cultural exchange extends beyond the local and national levels
to regional, continental, and international levels.

Reference:

NORDIN, N. M. and NORMAN, H. (2018) ‘Cross-Culture Learning Via Massive Open Online Courses for
Higher Education’, Malaysian Journal of Education (0126-6020), 43(1), pp. 35–39. doi: 10.17576/JPEN-
2018-43.01-05.