5.

1 Electric Charge
Charge is intrinsic to the nature of some subatomic particles. It is an accident of science that electrons were labeled
negative and not positive, and, as a result of this accident, current runs in the opposite direction of electrons. Charge (q)
is given in units of coulombs (C).

Charge is quantized. This means that any charge must be at least as large as a certain smallest possible unit. The
smallest possible unit of charge lS one electron unit (e = 1.6 x 10-19 C), the charge on one electron or one proton.

Opposite charges attract each other; like charges repel each other,

When charge moves along an object (electrons), that object is said to be conducting electricity. At the same time that it
is conducting electricity, the object also resists the movement of charge to some extent (superconductors excluded).
Substances resist and conduct charge to different degrees. However, that the vast majority of substances either conduct
charge very well or very poorly. Thus, we can safely classify most substances as conductors or insulators. Good
conductors, such as metals, allow electrons to flow relatively freely. Poor conductors (good resistors) hold electrons
tightly in place. Poor conductors are represented by, among other substances, network solids such as diamond and
glass.

Moving charge is called current. Current is given in amps (A), or C s. Current is a scalar, but we describe its flow to be
in the direction of the movement of positive charge. Because of this, current, which is usually created by flowing
electrons, is in the opposite direction to the flow of electrons.

electrons move very fast in random directions, while there is a much slower uniform translational movement (called
drift speed) opposite the direction of the current.

• Electric current = a flow of electric charges. The electrons, which orbit the nucleus at relatively
large distances can sometimes become free to move → electric current.
• Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C)
• The charge on an electron = e = 1.6 x10 -19C
• Conductor – substance which allows electric current to flow through it
• Insulator – substance which does not allow electric current to flow through it

• Electric current (I)= amount of charge passing a point every second.

• Measured in Amperes (A).

• Measured using an ammeter, or for very small currents, a galvanometer

Current = Charge / time

I=Q/t

• Two types of current exist

• Direct current-always flows in the same direction – this is the type of current you get from a battery
• Alternating current – here the current reverses direction many times per second-this is the type of
current you get from the mains

• Water flows in a pipe if there is a height difference between the two ends-similarly current flows in
a conductor if there is a potential difference between the two ends.
• The potential difference between two points is defined as the energy lost by one coulomb as it
moves from one point to the other- measured in volts.
• 1Volt = 1joule per coulomb

• Since work = energy we can also define potential difference as

• Potential difference = work done in bringing a unit charge from one point to the other
• V=W/Q

• Electric Current

The reason electric charge flows from one place to another is voltage.

LOW

a. Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two places where e¯ are flowing.

b. Voltage is the “push” that makes electric charges move.

c. Measured in volts (V).

The flow of electric charge is called current.

a. Current is measured in amperes, or amps (A).

b. Voltage causes current.

3. The amount of electric charge is measured in coulombs.

a. 1 coulomb is the charge carried by 6.24 x 10^18 e¯.

b. 1 amp is 1 coulomb per sec.

4. Batteries are e¯ pumps.

a. They provide a voltage difference to a circuit.

b. Types: wet-cells & dry-cells

5. Resistance

a. Opposition to the flow of e¯.

b. It changes electrical energy into thermal energy and/or light.

c. Measured in ohms.

d. Conductors have less resistance than insulators.

e. Wire resistance greater for:

1) Longer wires

2) Thinner wires

3) Higher temperatures
Question
1x107 electrons pass through a conductor in 1 μs. Find current in ampere.
Solution:
No of electrons = 1.0x107
Charge on electron = 1.6x10-19 C
Charge on 1.0x107 electrons ΔQ = 1.6x10-19 x 1.0x107
Time t = 1.0 μs = 1x10-6 s
Current through the conductor I = ΔQ/Δt = 1.6x10-19 x 1.0x107/1x10-6 = 1.6 x 10-6 A

Ohm’s Law:

“current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its
ends provided that the physical state (temperature etc.) of the conductor remains constant”.

Therefore; I ∞ V or V = I R

Where “R” is constant of proportionality and is called resistance of the conductor.

Resistance: it is the opposition to the flow of electrons.

R = V/I

“resistance of a conductor is the ratio of potential difference across its ends to the current flowing
through the conductor”. The resistance of a conductor depends upon:

1. Nature of the conductor (copper, iron etc.)

2. Dimensions (length, thickness etc.) of the conductor
3. Physical state (temperature, density, hardness etc.) of the conductor

The S.I unit of resistance is Ohm, denoted by Ω

1 Ω = 1V/1A

“resistance of a conductor is one ohm when potential difference of 1 V produces a current of 1 A

through the conductor”

Graphical Representation:

A conductor is said to obey ohm’s law if its resistance R remains constant, i.e., the graph of V vs. I
is exactly a straight line (a).

The conductors obeying ohm’s law are called Ohmic conductors.

The devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non Ohmic (e.g., filament bulb,
semiconductor diode). If resistance increases with temperature (filament lamp), the graph is not a
straight line (13.4b).
For semi-conductor diode, current-voltage plot is not a straight line (13.4c), showing that the
semiconductor is also non Ohmic device.

Resistivity:
The resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross section is called resistivity
or specific resistance, denoted by ρ.

It is found that the resistance R of a wire is directly proportional to its length L and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section A. therefore,

R ∞ L and R ∞ 1/A => R ∞ L/A

R = ρ L/A

If L = 1m, and A = 1m2 then, ρ = R

“resistivity is the resistance of unit length & unit cross-sectional area of a material at certain temperature”

S.I unit of resistivity is ohm-m or _m.

Resistivity depends on nature of the material (not on its dimensions) whereas, resistance
depends on both nature and dimensions of the material.