The metal that donates electrons (classically

Zn) is the negative terminal (anode), acts as a

reducing agent but itself undergoes oxidation,
Standard electrode potentials (tendency to gain or
and erodes due to releasing Zn²⁺ cations to
accept electrons) between 2 dissimilar metals creates
balance the electron donation
an electromotive force (potential for electron transfer)
Zn(s) → Zn²⁺ + 2e⁻
when they are joined. This potential is activated when
they are in a circuit with an ion solution that facilitates
this transfer in the form of redox reactions
The metal that accepts electrons (classically Cu)
Anode → Oxidation ½ Reaction → Erosion
is the positive terminal (cathode), acts as an
Cathode → Reduction ½ Reaction → Deposition
oxidizing agent but itself undergoes reduction,
(Memory: Consonants and vowels go together)
and deposition occurs to cations (already in
solution beforehand) accepting the electrons
Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu(s)

Electrochemical cell dependent on O₂ for reaction

to take place → current generated ∝ [O₂] present

R½R @ Gold mesh Cathode: O₂ + 4e⁻ + 2H₂O → 4OH⁻ Connected in line with tubing
Electrochemical cells
O½R @ Pb Anode: Pb + 2OH⁻ → PbO + 2e⁻ + H₂O

Gives readings in real time with no lag

Thermistor corrects for temperature variation
Main stream
Advantages Advantages: Lightweight, minimal dead space
Reliable, accurate, light weight

Disadvantages: Dead space may make a

Galvanic fuel cell difference in neonates, cannot be used for O₂
30 second reaction time

Life span limited to erosion of Pb Anode
N₂O can cause artifact and damage cell
Disadvantages A sample line connects the O₂ analyzer to the
tubing in series, with a water trap and a fan
Respiratory gas mointoring
extracting flow at 150-200mL/min

Side stream Advantage: Allows the bulky O₂ analyzer to

Measuring at 37 °C is called α-stat. At patient work without taking up space on the circuit
temp is called pH-stat

Disadvantage: Tubing can cause gas mixing,

Bubbles cause blood gases to equilibrate with lag or occlude
General
air

Polyatomic gases such as CO₂ absorb IR

Membranes in the analyzer must prevent better than elementary gases such as O₂
contamination with patient proteins

Different gases absorb different wavelengths of

Very similar to galvanic cell except that a 0.6V IR. Collision broadening effect is when the
current is applied across the electrodes (Silver/ peak wavelength of IR that a gas absorbs is
Silver Chloride Cathode and Platinum Anode) widened and/or shifted when gases mix, due to
interactive forces between the molecules

In the presence of O₂, R½R takes place at the

platinum cathode, forming OH⁻ which produces a
current ∝ [O₂] present: O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻ → 4OH⁻
2 Silver/Silver Chloride electrodes are used - one
as a reference in a KCl solution, the other in a
buffer solution with a glass window to allow H⁺ in
The H⁺ ions entering the glass will only be in
excess of the buffer [H⁺] = the reference [H⁺]
Hence the potential difference across the
electrodes ∝ influx [H⁺] ∝ current generated
Measuring PaO₂: The Clark electrode IR emitter (heated wire)
IR absorption spectroscopy for gases Filter: Selects the λ that the gas in question is
known to absorb
A window which must be a material that does not
Electrodes used in ABG analysis
absorb IR, such as sapphire. Glass absorbs IR
Design
Photodetector notes the IR emitted VS the IR
Measuring pH: The Sanz electrode received → absorbed electromagnetic
radiation ∝ [gases] present acc to Beer's Law
Measuring Gas and Vapor Concentrations

Measured by capnometer and illustrated on a

Similar to the Sanz electrode except that an capnograph/capnogram ([CO₂] VS time)
intermediary chamber allows CO₂ to combine
with H₂O to form carbonic acid and then H⁺:
EtCO₂ is calculated from the graph (max value)
H₂O + CO₂ H₂CO₃ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻

Capnography Upstroke = expiration, Downstoke = inspiration

The H⁺ then enters an electrode with a buffer
and a window, which creates a potential Measuring PaCO₂: The Severinghaus
difference between that electrode an a electrode
S-shape due to lag from mixing of gases
Shape
reference electrode, as in the Sanz electrode

Plateu continues to rise to to continued

Adaptation of the above principles, diffusion of CO₂ out of the alveoli in expiration
maintaining the reference electrode but
Measuring the concentration of other ions
changing the measuring electrode to be
sensitive to the ion being measured The electronegativity of O₂ causes the electron
cloud to generate a magnetic field (a property
unique to O₂ to the exclusion of other gases of
The sample is mixed with a carrier gas and air) which can be exploited to measure [O₂]
moved through a column. This is called the
Mobile Phase. The column contains a liquid to
which each component of the sample is variably A beam shines a light onto a mirror which is
attracted (this is called the Stationary Phase) deflected onto a gauge. The mirror is attached
which determines the unique speed with which to 2 N₂ spheres which move the mirror as they
each component moves up the column respond diamagnetically when exposed to the
paramagnetism of O₂
Gas chromatography
The position of the detection peak
shows the time taken to travel through Advantage: Very accurate
the column which is unique to each
The analyzer at the end of the column
compound, allowing identification Null-deflection PMOA
excludes the carrier gas and then outputs
Paramagmetic Oxygen analysers Disadvantage: 10 second lag, prone to
detection peaks
interference from vibration, high flow and
The height of each detection peak shows the water vapour
concentration of each substance

Chamber draws in the sample gas as well as a

Atoms are bombarded with electrons to strip reference gas (air)
their electrons, then a current is passed through,
then a magnetic field. Their deflection is
proportional to their mass → charge mass ratio A pulse of 100Hz generates a magnetic field
→ unique to each atom → allows identification attracting the O₂ molecules from both to either
side of a double-sided pressure transducer
Other gas monitoring techniques
Mass spectrometry
Advantages: Highly accurate and can
measure all gases Pulse field PMOA The difference in partial pressures on either
side of the transducer will give the sample [O₂]
relative to the known reference [O₂]
Disadvantages: Machine is large, easily
damaged, and gases cannot be returned to
patient due to ionization

Photons are usually bounces off atoms with

the atom and photon retaining their original
energy (Elastic scattering)

Rarely, a photon will raise the energy level of

the electrons and the photon itself will emerge
with a different energy than before (Inelastic or Raman spectroscopy
Raman Scattering)

RS uses an Argon laser and its deflection is

measured at right angles - previously used to
CO₂ and N₂O, cheap, simple, portable, low
maintenance, but IR is now much cheaper
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